Aircraft General Knowledge

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AircraftGeneralKnowledge

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Table of contents
1AIRFRAMES
1.1Fuselage
1.2FrameworkConstruction
1.3MonocoqueConstruction
1.4SemiMonocoqueConstruction
1.5Wings
1.6Biplane
1.7BracedMonoplane
1.8CantileverMonoplane
1.9ConstructionofCantileverWing
1.10StabilisingSurfaces
1.11TheAircraft'sAxes
1.12TheFlyingControls
1.13ControlSurfaceFlutter
1.14Trimming
1.15TrailingEdgeFlaps
1.16OtherMethodsofControl
1.17LoadsAppliedtoAirframeStructures
1.18ControlLocks
1.19FireExtinguishers
1.20LifeJackets
1.21ChecksandEmergencyDrills
2LANDINGGEARTYRESANDBRAKES
2.1FunctionsofLandingGear
2.2LandingGearTypes
2.3TheNoseWheel
2.4Tyres
2.5Aquaplaning
2.6AircraftWheelBrakes
3ENGINESGENERAL
3.1TheFourStrokeInternalCombustionEngine
3.2TheTheoreticalFourStrokeCycle
3.3PracticalTiming
3.4BasicEngineConstruction
3.5PowerOutputasaFunctionofRPM
4AERODIESELENGINES
4.1TheBegginingsofAeroDieselEngines
4.2TheDieselEngine
4.3TwoTypesofFuelInjectionSystem
4.4ProductionDieselEnginesforAircraft
4.5PrincipleofOperationofTheDieselEngine
4.6DieselEngineFuels
4.7Conclusion

5ENGINECOOLING
5.1AirCooling
5.2CoolingSystems
5.3FactorsAffectingCooling
5.4ProcedurestoEnsureAdequateCooling
6ENGINELUBRICATION
6.1PrimaryTaskofTheLubricationSystem
6.2SecondaryTasksofTheLubricationSystem
6.3TypeofLubricationSystem
6.4TheWetSumpSystem
6.5TheDrySumpSystem
6.6QualitiesandGradesofOil
6.7OilpressureandTemperature
6.8Hydraulicing
6.9OilSystemMalfunctions
7IGNITIONSYSTEMS
7.1IgnitionSystems
7.2Magnetos
8CARBURATION
8.1Carburation
8.2PrinciplesofTheFloatChamberofTheCarburettor
8.3ImprovementstoTheBasicFloatChamberCarburettor
8.4MixtureControl
8.5AcceleratorPump
8.6TheInductionSystem
8.7EngineIcing
8.8PrincipleofOperationofaFuelInjectionEngine
8.9SystemComponentsofaTypicalFuelInjectionSystem
9AEROENGINEFUELSANDFUELSYSTEMS
9.1AeroEngineFuelsandFuelSystems
9.2Additives
9.3IdentificationofFuelsbyColour
9.4Mogas
9.5FuelContamination
9.6TheFuelSystem
9.7FuelSystemManagement
10PROPELLERS
10.1PurposeofaPropeller
10.2BladeGeometry
10.3PowerAbsorptionAndEfficiency
10.4MomentsAndForcesGeneratedbyaPropeller
10.5FixedPitchPropellers
10.6VariablePitchPropellers
10.7ConstantSpeedPropellers

11EngineHandling
11.1PrecautionsBeforeStarting
11.2OperationofTheThrottle
11.3CylinderHeadandExhaustGasTemperature
11.4TheMixtureControl
12ELECTRICALSYSTEMS
12.1Introduction
12.2ElectricalCurrent
12.3PowerDistribution
12.4Batteries
12.5Ammeters
12.6Voltmeters
12.7LoadIndicationsAndFaults
12.8TypesofCircuitProtection
12.9TheAlternatorCircuit
12.10ElectricallyOperatedServices
12.11RecognitionofMalfunctionsinTheElectricalSystem
13VACUUMSYSTEMS
13.1Introduction
13.2Components
13.3SystemMalfunctions
14ENGINEINSTRUMENTS
14.1Inroduction
14.2TemperatureSensingEquipment
14.3PressureSensingEquipment
14.4PrincipleofOperationofPressureSensingInstruments
14.5FuelContentsGauge
14.6FuleFlowmeter
14.7TheTachometerorRPMGauge
15PRESSUREINSTRUMENTS
15.1Introduction
15.2PitotStaticSystem
15.3AirspeedIndicator(ASI)
15.4BlockagesAndLeaksofTheASICircuit
15.5ASIServiceabilityChecksBeforeFlight
15.6TheAltimeter
15.7AltimetryDefinitions
15.8AltimeterSettings
15.9AltimeterErrors
15.10TheVerticalSpeedIndicator
15.11TheErrorsofTheVSI
16GYROSCOPICINSTRUMENTS
16.1TheGyroscope
16.2TheFundamentalPrinciplesofTheGyroscope

16.3TheTurnAndSlipIndicator
16.4theTurnCoordinator
16.5IntroductiontoTheAircraftHorizon
16.6DirectionalGyroscopeIndicator
16.7DirectionIndicatorErrorsGyroscopicWander
16.8TheMagnet
16.9TheMagneticCompass
16.10MagneticVariation
16.11Deviation
16.12CompassErrors
16.13SynchronisingDirectionIndicatorAndMagneticCompass
16.14CompassServiceabilityChecks
17AIRWORTHINESS
17.1Introduction
17.2CertificateofRegistration

1 AIRFRAMES
CESSNA 152 GENERAL LAYOUT

AIRFRAMES
Theairframecomprises the main structural elements of the aircraft which support the loads to which the
aircraft is subjected in the air and on the ground. The principal components of the airframe are
thefuselage,thewings,thetail assemblyand theflying controls.In this chapter we look not only at
theairframe,but also at the loads applied to the airframe, the aircraftemergency equipmentand
certainsafety checksandemergency drills.

1.1 Fuselage
Thefuselageis the main structure or body of the aircraft.It carries thepassengersandcrewin safe,
comfortable conditions.

Thefuselagealso provides space forcontrols, accessoriesand other equipment. It transfers loads to and from
themain planesorwings,thetail planefin, landing gearand, in certain configurations, theengines.

There are three main types off uselageconstruction. First there is thetruss or framework type
(Figure 1.1)is generally used for light, non-pressurised, aircraft. Then there is monocoque
construction,which was mostly used during the early twentieth century. Finally, there is the semimonocoquefuselage (figure 1.2) which is in use on most aircraft other than non-pressurised
aircraft. The latter two types of structure - monocoque and semi-monocoque are more genrally
referred to as stressed skin construction.

Fig1.1 Airframe construction Fig1.2 Semi-monocoque

construction

1.2 Framework Construction

When truss or framework constructionis used for the fuselage,the framework consists of light
steel tubes of minimal wall thickness which are welded together to form a space frame of
triangular shape. This gives the most rigid of geometric forms. Each tube carries a specific load,
the magnitude of which depends on whether the aircraft is airborneor on the ground. This type
of fabrication is strong, easily constructed and gives a relatively trouble free
basicarrangement.The framework is normally covered by a lightweight aluminium alloy or fabric skin to
form an enclosed, aerodinamically efficient load carrying compartment. Examples of aircraft using this
construction are the AusterJ6 and Piper Cub.

1.3 Monocoque Construction

Monocoqueis a French word meaning "single shell".In amonocoque structureall the loads are
absorbed by astressed skinwith just light internal frames or formers to give the required shape.
With astressed-skinstructure, even slight damage to the skin can seriously weaken the structure.
To be a truemonocoquethe structure would have no apertures in it at all, like an o strich egg; but for practical
purposes, in an aircraft, apertures haveto be provided for access and maintenance. The apertures have to be
reinforced so that the integrity of the structure is maintained. But, once the aircraft doors are closed and all
the hatches and access panels are fitted, the fuselage is to all intents and purposes amonocoque structure.Two
aircraft constructed in accordance with themonocoqueprinciple were the plywood construction Roland
CII(1915), and the Ford Trimotor (1926).

1.4 Semi - Monocoque Construction

As aircraftbecame larger and the airloads greater, the pure monocoque was found not to be strong enough.
Additional structural members known aslongeronswere added to run lengthwise along the fuselage joining
theframestogether. A light alloyskinwas then attached to theframesandlongeronsby riveting or adhesive
bonding. This type ofstressed-skinfuselage construction is calledsemi- monocoque (seeFigure 1.4).

In semi-monocoque fuselages, then,longerons and frames stiffen the skin,and flight loads are shared
between theskinand thestructurebeneath.
Bulkheads as illustrated in Figure 1.5,are set in place to separate the different sections of the semimonocoque fuselage; for instance, between the engine compartment and the passenger compartment.
The bulkhead has the same basic shape as the frames or formers,but almost completely isolates one
compartment from the other. However, holes have to be made in the bulkhead. These allow control fittings,
pipework and electrical cables to pass through the length of the fuselage.
Bulkheads are usually much more substantially built than the frames because they are subject to
greater loads. Additionally, the bulkhead which separates the engine from the passenger compartment
serves to retard the passage of fire from the engine rearwards, should a fire break out.

Figure 1.4 Monocoque Structure Figure 1.5 Engine
Bulkhead

1.5 Wings
Thewingsormainplanesgenerateliftand, in steady flight, support theweightof the aircraft in the air. When
the aircraft is manoeuvring, thewingswill have to supportloadswhich are several times theweightof the
aircraft. Therefore, thewing smust have sufficient strength and stiffness to be able to do this. The degree of
strength and stiffness is determined by the thickness of the wing, with the thicknesand type of construction
used being dependent on the speed requirements of theaircraft. Various types ofwing constructionarebiplane,braced monoplane and cantilever monoplane.

1.6 Bi-plane
Very fewbi-planesfly at more than 200 knots in level flight, so the air loads are low, which means that a truss
type design,which is covered in fabric, is usually satisfactory. The wing spars, interplane struts and bracing
wires form a lattice girder of great rigidity which is highly resistant to bending andtwisting.Unfortunately
the struts and bracing wires also generate a relatively large amount of drag, which accounts for themodest
speed ofbi-planes.

1.7 Braced Monoplane

This type of design is also used on low speed aircraft.
In the braced monoplane, the wings are strenghed or "braced" by external struts, which help relieve
the bending loads applied to the wing spars in flight. One of the most famous braced monoplanes
was the "Spirit of St Louis" which Charles Lindbergh piloted in his epic, solo transatlantic flight.
Also the Cessna 152 is a braced monoplane!

1.8 Cantilever Monoplane

On acantilever monoplane,the wings areunbraced,being supported at one end only. Most modern aircraft
arecantilever monoplanes.Cantilever wings have to absorb the stresses due to lift and drag in flight and
their own weight when on the ground.

1.9 Construction of Cantilever Wing

Theload bearing ability of acantilever wingis achieved by building the wing around one or more main load
bearing members known asspars,which are constructed so that they will absorb the downwards bending
stresses when on the ground, and the upwards, rearwards and twisting stresses when in flight.
The major structural components of the cantilever wing are generally manufactured from aluminium alloys,
with composite materials such as glass-reinforced plastic, carbon-reinforced plastic and honeycomb
structures being used for fairings, control surfaces and flaps etc.
Relief of bending stress is aided by positioning the major fuel tanks within the wig.
Cantilever wings may be of single spar, twin spar or multi spar construction. A conventional main plane
structure would consist of front and rear spars, with metal skin attached to the spar booms to form a torsion
box, which counteracts twisting forces.
The Skin.The skin of a cantilever wing helps bear the loads. It generates direct stresses in a spanwise direction
as a response to bending moments, and also resist twisting.

The Stringers.Stringersarespan wise member swhich give the wing rigidity by stiffening the skin in
compression.

Ribs.Ribsmaintain the aerofoil shape of the wings, support the spars, stringers and skin against buckling,
and pass concentrated loads from the engines, the landing gear and control surfaces into the skin and spars.

1.10 Stabilising Surfaces

The stabilising surfaces are designed to return the aircraft to balanced flight in the pitching and
yawing planes when the
aircraft has been disturbed from steady,straight flight. On conventional aircraft, the primary
stability surfaces are the
tail plane(orhorizontal stabiliser),and thefin(orvertical stabiliser).

Tail Units.
Thetail unit,which is sometimescalled theempennage,comes inmany different designs. It can beconventional.
T-tail,H-tailorV-tail.

The tail unit, as a whole, provideslongitudinal and directional stability andcontrol.

However, in some aircraft, longitudinalstability and control is provided byfore planes,calledcanards .
The Tail Plane. The horizontal fixed tail surface, which is known as the tailplane or horizontal
stabiliser, provides longitudinal stability by the generating upwards or downwards forces as
required.
Structurally the tail unit components are generally smaller versions of the mainplanes in that they
use spars, ribs, stringers and skin in their construction. They also use the same basic materials as
are employed in the manufacture of mainplanes; for instance, aluminium alloys or some composites
with honeycomb structures.
The Fin.The fixed vertical surface, known as the vertical stabiliser or fin, generates sideways forces
as required to give directional stability.

1.11 The Aircraft's Axes

To maintain steady flight the aircraft must be in a state of balance about its three main axes. The
stabilising surfaces help to maintain this state of balance. The flying controls enable the pilot to
manouvre the aircraft around its three axes.

The longitudinal Axis.Rotation about the longitudinal axis is termed roll. Roll is
controlled by the ailerons.
The Lateral Axis.Rotation about the lateral axis is termed pitch. Pitch is controlled by
either the elevators, or by an all-moving taiplane or stabiliser.

The Normal Axis.Rotation about the normal axis is termed yaw. Yaw is controlled by
the rudder.

1.12 The Flying Controls

Primary Flying Controls. The primary flying controls control the aircraft in pitch, roll and yaw. The
movement of the flying control surfaces in response to the movement of the cockpit controls in light
aircraft is achieved mechanically. This means that the control surfaces are connected directly to the
cockpit controls by a system of cables, rods, levers and chains.
Pitch Control. Pitch control is obtained through the use of either elevators, an all moving stabiliser
or conrad control. For the purpose of this chapter, we will assume that the aircraft has elevators
fitted to the tail plane. The elevator is controlled by fore and aft movement of the control column or
control wheel. Reward movement of the control column causes upward movement of the elevator
which causes the aircraft to pitch nose upwards, and vice versa.
Roll Control. Control i roll is achieved by ailerons. Turning the control wheel or moving the control
column to the right causes the right aileron to move up and the left aileron to move down, inducing
roll to the right and vice versa.
Yaw Control.Control inyawis achieved by therudder.Moving the rightrudder pedalforward causes the
rudderto move to the right which, in turn, causes the aircraft toyawto the right, and vice versa.

Range of Control Movement .The movement of each control surface to either side of its neutral position is laid
down by the aircraft designer so that the required control can be achieved over the full range of operating
conditions.
The movement is not necessarily the same each side of neutral; for examplean elevator usually has a greater
deflection upward than downward. The limit ofmovement of the control surface is determined by a
mechanical stop.The function of mechanical stops is to prevent excessive control surfacedeflection which may
cause the aircraft structure to be over-stressed during normal operations.
A stop which limits the movement of the control surface is called a primary stop. A stop which limits the
movement of the control column or rudder pedals is called a secondary stop. When the primary stop is closed
there will be a small clearance at the secondary stop.

1.13 Control Surface Flutter

Flutter is the rapid and uncontrolled oscillation of a flight control, (or the surface to which it is
attached), which occurs as a result of an unbalanced control surface. Flutter is caused by the
interaction of aerodynamic forces, inertial forces and the elastic properties of the control surface or
structure, and can lead to catastrophic failure of the structure.
Flutter can be prevented by mass balancing the control surfaces inorder toalter the moment of
inertia of the surface and, therefore, the period of vibration. Mass balancing is achieved by moving
the center of gravity of the flying control surface closer to, or forward of, the hinge of that control
surface.
Flutter must not occur within the normal flight operating envelope of the aircraft. The fact that an
aircraft is poorly maintained, particularly in respect of excessive control surface backlash or
flexibility, may mean that flutter will occur at speeds below the limit airspeed.High density
expanding foam is sometimes used within control surfaces, in order to impart greater stiffness to
the control surface with a reasonably low weight penalty.

1.14 Trimming
An aeroplane is trimmed when it will maintain its attitude and speed without the pilot having to
apply a force to the cockpit controls. If it is necessary for a control surface to be deflected to
maintain balance of the aircraft, the pilot will need to apply a force to the cockpit control to hold the
surface in its deflected position. This force may be reduced to zero by operation of the trim controls
which cause the trim tabs, fitted to the rear edges of the main flying control surfaces to move so as
to hold the control surfaces in their deflected position.
The aircraft may need to be trimmed in pitch as a result of changes of attitude and speed, changes of
power or varying centre of gravity positions.
Trimming in yaw will be needed as a result of changes in propeller torque, or if there is an engine
faiiure on a twin engined aircraft. Trimming in roll is less likely to be needed, but would be required
if there was a lateral displacement of the centre of gravity: for example if the contents of the fuel
tanks in each wing were allowed to became unequal, or, in the case of a twin engine aircraft, if one
engine had failed.
Fixed Tabs.Some trimming tabs are not adjustable in flight, but can be adjusted on the ground by an
aircraft technician to correct a permanent out-of-trim condition. Fixed trimming tabs are most
commonly found on the ailerons.

1.15 Trailing Edge Flaps

Aircraft are fitted with high lift devices to give increased lift at lower air speeds, to reduce the takeoff and landing distances, and to permit suitably steep approach angles on landing. These devices
are commonly called flaps. A flap is a hinged portion of the wing's trailing edge which can be
deflected downwards and so produce an increase in wing camber.
There are various types of flap design ail of which increase both lift and drag in varying amounts.
The most common type of flap used on light aircraft is the plain trailing edge flap.

Effects of Flap.Lowering flap will increase both in the lift and the drag of the aircraft but not in the
same proportion, the increase in lift being the greater. Selecting flap will cause a pitch change. The
overall change of pitch will be influenced by the type of flap, the position of the wing and the
position of the tailplane.

1.16 Other Methods of Control

On some aircraft, rotation around two of the axes may be achieved with one control surface.For
instance, theeleron, which is a combined elevator and aileron, is used on tail-less aircraft to
produce both pitching and rolling motion
Therudder vatorwhich is the name of the control surfaces on a V-tail aircraft, produces both
pitching and yawing motion.
Thestabilator is an all-moving tailplane combining the dual function of horizontal stabiliser and
elevator. Consequently, the stabilator provides both longitudinal stability and longitudinal control.

1.17 Loads Applied to Airframe Structures

A tensile load is one which tends to stretch a structural member. Aircraft components designed to
resist tensile loads are known as ties.
Compressive loads are the opposite of tensile loads and tend to shorten structural members. Aircraft
components designed to resist compressive loads are known as struts.
A shear force is a force which tends to slide one face of a material over an adjacent face. Riveted
joints are designed to resist shear forces.
Combination Loads. Any bending of an aircraft's structure - as occurs in the flexing of a wing in
flight, for instance - involves the three basic types of load. In flight, the under-surfaces of the wing
will be under tension, while the upper surface will be subject to compressive loading. Shear forces
and stresses will be fell across the depth of the wing at the points of maximum bending.

Torsion or twisting forces produce tension at the outer edge, compression in the center and shear
across the structure . All parts of the air-frame are subject to torsion in flight.
On the ground the different types of load, to which an aircraft's wing are subjected, are
reversed.When an-Aircraft is stationary on the ground, a cantilever wing is subject to tensile stress
on its upper surface and compressive stress on its under surface.
Buckling can occur in the stressed-skin of the aircraft's wing and/or fuselage when subjected to
excessive compressive forces.Buckling is a sure sign that an aircraft has been over-stressed.
Safety Factor. The maximum load that the designer would expect an air-frame or air-frame
componentto experience in service is termed the Design Limit Load.
A safety-factor is applied to the Design Limit Load, to cater for unexpected circumstances which
might cause the Design Limit Load to be exceeded.
The minimum safety factor specified in design requirements is 1.5. The Design Limit Load multiplied
by the safety-factor is called the Design Ultimate Load.The aircraft's structure must be able to
withstand the Design Ultimate Load without collapse, but the Design Ultimate Load may be expected
to cause severe deformation of the aircraft's structure. Beyond the Design Ultimate Load, the
aircraft's structure will almost certainly fail.

1.18 Control Locks

When an aircraft is parked in the open, strong or gusty winds could blow the controls about against
their stops with sufficient force to cause mechanical damage.To revent this occurring, control locks
are fitted. These may be fitted internally or externally. If the control locks are controlled from the
cockpit, they are arranged so that it is impossible to open the throttle until they are removed.

1.19 Fire Extinguishers

Waterorwaterglycolfireextinguishershaveredcontainers,asshownin.HandheldportableWateror
WaterGlycolfireextinguishersmaybefoundincommercialaircraft.Theycanbeusedinpassenger
cabinsforcombatingfiresinvolvingdomesticmaterialssuchaspaperandfurnishingmaterials.
Water or Water Glycol fire extinguishers must not be used on fires which involve electrical
equipment or liquids.
The glycol is an antifreeze agent which permits operation of the extinguishers at temperatures as
low as -20C. The same type of extinguisher is also used for ground based applications.

Dry Powderextinguishers are blue cylinders or red cylinders with blue labels. The use of dry powder
in crew or passenger compartments of pressurised aircraft is not permitted.
The powder agent, Potassium Bicarbonate, is a non-toxic powder, similar to talcum powder. It is
very effective against fires involving flammable liquids, wood, fabric and paper.
Dry Powder is the safest extinguisher to use against wheel and brake fires as it is least likely to
cause overheated brake discs to explode. Dry powder extinguishers are mostly used for ground
based applications.

Bromochlorodlfluromethane (BCF).
This extinguishant is stored in signal red. purple, brown or green containers.BCF extinguishers are
very effective against electrical and flammable liquid fires. BCF is only slightly toxic.
It is colourless, non-corrosive and evaporates rapidly leaving no residue. It does not freeze or cause
cold burns and will not harm fabrics, metals or other materials it comes into contact with. It acts
rapidly on fires by producing a heavy blanketing mist, which eliminates air from the fire source.
But, more importantly, it interferes chemically with the combustion process. BCF has outstanding
properties in preventing re-flash after the fire has been extinguished.
Hand held containers using BCF are used in many aircraft, and although it is slightly toxic, it is quite
safe to use provided that the cockpit is ventilated after the fire is extinguished.
Nevertheless, because of the toxic nature of the fumes produced by a BCF discharge, its use as a fire
extinguishant in aircraft is becoming less common.

Carbon Dioxideis used on tine airfieid apron in trolley based extinguishers. The Carbon Dioxide
extinguishant is stored in a black cylinder, or in a red cylinder with a black label. It is non-corrosive
and extinguishes the flame by dissipating the oxygen in the immediate vicinity.
From the standpoint of toxicity and corrosion, Carbon Dioxide is the safest agent to use, and, for
many years, was the most widely used in the supervision of aircraft movements on the
ground.Nevertheless, if handled impropedy it can cause mental confusion and suffocation.
Carbon Dioxide requires a stronger container than most other agents due to its variation in vapour

Carbon Dioxide requires a stronger container than most other agents due to its variation in vapour
pressure with changes of temperature. The use of this agent inside an aircraft is not permitted.
Carbon Dioxide may be used against most fires. It is particulady useful against engine fires as it will
extinguish the fire without damaging the engine. Great care must be exercised in handling the
discharge nozzle of a Carbon Dioxide Extinguisher.
Discharge of the extinguisher is accompaniet by a sharp and significant drop in temperature of the
nozzle and there is a danger that the skin of the hand can become "cold-welded" to the nozzle.
Always handle the discharge nozzle by the grip or handle provided.

Foam.
Foam extinguishers are cream cylinders, or red cylinders with a cream label . Foam isthepnncipal
extinguishant for use on flammable liquid fires, such as burning paint, oil or petrol.It biankets the
flames by excluding oxygen.Foam can also be used on combustible material fires as it gives good
flame knock down and also prevents re-ignition of the fire.
Foam extinguishers should not be used on electrical fires, as the water base can conduct electricity
and may in some cases cause the user of the device to get a severe electrical shock.
Foam extinguishers are some times called AFFF extinguishers; this stands for Aqueous Film Forming
Foam.

1.20 Life Jackets

The personal floatation equipment used by the pilot and passengers is the Life Jacket or Life
Preserver.There are numerous types of life jacket. The information given here is of a general nature
and does not apply to any particular make, model or type.
Life jackets are designed as lightweight items of equipment and should be treated witin care at all
times.
Life Jackets are normally stowed in special packs or containers for ease of handling and protection.
Stowage in this manner will ensure that the jacket is maintained correctly folded for easy and rapid
fitting if required for use.
If there is any evidence of mishandling or immersion in sea water, life jackets should be rejected for
operational use.
Instructions for fitting are printed on the container and/or the jacket.
All life jackets are basically similar in design. Buoyancy is achieved by inflating the jacket with
Carbon Dioxide Gas which is stored under pressure in a small cylinder and released manually by the
operation of a toggle or lever. Once it has been released, the gas will pass through a Non Return
Valve into the jacket and cannot be stopped.
The life jacket can be inflated or topped up by mouth.The manual inflation tube contains a valve
w/hich can be operated to lower or release the pressure in the jacket.
The life jacket is coloured either brilliant yellow or flame red as an aid to location, and may contain
equipment to expedite the location of the individual wearing it. If you are flying in a light aircraft
over extensive areas of water, the recommended practice in respect of life jackets is that they should
be worn uninflated for the flight.
In the event of ditching, life jackets should not be inflated until the wearer has left the aircraft.

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1.21 Checks and Emergency Drills

In the context of normal club flying operations, it is up to the pilot to ensure that the aircraft is safe
for flight. To this end, a series of checks is carried out prior to, during, and after the flight.
Initially, student pilots will normally rely on an aircraft's abbreviated Check List to carry out these
checks. As students gain experience, checks should become instinctive, and the time taken to do
them will decrease, but every so often pilots should compare their actions against the
manufacturer's Expanded
Check List.Carrying out the external pre-flight check will inevitably bring the pilot close to the
aircraft's propeller. Propellers should always be treated as being 'live'. No part of the pilot's body or
his equipment should be allowed to come within the arc that would be described by a rotating
propeller.
With experience, student pilots should be able to locate items in the cockpit without looking. Always
practice checks hourly; but beware of learning them 'parrot fashion'. The Checklist should always be
used when carrying out routine checks, but emergency checks should be learnt by heart.
Loose Articles.The danger of loose articles in aircraft cockpits cannot be over-stressed. Numerous
accidents have been attributed to foreign objects left in the aircraft by careless pilots. Personal
items such as pens, pencils, keys, combs and coins can all be the cause of accidents if they become
lodged in the flying controls.
If you do drop anything in the cockpit, you must retrieve it. If you are unable to locate a misplaced
item then you must report this fact to a responsible authority. Only after the lost item is found will
the aircraft be allowed to fly again.
Emergency Drills.Just as the checks must become well practiced, so must the initial reactions to
emergencies. Emergencies are fortunately rare in modern aircraft, but pilots must be able to deal
promptly with any emergency situation that does arise.
The emergency drills should be practiced frequently in the air and on the ground. Before being sent
solo, the student must know what actions to carry out in the event of a fire, (both on the ground and
in the air), an engine failure after take-off, and a forced landing.
Aircraft Operations On The Apron.On the apron of a busy airfield, apart from your own aircraft,
there will be other aircraft and items of ground equipment and personnel, for example re-fuelling
crews. As a consequence of this, all pilots must be conscious of the safety precautions required when
starting aircraft engines and when taxying on to, or away from, the apron. Extreme caution must be
exercised and the taxying speed must be kept to a minimum. Remember, the pilot is always
responsible for the safety of the aircraft.

2 LANDING GEAR TYRES AND BRAKES

2.1 Functions of Landing Gear

Thefunctionsofthelandinggearare,firstly,toprovideameansofmaneouvringtheaircraftontheground,
secondly,tosupporttheaircraftataconvenientheighttogiveclearanceforpropellersandflaps,etc,and
,thirdly,toabsorbthekineticenergyoflanding.

LandingGearDesign.

Onceairborne,thelandinggearservesnousefulpurposeandisdeadweight.Itwouldbeidealtoreplacethe
landinggearwithsomegroundbasedequipmentforusebeforetheaircrafttakesoff.But,whileitispossible
toachievemaneouvringandsupportfortheaircraftwithgroundbasedequipment,
nosatisfactoryalternativeexistsforabsorbingthekineticenergyoflandingandprovidingameansof
controllingdeceleration.Forthisreason,avastamountofresearchhasgoneintothedesignof
undercarriageunitsinordertoreducetheirweightandtheirstowedvolumewhenretracted.

2.2 Landing Gear Types

Withslow,lightaircraft,andsomelargeraircraftonwhichSimplicityisofprimeimportance,afixed,non
retractablelandinggearisoftenfitted.Onlight,trainingaircraft,forinstance,thereducedperformancecaused
bythedragofthefixedlandinggearduringflightisoffsetbyitssimplicity,itsreducedmaintenanceandalsoIts
lowinitialcost.Onhighspeedaircraft,dragbecomesprogressivelymoreimportant,sothelandinggearis
retractedintothewingsorfuselageduringflight.Thereare,however,penaltiesofincreasedweight,greater
complicationandadditionalmaintenancewithretractableundercarriages.

FixedLandingGear.Therearethreemaintypesoffixedlandinggear:thosewhichhavespringsteellegs,
thosewhichemployrubbercordstoabsorbshocks,andthosewhichhaveoleopneumaticstrutstoabsorb
shocks.

SpringSteelLegs.Springsteellegsareusuallyemployedatthemainundercarriagepositions.Theleg
consistsofatube,orstripoftaperedspringsteel,theupperendbeingattachedbyboltstothefuselageand
thelowerendterminatinginanaxleonwhichthewheelandbrakeareassembled.

RubberCord:Whenrubbercordisusedasashockabsorber,theundercarriageisusuallyintheformoftubularstruts,
designedandinstalledsothatthelandingforceisdirectedagainstanumberofturnsofrubberintheformofagrommetor
loop.

OleopneumaticStruts.
Somefixedmainundercarriages,andmostfixednoseundercarriages,arefittedwithanoleopneumaticshock
absorberstrut.Thedesignofoleopneumaticstrutsvariesconsiderably.Somemaybefittedwithfairingstoreduce
drag.

Spats.
Spatsmaybefittedtotheundercarriageinordertoreducedrag.
Onedrawbacktotheiruseisthatspatsmaypickupmudwhenlandingortakingofffromgrassairfields.Thiscanadd
considerablytotheweightoftheaircraftandmayaffecttakeoffperformance.Toavoidthiseventuality,ifanymudhas
beenpickedup,thespatsmustberemoved,cleanedandreplacedbeforethenexttakeoff.

2.3 The Nose Wheel

Thenosegearisusuallyofalighterstructurethanthemaingearunitssinceitcarrieslessweightandis
normallysubjectonlytodirectcompressionloads.
Thenosewheelmustbeabletocastorfreely.Castoringistheabilityofthenosewheeltoturnto
eithersideinresponsetodifferentialbrakingonthemainwheels.

Nose Wheel Steering.

Amethodofsteeringisrequiredtoenablethepilottomaneouvretheaircraftsafelyontheground.
Earlymethodsinvolvedtheuseofdifferentialbrakingandfreecastoringnosewheels,but,today,the
nosewheelofmostlightaircraftissteereddirectlybytherudderpedals.

Wheel Shimmy.
Duetotheflexibilityoftyresidewalls,anunstable,rapid,sinusoidaloscillationorvibration
knownasshimmycanbeinducedintothesteerablepartsoftheundercarriage.Excessiveshimmy,
especiallyathighspeeds,cansetupvibrationsthroughouttheaircraftandcanbedangerous.
Wornwheelbearingsanduneventyrepressurescanbothincreasethetendencyofthewheelstoshimmy.
Shimmycanbereducedinseveralwaysforinstance,byfittingashimmydamper,orbyhavingheavy
selfcentringspringsfittedinthenosewheelsteeringcontrolrodrun.Somelargeraircrafthavedouble
nosewheelsfitted,whiletwincontactwheelshavealsobeenfoundtobeeffectiveinminimizingtail
wheelshimmy.

Retractable Landing Gear.

Anincreasingnumberoflightaircraftarefittedwitharetractablelandinggearforthepurpose
ofreducingdrag,thusimprovingaircraftperformance.
Retractionisnormallyeffectedbya'hydraulic system,butpneumaticorelectricalsystemsare
alsoused.
Insomeinstances,powerisusedforretractiononly,extensionbeingeffectedbygravityand

Insomeinstances,powerisusedforretractiononly,extensionbeingeffectedbygravityand
slipstream.Retractablelandinggearisalsoprovidedwithmechanicallockstoensurethateach
undercarriagelegislockedsecurelyintheretractedorextendedpositions.Retractableundercarriage
systemsarealsofittedwithdevicestoindicatetothepilotthepositionofeachundercarriageleg,and
ameansbywhichthelandinggearcanbeextendedintheeventoffailureofthepowersource.
Inaddition,safetysystemsareprovidedwhichpreventretractionofthelandinggearwhentheaircraft
isontheground,andtoguardagainstlandingwiththelandinggearretracted.Undercarriagewellsare
normallysealedbydoorsforaerodynamicreasons.

2.4 Tyres
Introduction.
Aircraftwheelsarefittedwithpneumatictyreswhichusuallycomprisebotharubberinnertube
andoutercover.
Theinnertubeisinflatedwithcompressedairwhichabsorbsshockandsupportstheweightofthe
aircraft.Thecoverrestrainsandprotectstheinnertubefromdamage,maintainstheshapeofthe
tyre,transmitsbrakingeffort,andprovidesawearingsurface.

Tyre Covers.
Thetyrecoverconsistsofacasingmadeofrubberwhichisreinforcedwithpliesofcotton,rayonor
nyloncords.
Thecordsarenotwoven,butarrangedparallelinsinglelayersandheldtogetherbyathinfilmofrubber
whichpreventscordsofadjacentpliesfromcuttingoneanotherasthetyreflexes,inuse.
Duringconstructionofthecover,thepliesarefittedinpairs.
Eachpairistermedapocket,whichissetsothatthecordsofadjacentpliesareat90degreestoone
anotherthisiscalledcrossply.
Thetyremanufacturersgiveeachtyreaplyrating.Thisratingdoesnotrelatedirectlytothe
numberofpliesinthetyre,butisinsteadtheindexofthestrengthofthetyre.
Toabsorbanddistributeloadshocks,andalsotoprotectthecasingfromconcussiondamage,twonarrow
pliesembeddedinthicklayersofrubberaresituatedbetweenthecasingandthetread,thesespecial
pliesaretermedbreakerstrips.
Thecasingisretainedontherimofthewheelbyinterlockingthepliesaroundinextensiblesteel
wirecoilstoformplyoverlaps.Thisportionofthecoverisknownasthebead.

The Regions of the Tyre

The Regions of the Tyre

Thetyreisdividedintoregionsorsections.
Thetreadofthetyreissituatedinthecrownandshouldersection.Notethattheterm'tread'is
appliedirrespectiveofwhethertherubberisplainandsmooth,ormouldedonablockpattern.
Themostpopulartreadpatternisthattermed'ribbed'.Thistreadpatternisformedfromcircumferential
groovesaroundthetyre.

Tyre Markings.

Thesizeofatyreismarkedonitssidewallandincludestheoutsidediameter,theinsidediameterand
thewidthofthetyre,allininches.

Theplyrating,theindexofthetyre'sstrength,isalsomarkedonthesidewall.Normallytheply
ratingisshownasanabbreviation,i.e.PR16,butoccasionallyitisshowninfullas'16PLYRATING'.
Thespeedratingofthetyre,themaximumspeedforwhichthetyreisdesigned,isimprintedina
panelonthesidewallofsomehighspeedtyres.Theratingtakesaccountofpressurealtitude,
ambienttemperatureandwindcomponent,enablingthemaximumtakeoffweightthatthetyrescan
sustaintobecalculated.
Greenorgreydotspaintedonthesidewallofthetyreindicatethepositionofthe"awl"vents.Awl
ventspreventpressurebeingtrappedbetweentheplieswhichwouldcausedisruptionofthetyre
carcassifitwasexposedtothelowpressuresexperiencedduringhighaltitudeflight.
Areddotortriangleindicatesthelightestpartofthetyre.Ifthisisplacedadjacenttothevalveduring
tyrefitting,itassistsinbalancingthewheelassembly.

tyrefitting,itassistsinbalancingthewheelassembly.

Tyre Contamination.
Tyresmustbeprotectedfromexcessiveheat,dampness,brightsunlight,contactwithoil,fueland
hydraulicfluidasallofthesehaveaharmfuleffectonrubber.
Coversshouldbeplacedoverthetyreswhentheaircraftistobeparkedforanylengthoftime
orduringtheperiodswhenoil,fuel,coolingorhydraulicsystemsarebeingdrainedorreplenished.
Anyfluidinadvertentlyspiltorallowedtodripontoatyremustbewipedoffimmediately.

Creep (Slippage).
Whentyresarefirstfittedtoawheeltheytendtomoveslightlyaroundtherim.Thisphenomenonis
called'creep'andatthisstageitisconsiderednormal.Afterthetyressettledown,however,this
movementshouldcease.

Inservice,thetyremaytendtocontinuetocreeparoundthewheel.IfthiscreepISexcessiveonatyre
fittedwithaninnertube,itwilltearouttheinflationvalveandcausethetyretoburst.CreepISlessofa
problemwithtubelesstyres,aslongasthetyrebeadisundamagedandanypressuredropiswithinlimits.
Creepislesslikelytooccurifthetyreairpressureiscorrectlymaintained.Toassistinthis,tyre
manufacturersspecifyaratedinflationpressureforeachtyre.
Witnessmarkscalled'creepmarks'arepaintedbothonthebeadofthetyreandontheflangeofthe
wheel.Whenthetyreisfirstfittedtothewheel,thecreepmarkswillbealignedwitheachother.
However,foravarietyofreasons,includingheavylandings,harshbrakingandlowtyrepressures,the

However,foravarietyofreasons,includingheavylandings,harshbrakingandlowtyrepressures,the
tyrewillmovearoundthewheelandthecreepmarkswillmoveinrelationtoeachother.
Movementofthetyrearoundthewheelmustnotbesuchthatthecreepmarksbecomefully
misalignedwitheachother.

Tyre Damage
Duringyourpreflightinspection,tyresmustbeexaminedforcuts,bulges,embeddedstones,metalor
glass,signsofwear,creep,etc.
Cutsinthetyrecoverpenetratingtothecordsrenderthetyreunserviceable.Thecordswillberecognisable
aspiecesofwhitefibrousmaterialembeddedintherubberofthetyre.
Bulgesmayindicateapartialfailureofthecasing.Ifthefabricisfractured,thetyremustberenewed.
Embeddedstones,metal,glassetc.mustberemovedandthecutsexaminedbyaqualifiedaircraft
techniciantoascertaintheirdepth.
Thedecisionwhetherornotthetyreshouldberepairedorreplacedisgovernedbythedepthofthe
cut.Anyflatspotsonthetyretread,especiallythosecausedbyskiddingoraquaplaning,mustbe
examinedwithgreatcaretodeterminewhetherthefabricofthetyrehasbeenundulyweakened.Ifthere
isanydoubtabouttheserviceabilityofatyre,itshouldbereplaced.

2.5 Aquaplaning
Aquaplaning isaphenomenoncausedbyawedgeofwaterbuildingupunderthetreadofthetyreand
breakingitscontactwiththeground.
Thepossibilityofaquaplaningincreasesasthedepthofthetreadisreduceditis,therefore,important
thattheamountoftreadremainingisaccuratelyassessed.

2.6 Aircraft Wheel Brakes

Incommonwithmostbrakingsystems,aircraftwheelbrakesfunctionbyusingfrictionbetweena
fixedsurfaceandamovingonetobringanaircrafttorest,convertingkineticenergyintoheatenergyin
theprocess.Theamountofheatgeneratedinstoppingevenalightaircraftisextremelylarge.The
biggertheaircraft,thegreatertheheat.Theproblemofdissipatingtheheatgeneratedbyaircraftbrakes
hasbeenachallengetoaircraftdesignersandscientistsfordecades.

Disc Brakes.
Most light aircraft now use hydraulic disc brakes as their means of slowing down or stopping. These
useaseriesoffixedfrictionpads,bearingon,orgripping.arotatingdisc,similartothediscbrakes
onacar.
Thefrictionpadsaremadeofaninorganicfrictionmaterialandthediscsareofforgedsteelwith
a specially case hardened surface. This surface and interior structure combination causes the
platestoexplodeifdousedwithaliquidfireextinguishantwhentheyareredhot.Intheeventof
awheelorbrakefire,thebestextinguishanttouseisdrypowder.

Brake operation
Ifpressureisappliedtothebrakepedalsorthehandbrakelever,hydraulicpressurewillbuildupinthe
slavecylinderbehindthepiston.Thispressurewillcausethepistontomoveoverwithinthecaliper
unit,pushingthebrakepadagainstthebrakedisc.

Thereactionoftheinnerbrakepadpushingagainstthediscwillcausethecaliperunittomove
intheoppositedirectiontothepiston,carryingtheouterbrakepadwithituntilthediscis
squeezedbetweenthetwopads.
Theforceappliedtothebrakepadswillbeproportionaltotheeffortappliedtothebrakes.Thebrakes
canbeappliedtogether,or.ifdifferentialbrakingisrequiredformaneouvringtheaircraftwithin
tightspaces,thetoebrakescanbeusedseparately.
Mostlightaircrafthaveahandoperatedparkingbrake.Whenselected,thehandbrakewilllockinthe
hydraulicpressureappliedbythefootbrakes.

Pre-Flight Checks.
Beforeflight,thebrakesystemshouldbecheckedforanysignsofmalfunction.Signsofhydraulicfluid
leaksarerelativelyeasytospot.
Anyfluidleakingfromtheslavecylinderswithinthecaliperunitswilleitherdripstraightonto
thegroundordribbledowntheSidewallofthetyre.Ineithercase,Itshouldbefairlyeasytosee
Makesurebeforeyoutouchthebrakeassemblythatitisnotstillhotfromrecentuse,andcheck
thatthecaliperunitISfirmlyattachedtothegear.Alsohavealookatthewearonthebrakepads.The
partofthediscwithwhichthebrakescomeintocontactisbrightandshiny.Anyrustorpittingon
the braking surface of the disc will reduce brake effectiveness, and may be indicative of a
malfunctionofthesystem.Anyproblemsassociatedwiththebrakingsystemshouldberectifiedbefore
theaircraftismoved.

3 ENGINES GENERAL

3.1 The Four Stroke Internal Combustion Engine

Theaccepteddefinitionoftheterm'PistonEngine'is,'Anengineinwhichtheworkingfluidisexpanded
inacylinderagainstareciprocatingpiston.'
Thisdefinitioncouldbeappliedtoanyreciprocatingtypeofinternalcombustionengine.buthere
wewilluseittoimplythetypeofengineusedInmostlightaircraftnamely.thefourstroke.gasoline
sparkignitionengine.

ThepistonengineconvertstheenergyoffuelIntoheatenergyandthenintomechanicalenergy.
Thisconversionisaccomplishedbyintroducinganairfuelmixtureintoacylinderwhichis
compressedbyapiston
ThemixtureisthenignitedbyanelectricsparkThesubsequentcombustioncausesarapidriseinthe
temperatureandpressureofthegaseswithinthecylinderwhichforcesthepistondownwards.

Thislinearpistonmovementisconvertedintorotarymotionbythecrankshaft.Whenallofthe
usefulpressurehasbeenusedtheburntgasesareexhaustedtotheatmosphere.
TheprincipleofoperationofallfourstrokecombustionenginesisbasedupontheOttoCycle,
originallypropoundedbyBeaudeRochasin1876.However,Ottowasthefirsttosucceedinproducing
aworkingengineusingthiscycle.

3.2 The Theoretical Four-Stroke Cycle

Thefourstrokecycleinvolvesfourstrokesofthepiston,whichproducetworevolutionsofthecrankshaft.

ThestrokeofthepistonIStheextentofitstravelwithinthecylinder.Thelowerlimitoftravelis
calledBottomDeadCentre,andtheupperlimitiscalledTopDeadCentre.
Thefourstrokesarecalled'Induction,Compression,PowerandExhaust.Wewillusetheexample
ofasimplesinglecylinderenginetoillustratethetheoreticalfourstrokecycle.

Induction Stroke
TheinletvalveopensatTopDeadCentre,permittingamixtureoffuelandairtobedrawnintothe
cylinder.Thepistonmovesdownandthecylindervolumeincreases.Thecylinderpressure
decreasestobelowambientpressure.Thetemperatureoftheairfuelmixture(calledthecharge)
decreases.Themassofthechargeincreasesasmoreandmoreairfuelmixtureissuckedintothe
cylinder.TheinletvalvenclosesatBottomDeadCentre.

Compression Stroke
Boththeinletandexhaustvalvesarenowclosed,trappingthechargeinthecombustionchamber.Thepiston
movesup.Thecylindervolumedecreases.Thecylinderpressureincreases.Thetemperatureofthe
chargeincreases.Themassofthechargeisnowfixed.

PowerStroke
Bothvalvesarestillclosed.Thepistonisstationaryatthetopofthestroke.Asparkplugignites
themixturetostartcombustion.Thetemperatureofthechargeincreasesrapidlyduring
combustion.Pressureincreasesrapidlywithtemperatureincrease.Thepistonisforceddownby
thepressureincrease.Thecylindervolumethereforeincreases.Thismeansthatpressure
decreases,and,asafunctionofthat,thetemperaturedecreases,too.

ExhaustStroke
Theexhaustvalvenowopenstotheatmosphere.Thepistonmovesup,forcingtheexhaustgaspastthe
exhaustvalvetotheatmosphere.Theatmosphereprovidesresistancetotheflowofexhaust
gaswhichistermed'exhaustbackpressure'.Becauseofthisthepressureinthecylinderincreases
slightlywhichcausesthetemperaturetorisealso.WhenthepistonreachesTopDeadCentre,it
onceagainbeginstheInductionStroketostartthecycleagain.

3.3 Practical Timing

Inpractice,thetheoreticalOttocycleprovedtobeinefficient,andsothetimingofvalveoperation
andignitionhadtobemodified.
OpeningtheinletvalvebeforeTopDeadCentreensuresthatitisfullyopenearlyinthe
inductionstroke.Thetimelag,whichwouldnormallyoccurbetweenthepistonmovingdownand
themixtureflowingintothecylinder,becauseoftheinertiaofthemixture.istherebyeliminated.
Theincomingmixture.can,thus,keepupwiththedescendingpiston.Themomentumof
theincomingmixtureincreasesastheinductionstrokeproceeds,and,towardstheendofthe
stroke,issuchthatthegaseswillcontinuetoflowintothecylindereventhoughthepistonhaspassed
BottomDeadCentreandismovingslightlyupwards.
ClosureoftheinletvalveisthereforedelayeduntilafterBottomDeadCentre,whenthegas
pressureinthecylinderapproximatelyequalsthegaspressureintheinletmanifold.Asthepiston
continuestomoveupwards,theinletvalveclosesandthechargeiscompressed.Bysqueezingthe
chargeintoasmallerspacethepressureitwillexertwhenburnttsincreasedinproportion.

JustbeforethepistonreachesTopDeadCentreonthecompressionstroke,thechargeisignitedby
aspark.ThepistoniscarriedpastTopDeadCentrebythemomentumofthemovingpartswhilethe
flameisspreadingtheroughthecompressedcharge.Theintenseheatraisesthepressurerapidlytoa
peakvaluewhichisreachedonlywhencombustioniscomplete.
BytimingtheignitiontotakeplacebeforeTopDeadCentre,completecombustion,andthereforepeak
pressure,isarrangedtocoincidewiththecrankshaftbeing10degreesbeyondTopDeadCentre.
Thisallowstheenginetogainmaximumadvantagefromcombustion.
Mostoftheenergyinthechargehasbeenconvertedintomechanicalenergybythetimethepistonhas

movedhalfwaydownthecylinder.Iftheexhaustvalveopensaroundthispoint,anyresidualgas
pressurewillstartthefirstphaseofexhaustscavenging.
TheopeningoftheexhaustvalvebeforeBottomDeadCentrewillalsoensurethatthepressureofgases
remaininginthecylinderdoesnotresisttheupwardmovementofthepistonduringitsexhauststroke.
Inthefinalpartofthefourstrokecycle,thepistonmovesupwardsforcingtheremaininggases
outofthecylinder.TheexhaustvalveisleftopenafterTopDeadCentretopermitthegasesto
scavengethecylinderascompletelyaspossiblebyvirtueoftheirmomentum.

Valve Lead.
TheperiodsduringwhichtheinletvalveisopenbeforeTopDeadCentreandtheexhaustvalveis
openbeforeBottomDeadCentrearecalled'ValveLead'.

Valve Lag.
TheperiodsduringwhichtheinletvalveremainsopenafterBottomDeadCentreandtheexhaustvalve
remainsopenafterTopDeadCentre,arecalled'ValveLag':

Valve Overlap.
Theperiodduringwhichboththeinletandexhaustvalvesareopenatthesametime,attheendofthe
exhauststrokeandthebeginningoftheinductionstroke,istermed

'Valve Overlap'.
Duringthisperiod,theactionoftheexhaustgasesflowingoutofthecylindertendstoreducethegas
pressureintheinductionmanifold.
TheincomingmixturebeginsflowingIntotheareaoflowpressure,andassistsindisplacingthe
remainingburntgases.Thisimprovesthevolumetricefficiencyoftheenginebyinducingagreater
weightofchargeintothecylinder.

3.4 Basic Engine Construction

Thecorearoundwhichtheengineisbuiltiscalledeitherthecrankcase,ortheengineblock.Itis
usuallymadefromaluminlumalloyandbuiltintwohalvestoallowtheinsertionofthecrankshaft.
Iftheengineis'liquidcooled'alargeonepiecejackethousescylinderlinerstoprovideacoolingliquid
containeraroundthem.
Dependingonthemanufactureroftheengine,cylindersareboredintotheengineblock,orfittedonto
thecrankcase.

Thecylindersaremadeofalloysteel.
Thecylindersresistthepressureofcombustionandprovideaworkingsurfaceforthepiston
ringsIftheengineis'aircooled'thecylindersare'finned'toincreasethecoolingarea.

Pistons,madefromlightalloy,arefittedwithinthecylinders.Aroundeachpistonarefittedtwo,or,in
somecases,threepistonrings.

Thepistonringsaremadefromcastiron,whichcontainsalargeamountofgraphite:asubstance
whichallowsselflubricationbetweentheringsandthecylinderwallswhentheengineisfirst
started.Theringsensurethatnogasesleakfromabovethepistonintothecrankcase,which,ina
wetsumpengine,constitutesareservoirfortheengineoil.Formoreinformationonwetanddrysump
enginesrefertoChapter5,Lubrication.
Theconnectingrodtransmitstheforcesofcombustiontothecrankshaft.

Theconnectingrodismadefrom'H'sectionhightensilesteel,whichcombineslightness
withthestrengthnecessarytowithstandthecompressiveandtensileloadsimposedasthepistonchanges
direction.

Theconnectingrodisjoinedtothepistonbyagudgeonpin(seeFigure3.7)whichfitsthrough
the'smallend'oftherod.Theconnectingrodisjoinedtothecrankshaft,atthecrankpins
byalargecircularbearingcalledthe'bigend'.
Thecrankshaftconvertsthelinearmotionofthepistonintorotarymotion.Ittransmits
torque,theengine'sturningmoment,tothepropellerandprovidesthedriveforaccessories.

Thejournals,whicharethemainpartofthecrankshaft,aresupportedinthe'main'bearingswithin
thecrankcase.
Thecrankpinsareoffsetfromthejournalsbyadistancetermedthe'crankthrow'.The
crankthrowdeterminesthepistonstroke,andtherearetwo'throws'toonestroke.
TheFigureshowsaplanviewofthepistons fittedtoacrankshaftinahorizontally
opposed
engine,viatheconnecting rods.Theviewshowstwofrontpistons,thoseontheleftofthe
picture,bothatbottomdeadcentre,whilethetworearpistons,thoseontherightofthepicture,are
bothattopdeadcentre.

Thecylinderheadisgenerallymadeofaluminiumalloyandisfinnedtoimproveheatdissipation.
Itsealsoneendofthecylindertoprovideacombustionchamberforthemixture.
Thecylinderheadaccommodatesthevalvesandthesparkingplugsandsupportsthevalve

rockerarms.Thevalverockerarmsareoperatedindirectlybyacamshaft(orshafts)whichis
ashaftwitheccentriclobesmachinedonit.Thecamshaftisdrivenbythecrankshaftathalfthe
crankshaftspeed.
Thecamshaftisdrivenathalfcrankshaftspeedbecauseeachvalveisrequiredtoopenandclose
onlyonceperworkingcycle,thatis,onceeverytworevolutionsofthecrankshaft.
The'accessoryhousing',anexampleofwhichisshowninFigure3.13,isacasingmountedat
therearoftheblock.Itenclosesthedrivegeartrainsforthecamshafts.thefuel,oil,pneumaticand
vacuumpumps,electricgenerator,magnetosandtachometer.

3.5 Power Output as a Function of RPM

Duringthefourstrokes,thechangingpressureswithinthecylindercanbemeasuredandindicated
graphicallyonadevicewhichproducesan'indicatordiagram'.Thisdeviceisonlyusedduringthe
developmentstageofanengine.

TheFigureshowsanindicatordiagram.Theareawithinthepowercolumnrepresentsworkdoneonthe
pistonduringthepowerstroke.
Theblueareasrepresentworkdonebythepistonincompressingthegasesandexhaustingthe
cylinderagainstexhaustbackpressurethatis,thepressurewhichtheatmosphereexertsagainstthe
outflowinggases.
Subtractingthesumofthebluecolouredareasfromtheareawithinthepowercolumnleavestheredblock.
Theredblockisindicativeofthe'averagepressure'duringtheworkingcycle.Thisistermedthe
'IndicatedMeanEffectivePressure'orIMEP.

'IndicatedMeanEffectivePressure'orIMEP.
WecanusetheIndicatedMeanEffectivePressureintheformula,shownbelow,whichallowsusto
determinetheIndicatedHorsePower(IHP)ofourparticularengine.

Intheformula,the'P'representstheIndicatedMeanEffectivePressureinpoundspersquareinch.
Howeverwearestillrequiredtodetermineseveralothervalues.
The'L'representsthelengthofthestrokeinfeet,thelengthofthestrokebeingthedistancethepiston
movesbetweenTopDeadCentreandBottomDeadCentre.
'A\iscrosssectionaltheareaofthecylinderinsquareinches.
'N'isthenumberofcylindersthattheenginepossesses.
'EistheeffectiveworkingstrokesperminuteortheRPMoftheengine.

33,000isaconstantusedtochangefootpoundsofworkperminuteintohorsepower.OneHorse
Powerequals33,000footpoundsperminute,
Bearinginmindthat,foragivenengine,onlyonefunctionoftheformulaisvariable,thatistheRPM
oftheengine,itislogicaltoassumethatenginepoweroutputisdirectlyproportionaltoRPM:
increasetheenginespeedandthepoweroutputIncreasesdecreasetheenginespeedandthepower
outputfalls.

Compression Ratio.
Thecompressionratioofanengineistheratioofthetotalvolumeenclosedinacylinderwiththe
pistonatBottomDeadCentre,tothevolumeremainingattheendofthecompressionstrokewiththe
pistonatTopDeadCentre.Thisratioisshownasaformulaoverleaf.

TheTotalVolumeoftheengineisthesumoftheSweptVolumeandtheClearanceVolume.

Anexamplewillhelptoclarifytheterm.IftheSweptVolumeofanengineis1800cubiccentimeters,
anditsClearanceVolumeis300cubiccentimeters,whatisthecompressionratiooftheengine?
FirstwemustaddtheSweptandClearanceVolumestoobtaintheTotalVolume.So1800plus300is
2,100.
ThenwemustdividetheTotalVolumebytheClearanceVolume.2,100dividedby300is7.
Thus,thecompressionratiooftheengineis7to1.

4 AERO DIESEL ENGINES

4.1 The Begginings of Aero Diesel Engines

Despitetheirexcellentspecificfuelconsumption,dieselengineshavenotbeenwidelyusedas
aircraftenginesduetotheirpoorpowertoweightratio.However,asearlyas1929thePackard
MotorCompanyofAmericadevelopedadieselengineespeciallyintendedtopoweranaircraft.
Theinauguralflightoftheaircraftenginecombination,calledthe'StinsonDetroiter',showninFigure
3a.1,wasfromDetroitinMichiganState,toLangleyFieldintheStateofVirginia.

Theaircraftaccomplishedthetripatanaveragespeedofeightyfivemilesanhour,throughadverse
weather.Thestraightlinedistanceis560miles,butthisaircraft,infightingitswayaroundandthrough
extremelybadweather,travelledapproximately650miles.Thecostofthefuelfortheflight,in1929
terms,was$4.68.

Butuntilrecentlydieselengineswerelesspowerfulthanaircraftpetrolengines,andmuchheavier.
Sincethe1980s,however,therehasbeenagreatstepforwardinthedevelopmentandproduction
ofaviationdieselengines.Thecommonrailfuelinjectionprinciple'(seepage57)enablesthe
relationshipbetweentheengine'smassanditspowertobecomefarmoreacceptableforaviationusage.
Asaconsequence,becauseoftheadoptionofcommonrailtechnologyanddirectfuelinjection,andalso
theuseoflightermaterialsandturbochargertechnology,dieselenginesoffermoreadvantagestothe
aviationindustrynowthantheypreviouslycould.

The Advantages of Aircraft Diesel Engines.

Aircraftdieselenginesarecheapertooperatefromtwopointsofview.Firstofalltheyuse
AviationTurbineFuel,alsoknownasAVTURorJetA1fuel,whichissubstantiallyless
expensivethanaviationgasoline,andtheyuseconsiderablylessofit.Alightaircraftpowered
bytwoofthesedieselenginescancarryfourpassengersatspeedsupto231mphwhileconsuming
onlyonegallonforevery19milestravelledinstillair.Iftheenginesaresettogivemaximum
economy,then42milestoeachgallonoffuelcanbeobtained.Thisgivesdieselenginedaircraftan
excellentspecificfuelconsumptionsubstantiallyincreasedrangeforacomparablevolumeoftank
age,comparedtoapetroldrivenengine.

Asmentioned,aircraftdieselenginesusethemorewidelyavailableAVTURfuel,whichisalight
cutofdieselfuel,asopposedtoaviationgasoline,aboutwhichtherearegrowingglobalconcerns
referencethatfuel'sfutureavailability,asmoreandmorerefineriesturntoproducingaviationturbine
fuel.
Aircraftdieselenginesaremoredurablethangasolineaircraftengines,andaresaferinoperation,
becauseofthereducedfireandexplosionriskfromusingAVTURfuelandthecompressionignition
principle.

4.2 The Diesel Engine

RudolfDieselobtainedtheGermanpatentfordevelopingtheideaforthedieselenginein1892.
Hisobjectivewastocreateahighlyefficientengine.Gasolineengineshadbeeninventedearlier,in
1876,butwereveryinefficientatthattime.
TheDifferencesBetweenthePetrolEngineandtheDieselEngine.
Therearetwomaindifferencesbetweenthepetrolengineandthedieselengine:
Firstly,whilethepetrolenginetakesinamixtureofgasandair,compressesitandignitesthemixture
withaspark,thedieselenginetakesinjustair,compressesitandtheninjectsafinemistofdieselfuel
intothecompressedairjustbeforethepistonreachesTopDeadCentre.Theinjectedfuelmist
mixingwiththecompressedairignitesalmostsimultaneouslybecauseofthehightemperatureof
thecompressedairandrelativelylowignitiontemperatureofthedieselfuel.Thus,itistheheatofthe
compressedairwhichignitesthefuelspontaneouslyratherthanasparkplug.Theabsenceofthe
sparkignitionsystemisabigfactorinincreasingthereliabilityofthedieselengine.

Gasolineenginesgenerallyuseeithercarburettors,inwhichtheairandfuelismixedlongbeforetheair

Gasolineenginesgenerallyuseeithercarburettors,inwhichtheairandfuelismixedlongbeforetheair
entersthecylinder,orfuelinjection,Inwhichthefuelisinjectedintotheinletportofeachcylinder
justpriortotheinductionstroke.Moderndieselengines,especiallythoseusedtopoweraircraft,
usedirectfuelinjection,whichmeansthatthedieselfuelisinjecteddirectlyintothecylinder,as
opposedtotheinletport,asisthecasewithmostfuelinjectedgasolineengines.Figure3a.3illustrates
thesedifferences.
Theinjectoronadieselenginehastobeabletowithstandthemuchhighertemperaturesand
pressuresthanitexperiencesinsidethecylinder,andyetstilldeliverthefuelinafinemistexactly
whenitisrequired.
Thesecondbigdifferencebetweenadieselengineandagasolineengineisintheinjectionprocess.
Aspreviouslystated,mostautomobilegasolineenginesuseafuelinjectionsystemoracarburettorrather
thandirectinjection.Inanautomobileenginealloftheair/fuelmixtureisfedintothecylinderduring
theinductionstrokeandthencompressedduringthecompressionstroke.
Itisthiscompressionofthefuel/airmixturewhichlimitsthecompressionratioofagasoline
engine,becauseiftheenginecompressesthemixturetoomuch,itspontaneouslydetonates,
whichisgrosslyinefficient,andcanseriouslydamagethehealthoftheengine.
Adieselenginecompressesonlytheair,thusthecompressionratiocanbemuchhigher.Thehigher
thecompressionratio,thegreaterthepowerthatisgeneratedfromagivenquantityoffuel,andthe
higherthethermalefficiencyoftheengine.
Whereasagasolineenginecompressestheair/fuelmixtureatratiosofbetween8:1to10:1,adiesel
engine,whichcompressesjusttheair,worksatratioswhichcanrangeindifferentenginesfrom14:
1toashighas25:1.Thehighercompressionratioofthedieselengineleadstomuchbetterefficiency.

Starting the Diesel Engine - The Glow Plug.

There are problems associated with starting diesel engines from cold, and because of this
some of them utilize glow plugs. Glow plugs are required because in a cold engine the
compression process may not raise the temperature of the air high enough to ignite the fuel.
When the glow plug is energised, its heated ports rise to a temperature of around 1000C. This
aids the compression-ignition process when the engine is cold. Once the engine is warm,
the glow plugs are no longer needed.
Therearetwotypesofglowpluginuse,themetaltypeandtheceramictype.Metaltypeglow
plugshavetheirheatingcoilsmountedinaheatresistantalloytube,butceramictypeglow
plugs,whichhavebeenemployedindieselenginessince1985,havetheirheaterelements
containedinaceramicmaterial,whichismadeofsiliconnitride.Becauseofthisfact,ceramictype
glowplugshaveagreaterheatresistanceanddurability.

4.3 Two Types of Fuel Injection System

Therearetwotypesoffuelinjectionsystemsusedinmodernlightdutyandmediumpowerdiesel
engines,theyarethedirectfuelinjectionandthecommonrailfuelinjectionsystems.Wewill
lookatthedirectfuelinjectionsystemfirst.

Direct Injection.
Mostlightdutydieselenginesuseanenginedriveninlinepumptodistributefuelunderhigh
pressuretoeachoftheinjectors.Theinjectorsaresituatedineachcylinderhead.Theinjectorsare
mechanicalandhavespringloadedpoppetvalves,sotheypopopenandsprayfuelwhenthefuelline
pressureexceedsacertainlimit(typically4,500poundspersquareinch).Electroniccontrolsonlate
modelinjectionpumpsregulateinjectiontiming,fuelmixtureandidlespeed.
Thepurposeofthefuelinjectionpumpistodeliveranexactlymeteredamountoffuel,underhigh
pressure,attherighttimetotheinjector.Theinjector,unlikethosefittedinagasolineengine,injects
thefueldirectlyintothecylinder,orinsomecasesaprechamberwhichisconnectedtothecylinder.

Theinjectionsystemthatdeliversfueltoadieselengineoperatesatmuchhigherpressurethana
gasolineinjectionsystem.Itcanbeashighas17,400poundspersquareinch(psi)foradirect
injectionsystemandupto23,500psiforcommonrailsystems,comparedto35to90psifor
mostgasolinefuelinjectionsystems.Thefuelisalsosprayeddirectlyintothecombustionchamber,
ratherthanintoeachcylinder'sintakeport,asisthecasewithmostgasolineinjectedengines.
Someotherfunctionsofthefuelinjectionpumpare:

Timing.
ThetimingofthefuelpulsesisadjustedinresponsetoengineRPM.AthigherengineRPM,
becausethevanetransferpump,orfeedpump,(whichpullsfuelfromthetanktotheinputofthehigh
pressuresectionofthepump),isdrivenbytheenginethefuelpressurefromthepumpishigher.

pressuresectionofthepump),isdrivenbytheenginethefuelpressurefromthepumpishigher.
Thesefuelpressurechangesareusedtoeitheradvanceorretardthetiming.Thereisalsoacold
startdevicewhichadvancestheidletimingmanually.

Governor.
Amechanicalgovernorlimitsthemaximumspeedoftheenqine.

Stop.
Amagnetvalveorsolenoidopensandshutsoffthefuelchannelbetweenthefeedpumpandthemetering
pump.

PressureSensor.
Anairinletpressuresensorisusedtodeterminethemaximumamountoffueldeliveredbythe
injectionpumpsforturbochargedengines.Onnewer,normallyaspirated,enginesasimilar
arrangementisusedforaltitudecompensation.

Common-Rail Fuel Injection Systems.

AcommonrailengineISdesignedtosupplyconstantfuelpressuretoelectronicallycontrolledinjectors
fromasharedfuelreservoir.Thismeansthatthefuelsupplyisnotdependentonenginerotational
speed.Acommonrailsystemisbuiltaroundfourbasiccomponents:
Ahighpressurepumpwithapressureregulatorandaninletmeteringvalve
Arail,orfuelfeed,whichcontainsapressurizedreserveoffuel
Injectorswhichinjectpreciseamountsoffuelintothecombustionchamberasrequired
ADieselControlUnitthe'brain'ofthesystem,whichpreciselycontrolsinjectorflowand
timing,aswellasrailpressure,whilecontinuouslymonitoringtheoperatingconditionsoftheengine

Simplyexplained,theterm'commonrail'referstothesinglefuelfeedlinefromwhichtheindividual
feedsforeachinjectoraretaken.onthecommonraildirectiruection(COl)engine.Whereas
conventionaldirectinjectiondieselenginesmustrepeatedlygeneratefuelpressureforeachinjection,
intheCOlenginesthepressureisbuiltupindependentlyoftheinjectionsequenceinahighpressure
pumpwithpressureregulatorandinletmeteringvalve.Thispressureremainspermanentlyavailable
inthefuelline.
Thecommonrail,whichcontainsapressurizedreserveoffuel,isupstreamofthecylinders.Itacts
asanaccumulator,distributingthefueltotheinjectorsataconstantpressureofupto1600bar.
Mountedinthecylinderheads,fuelinjectors,whicharereallyhighspeedsolenoidvalves,inject
preciseamountsoffuelintothecombustionchamberasrequired.Amicrocomputercontrolseach
injector'sopeningandclosinq.Thisprocedureisregulatedbyanelectronicenginemanagement
device,the'brain'ofthesystem,whichseparatelyandpreciselycontrolstheinjectiontiming,rail
pressureandtheamountoffuelinjectedforeachcylinder.Itdoesthisbyusinginformationobtained
bycontinuouslymonitoringtheoperatingconditionsoftheengine.Sensordatafromthecamshaftand
crankshaftprovidethefoundationfortheelectroniccontrolunittoadapttheinjectionpressure
preciselytodemand.
Fuel'pressuregeneration'andfuel'injection'aremanagedtotallyindependentlyofeachother.This
factorisinitselfanimportantadvantageofcommonrailinjectionoverconventionalfuelinjection
systems.

CommonRailDirectInjectionalsooffersdistinctenvironmentaladvantages,withenhanced
combustionefficiencyleadingtoreducedexhaustemissions.Thesystemproducesquieter,smoother
operationcomparedtoengineswitheitherdirectorindirectfuelinjection.

4.4 Production Diesel Engines for Aircraft

Thereareseveraldifferenttypesofaircraftdieselenginepresentlyinproduction.

The Thielert Centurion 1.7.

The'Centurion1.7',showninFigure3s.8,isdevelopedbyThielertAircraftEngines,whoarebased
inLichtenstein.Theytookafourcylinderengine,whichwasfirstusedbyMercedes,andtotally
reengineereditforuseinaircraft.AllofthecriticalpartsoftheenginewereredesignedbyThielert
andarenowmanufacturedbythem.

Itisthefirstmoderndieselenginewhichisfittedtoacertifiedairframeandscheduledforproduction
withsolidordersonthebooks.Themanufacturerssaythattheenginereducesthecostsofflyingby
70%comparedtopetrolpoweredaircraft(basedonfuelpricesinGermany).Totaloperatingcosts
foradieselengineoveritslifetimeareprojectedtobeanorderofmagnitudelessthanthatof
comparativegasolinepoweredengines.
TheCenturion1.7isaliquidcooled,turbochargedfourcylinder,fourvalve,inlineenginewith
commonrailfuelinjection.Itdevelops135hpand302.4Ibftoftorque.Displacementis1.68liters,
andithasacompressionratioof18:1.ItispresentlyfittedintheDiamondStarDA40aircraft,
manufacturedbyDiamondAircraftIndustries.
Althoughratedatonly135hp,theCenturion1.7canreplacemorepowerfulpetrolenginesbecauseit
providesmorestaticthrust.Staticthrustisthethrustdevelopedwhenthethrottleisfullyopenedwith
theaircraftstationaryandthebrakesapplied.CruisefuelconsumptionfortheCenturion1.7is1520
litersperhour.

The SMA 305.

SMA,aFrenchenginemanufacturer,haveproducedtheSR305whichwasfirstcertifiedforthe
Cessna182In2003.TheSMA305ISalsocurrentlycertifiedforarangeoflightaircraft,including
theMauleM7,theVulcanairrange,theSOCATATB20andthePiperPA28.Thishorizontally

opposedaircooledfourcylinderenginedevelops200hpataltitudesofupto10000ft,andisaimed
atreplacinggasolineenginesinthe180250hprange.

The DeltaHawk DH160 and 200.

DeltaHawkInc.havedevelopedtwostroketurboandsupercharged,intercooledfourcylinder
dieselenginesdeveloping160and200hpAgain,pitchedtocompetewiththeLycominggasoline
enginesofsimilarpower,theyareunderqomqtestingwithaviewfortypecertificationforarangeof
differentaircraftmanufacturers

Other Aero Diesel engines.

OthermanufacturerscurrentlydevelopingAeroDieselenginesforcertificationincludeUK
manufacturersWllksch,AmericanmanufacturersTextronLycomingandTeledyneContinental,and
GermanmanufacturersZoche

4.5 Principle of Operation of The Diesel Engine

Basicdieselengineoperationisasfollows:Airiscompressedinthecombustionchamberbeforethe
fuelisinjected.ThecompressionratioofthedieselengineISmuchhigherthanthatofitsgasoline
equivalent.(between14and25to1,asopposedtoabout12to1inhighperformancegasolineengines).
Thishighcompressionratiocausestheairtemperaturetoriseabovetheflashpointofthefuel.When
thefuelisthenintroducedintothecombustionchamber.itmixeswiththeairandcombusts
spontaneously.
Thepressuregeneratedbytheexpansionofthegasesasthemixtureburnspushesthepistondown.The
connectingrodtransfersthelinearmotionthusinducedtothecrankshaft.whichtranslatesItintorotary
motion.
Incontrasttothepetrolengine,thepowerofthedieselengineisactuallycontrolledbytheamountoffuel
thatisintroducedintothecombustionchamber,whiletheamountofairremainsconstant.
Inthepetrolengine,boththeamountofairandtheamountoffuelarechangedinresponseto
throttleposition,theamountoffuelbeingfurtheralteredbythepositionofthemixturecontrol
lever.Themixturecontrolleverofthepetrolengineisrequiredtomaintainabalancebetween
theamountoffuelandairbeingallowedintothecombustionchamberinorderthata
reasonablefuelconsumptioncanbemaintainedwhilestillkeepingthespectreofdetonationatbay.
Becausethefuelisnotinjectedintoadieselengineuntiltheactualrequiredmomentofcombustion,
detonationinthistypeofengineisnotaproblem.Dieselenginesdonotusuallyoperateatthe
stoichiometricratio.(Thestoichiometricratioistheairfuelratioinanenginewhereallofthefueland
alloftheoxygenisburntcompletely.)Ifthereismoreairthanisrequired,agasolineenginewillrun
weak.Ifthereismorefuelthanisrequired,thenthegasolineenginewillrunrich.Dieselengines
alwaysrunonaweakmixture,theactualmixturestrengthdependingonthepowersetting.
Inthepetrolengine,theengineischokedbythethrottlevalveatalltimeswhenitisnotoperatingat
fullthrottle,whichlimitsitsefficiency.Withnothrottlevalvethedieselengine'sintakeisfullyopen
allthetimeresultinginamuchhigherefficiency.

4.6 Diesel Engine Fuels

Dieselfuelisaformoflightfueloil,verysimilartokerosene.Mostaircraftdieselengineswilluse
regularAVTUR,otherwiseknownasJetA1,aswellascommercialdieselfuel.
AVTURisnotaverygoodlubricant,aproblemwhichhastobeespeciallyaddressedinthefuelpumps
usedongasturbineengines.Thefuelpumpsusedonaircraftdieselenginesarenoexceptionthey
havetobespeciallydevelopedforusewithAVTUR.
AlthoughantiicingadditivesareusedinAVTUR,theymaynotbeincludedinsomeoftheotherfuels
whichcanbeusedintheaviationdieselengine.Thereisaquestion,whichisstillunresolvedatthetime
ofwriting,astowhetherornottoallowantiicingadditivestobeusedintheseotherfuels.Anti
icingadditiveswouldovercomeatendencywhichkerosenelikefuelshavetoabsorbmorewater
thandoesaviationgasoline,buttheuseoftheseadditivesisbeingcurtailedinsomecountriesfor
environmentalreasons.Theabilityofthefueltoflowinextremelylowtemperatureconditionsmust
alsobeensured,andnewrequirementsregarding'CetaneNumber'mustbespecifiedforkerosenejet
fuelwhichiscurrentlyunspecified.
The'CetaneNumber'isameasureoftheignitionqualityofadieselfuel.Itisoftenmistakenasa
measureoffuelquality.The'CetaneNumber'isactuallyameasureofafuel'signitiondelay.Thisis
thetimeperiodbetweenthestartofinjectionandstartofcombustionofthefuel.Inaparticulardiesel
engine,highercetanefuelswillhaveshorterignitiondelayperiodsthanlowercetanefuels.Usingthe
appropriatecetaneratedfuelinadieselengineiscriticaltodevelopingthepowerofthatengine.

4.7 Conclusion
Historicallydieselengineswerenotwidelyusedaspowerplantsforaircraft.becausealthoughtheir
specificfuelconsumptionwasmuchlowerthanthatofequivalentpetrolengines,theyweresimply
tooheavyforthepowerdeveloped.However,therapidimprovementinautomobilediesel
technologyhasmeantthathigherpowerweightratiosarenowbeingachievedand,so,themodern
dieselengineismuchmoresuitableforuseinaircraft.
Thisfact,coupledwiththeincreasingcostofaviationgasoline(AVGAS)hasledtoincreasing
interestindieselpoweredlightaircraftbyprivateownersandflyingtrainingorganisations.

5 ENGINE COOLING

5.1 Air Cooling

Thepistonengineisaheatengine.Itspurposeistoconverttheenergyreleasedfromburningfuel
intomechanicalenergy,and,bysodoing,generateusablepower.Thethermalefficiencyofalight
aircraftpistonpetrolenginemayreach30percent.This,however,meansthat70percentoftheheat
energyreleasedbythefueliswasted.Around40percentwillleavewiththeexhaustgas,but30
percentstaysbehindtoraisethetemperatureoftheenginecomponentsandtheoil.

Overheating.
Ifnothingweredonetoalleviatetherisingtemperatureoftheengine,severalproblemscouldoccur:
Enginecomponentscouldstarttofailstructurally.
Theoilcouldbreakdownandloseitslubricatingproperties.(Youwilllearnmoreaboutthisin
thechapteronlubrication.)
Thefuelcouldigniteassoonasitentersthecylinder,beforethesparkplugfiresthisiscalled
preignition.

Preignitioncauseslossofpowerandmayexacerbatetheoverheating
problem.Theincomingmixturemaygettoohot,whichwillcauseunstablecombustion,usually
calleddetonation,
orknocking.(Youwilllearnmoreaboutthisinthechapteroncarburation.)
Detonationwillalsocauselossofpowerandfurtheroverheating,andpossibledamagetothe
engine.

Overcooling.
Theproblemsassociatedwithoverheatingareperhapsobvious,butwhatproblemscanbecausedby
overcooling?Wehavefirsttorememberthatmaximumthermalefficiencyisonlyachievedat
highenginetemperatures,sotheengineneedstobekeptashotaspossiblewithoutcausingtheproblems
mentionedintheparagraphon'Overheating'.

Alowenginetemperaturealsoincreasestheviscosity(theinternalfriction)oftheoilwhichwill
reducetheBrakeHorsePower.Apilotmust,therefore,keeptheenginetemperature,andthustheoil
temperature,fairlyhigh,butnotsohighthattheoilbreaksdown.

Inordertoburn,thefuelmustvaporize.Verylowenginetemperatureswouldpreventcompletefuel
vaporization.Somefuelwouldnotbeburnt,reducingthepoweroutputoftheengine.

5.2 Cooling Systems

Inordertoworkefficiently,theengineneedstobeatthehighesttemperatureconsistentwithsafe
operation.
Tomaintaintheenginetemperaturewithinarangewhichwillsatisfyitsworkingrequirementsa
coolingsystemisrequired.Mostlightaircraftenginesareaircooled.Thesimplicityofanaircooled
coolingsystemmakesitvirtuallymaintenancefreeanditismuchlighterthanthealternative,theliquid
coolingsystem.However,theliquidcoolingsystemismoreefficient,givesmoreprecisecontrolof
enginetemperatureandgenerateslessdrag.Manyhighperformancepistonengines,therefore,
especiallythosewhichpoweredmilitaryaircraftduringandafterWorldWar2,employedliquidcooling
systems.

5.3 Factors Affecting Cooling

Ambient Air Temperature.
Oneofthemajorfactorsgoverningtheefficiencyofanaircooledsystemistheambientair
temperature.Althoughtheambientairtemperaturecanvarywidelywithchangesinclimateandaltitude,
itmustbeborneinmindthatdissipationoftheheatwillbemorerapidasairtemperaturedecreases.

Airspeed.
Thespeedoftheairflowistheothermajorfactoraffectingtheefficiencyoftheaircoolingsystem.
Uncontrolled,thespeedoftheairflowoverthecylinderswillvarywiththespeedoftheaircraftand
causethetemperatureofthecylinderstofluctuateaccordingly.Obviously,aircoolingisleasteffective
athighpowersettingsandlowairspeed.Consequently,enginetemperatureshavetobemonitored
closelyintheclimb,especiallyiftheclimbisprolonged.

Engine Materials.
Severalmethodsofimprovingtheefficiencyofcoolingsystemscanbeemployed.Firstly,theengine
componentsaremadeofmaterialswithahighconductivity,forinstancecylinderheadsare
sometimesmadefromaluminiumalloys,aluminiumbeingagoodconductorofheat.

Fins.
Thewallsofthecylindersarefinnedtoincreasethecoolingarea.Thefinsarethininsectionand
maybeextendedatlocalhotspots,suchastheexhaustports,toincreasetheirarea,inordertoachieve
aneventemperature.

Oil.
Theoilusedtolubricatetheengineisalsoacoolingmedium,sotheamountofoilintheenginemustbe
withinlimits.

The Engine Cowling.

Theengineisstreamlinedbysurroundingitwithacowling.Thisenclosestheenginewithina
controllableenvironmentandalsoreducesdrag.

Baffles.
Baffles(seeFigure4.5)aredirectionalairguideswhichdirecttheairflowinanefficientmanneraroundthe
cylinders.Bafflesmustbeclosefittingandaresealedagainst,thecowlingtoensurethatallofthe
airflowisoverthecylindersandthateachpartofthecylinderissuppliedwithequalamountsofcooling
air.
CowlFlapsOrGills.

CowlflapsandGillscanbefittedtothecowlingstoensurecontrolofthetemperature.Theyareusually
manuallycontrolledonlightaircraft,and,whenopen,theairflowoverthemcausesapressuredrop
whichacceleratestheairflowwithinthecowlings.

5.4 Procedures to Ensure Adequate Cooling

Priortoflight,theairinletandoutlettothecowlingsmustbecheckedtoensurethattheyareclearof
obstruction.
Theconditionofbafflesandcowlingmustbechecked.
Theoperationofthecowlflaporgill,iffitted,mustbechecked.
Checktheengineoillevel.Rememberthataswellaslubricatingtheengine,oilplaysanimportantpartin
enginecooling.
Athighpowersettingsandlowairspeeds.suchasthoseoccurringattakeoff,thecowlflaps(gills)
shouldbeselectedopeninordertoincreasetheflowrateoverthecylinders,andsoincreasecooling.
Intheclimbandcruisethecowlflapsorgillscanbeadjustedtomaintaintheenginetemperatureatthe
optimum.
Indescent,enginepowerisreducedandlessheatisgenerated.Averyrapiddescentwill
overcooltheengine,andthiscanleadtowhatisknownasThermalShock.ThermalShockisthename
giventocrackingasaresultofrapidtemperaturechange.Overcoolinginthedescentcancauseengine
componentstocontractatdifferentrates,and,thus,canresultintheirfailure.Thereforethecowl
flaps(gills)shouldbeclosedduringdescenttoreducethecoolinqeffect.Thecowlflaps(gills)should
beopenedonfinalapproachincasethepilotisrequiredtogoaround.Ifnocowlflaps(gills)arefitted,
thepilotshouldincreaseengineRPMforabriefperiod,atregularintervalsduringthedescent,inorder
toavoidovercoolingoftheengine.
Duringgroundrunning,engineoiltemperaturesandcylinderheadtemperaturesshouldbeclosely
monitoredtoensurethelimitationsarenotexceeded.Althoughinitiallyafterenginestartthecowl
flaps(gills)shouldbeclosedtoencouragequickenginewarmup,theyshouldsubsequentlybeopened
topreventoverheating.
Duringflight,especiallyduringalongclimbatfullpower,monitortheoiltemperatureandcylinderhead
temperatureclosely.Ifthecylinderheadtemperaturebecomesexcessive,thereareseveralmethods
ofcoolingtheengine.Obviously,ashasjustbeenstated,thecowlflaps(gills)canbeopened.Perhaps
lessobviously,themixturecanbemadericher.Witharichmixture,theexcessfuelwillevaporateand
coolthecharge.Areductioninenginepowerwilltendtolowerenginetemperatures.Anincrease
inforwardspeedwillhavethesameeffect.

6 ENGINE LUBRICATION

6.1 Primary Task of The Lubrication System

Reducing Friction.
Enginecomponentswhichmoveagainsteachotheraresubjecttofriction.Frictionofthiskind
causesenginepowertobewasted,andleadstowearoftheenginecomponents.

Frictioncanbereducedbyintroducingalubricantbetweenthemovingsurfaces.Inthecaseof
aviationenginesthelubricantisoil.Anenginethatrelieson'PressureLubrication'requirestheoilto
beforcedbetweenthemovingpartsatrelativelyhighpressure.Alternativelythecomponentscan
be'SplashLubricated':inasystemwherebythemovingpartsaresplashedbyoilwhichhasbeen
thrownaroundthecrankcaseoftheenginebythemovingpartsthemselves.
Theprimarytaskoftheoilinanenginelubricationsystemistoreducefrictionandwear.Buttheoil
alsohasanumberofsecondaryfunctionswhichareextremelyImportant.

6.2 Secondary Tasks of The Lubrication System

Cooling.
PerhapsthemostImportantofthesecondarytasksisthatofcooling011flowingthrough
theengineabsorbsheatwhichisthendissipatedthroughanoilcooler..Withouttheoilcooler,
thetemperatureoftheoilwouldriseuncontrollably untiltheoilbrokedownandlostitslubricating
ability.

Cleaning.

Astheoilflowsthroughtheengineitcarriesawaythebyproductsofcombustionandthuscleansthe
enginetoo.AfilterliketheoneshowninFigurewillremovecontaminantsfromtheoil.Inthis
waytheoilactsasadetergent.Mostofthecomponentsoftheengineareferrousinnatureand
will,ifleftaloneinadampoxygenatedatmosphere,corrode,oroxidlse.Theoilpreventsthis
corrosionbyexcludingtheoxygenfromthesurfaceofthemetal.

The Oils as a Hydraulic Medium.

Theoilcanactasahydraulicmedium,forinstance,whenusedasthehydraulicfluidinavariablepitch

propellermechanism,orwithinhydraulictappets.

The Oil as an Indicating Medium.

Oilcanalsoactasanindicatingmedium,givinginformationtothepilotaboutengineconditionand
poweroutput,by,forinstance,showingtheoilpressureandtemperatureongaugesinthecockpit.

6.3 Type of Lubrication System

Therearetwotypesoflubricationsystemincommonuse.Theyarethewetsumpsystemand
thedrysumpsystem.
Mostlight'nonaerobatic'aircraft,liketheoneshownintheFigure,usethewetsumpsystem,
wheretheoilisstoredinthebottomoftheengine,inanenginecomponentwhichisusually
calledthesump.Itisfromtheword"sump"thatwegetthenamesofthetwolubricationsystems.

6.4 The Wet-Sump System

Theuseofawetsumpsimplifiestheconstructionoftheengine,butleadstoanumberof
disadvantageswhichwewilldiscusslater.Inthewetsumpenginetheoiliscirculatedbythe
pressurepump. Theoilthenpassesthroughahighpressurefilterintointernaldrillingsinthecrankcase.
Theseinternaldrillingsarecalledthe'oilgallery'.
Ductsintheoilgallerytransferthepressureoiltoprovidelubricationforthevariousdrivesinthe
accessorycasingandalsothemaincrankshaftbearings
Annulargroovesarecutinthemainbearingsandthesearealignedwithtransversedrillingsinthe
crankshaftitself.Theannulargroovesfillwithpressureoil,whichisforcedthroughthetransverse
drillingsinthecrankshaft,viathecrankpins,intothebigendbearings.
Oildropletswhicharesqueezedfrombetweenthebearingsurfaceswillcollidewiththecrankshaftasit
rotates,causingtheinsideofthecrankcasetobefilledwithafineoilmist.Thisoilmistwillprovidesplash
lubricationforthecylinderwalls,thepistons,thesmallendbearings,gearteethandvalvemechanismset
cetera.
Lubricationforthevalvegearrockerarmsisfedthroughexternaloilpipelines.

Disadvantages of The Wet-Sump System.

Thefirstdisadvantageofthewetsumpsystemisthattherearelubricationdifficultiesduring
someaerobaticmanoeuvres,suchasstallturnsandinvertedflight.Duringextreme
manoeuvres,oilisthrownaroundinsidetheenginesump.Thiscausespartsoftheenginetobe
underlubricated,whichcandamagecomponents.Likewise,partsoftheenginecanbeover

lubricated,whichcanbeequallyhazardous,potentiallycausingadamagingbuildupofoil
pressure.

Theseconddisadvantageofthewetsumpsystemisthatthetemperatureoftheoilismoredifficult
tocontrol,becauseitisstoredwithintheengineinthesump,whichitselfishot.
Thethirddisadvantageofthewetsumpsystemisthattheoilbecomesoxidisedandblackenedbythe
continualstirringactionofthecrankshaftandconnectingrods.Thismeansthattheoilandtheoil
filterhavetobechangedmuchmoreoftenthanwouldbethecaseinadrysumpengme.

Finally,theamountofoilavailableISlimitedbythesumpcapacityThesumpofawetsumpengine
isthecontainerfortheoilsupply,anditssizeisdeterminedbytheoriginalenginedesign.whichin
practicaltermscannotbechanged

6.5 The Dry - Sump System

Thedrysumpsystemovercomesalloftheproblemsofawetsumpsystembystoringtheoilinaremotely
mountedtank.

System Components.
Theoiltankismadeofsheetmetal,suitablybaffledinternallyinordertostoptheoilsurgingaround
whiletheaircraftismaneouvring.

The Tank.

Wheneverpossiblethetankisplacedabovetheleveloftheenginetoensureagravityfeedintothe
engine.Thetankformsareservoirofoillargeenoughfortheengine'srequirements,plusanairspace.
Theairspaceisveryimportant,allowingforseveralpotentiallyhazardouslubricationsituations.For
instance,theairspacepermitstheexpansionoftheoilwhenitgetshot,asitinevitablywill.Also
frothingoftheoilduetoaerationasitflowsaroundtheenginewilloccur,requiringagreatervolumeof
spaceinthetank.
Anothersituationwhichrequirestheairspaceariseseverytimetheengineisshutdown.Afterengine
shutdown,thewallsofthecrankcasearesaturatedwithoilthatdrainsintothesump.Theoilwillremain
thereuntiltheengineisrestarted,whenthescavengepump,whichisfittedatthebottomofthesump,
willreturntheoiltotheoiltank.Therehastobesufficientroominthetanktoaccommodatethe
returnedoil.Finally,iftheenginehasanyoiloperateddevicesfittedtoit,suchasavariablepitch
propeller,thedisplacedoilcausedbythesemechanismshastogosomewhere,andthetankservesasthe
receptacleforit.

The Pressure Pump.

Thepressurepump(seeFigure5.8)consistsoftwodeeptoothedspurgearsrotatinginaclosefitting
pumpcasing.Itisfittedontheaccessorycasingandisdrivenfromthecrankshaftbygears.
Oilpressureissensedattheoutletofthepressurepump.

Therefore,tomaintaintheoilpressureconstantduringnormalenginerunningconditions,
andalsotopreventexcessiveoilpressureinthesystem,apressurereliefvalveisfittedacrosstheinlet
andtheoutletpipesofthepump.
Whenthepressurereachesapredeterminedfigure,thevalveopensandsufficientoilisreturnedto
theinletsideofthepumptolimitthemaximumoilpressure.Acoarsewiremeshsuctionfilteris
fittedbetweenthetankandthepressurepump.Itisdesignedtoremovelargesolidparticlesfromthe
oilbeforeitentersthepressurepump,andthuspreventdamagetothepump.
Thepressurefilterisfitteddownstreamofthepressurepump,beforetheoilenterstheengine.The
pressurefilterisdesignedtoremoveverysmallsolidparticlesbeforetheoilpassestothebearingsurfaces,
againpreventingdamagetotheengine.
Thescavengepumpreturnstheoilwhichhaspassedthroughtheengineintothesumpbacktothe
oiltank.Essentiallythescavengepumpisthesamedesignasthepressurepump,butlarger.Thisis
becauseinordertomaintainadrysump,thescavengepumpneedstobeofalargercapacitythanthe
pressurepump.

The Oil Cooler.

Oilisusedasacoolingmediumintheengine.Iftheoilgetstoohotthenitwillfailasalubricant
and,asaconsequence,theenginewillalsofail.Topreventtheoiltemperaturebecomingtoohigh,
anoilcoolerisintroducedintothesystem.Theoilcoolerconsistsofamatrixblockwhichforcesthe
oilintoathinfilmasitpassesthroughit.Thecoolermatrixisexposedtotheflowofcoldslipstreamair
whichisdirectedthroughthecowlings.
Engineswithahighpoweroutputmayhaveshuttersfittedtotheoilcooler.Theshuttersareused
tocontroltheflowofairthroughthecooler.Theycanbemanualorautomaticinoperation.
Priortoenginestart,theengineoilwillnormallybecoldandviscous.Thecoolermatrixisfairly
delicatelyconstructedandcaneasilybedamagedbyhighinternalpressures.Topreventdamageto
thecoolermatrix,anantisurgevalve,whichissensitivetooilpressure,isplacedinparallelwiththe
oilcooler(seeFigure5.6).Thearjtlsurqevalveallowscoldthickoiltobypassthecoolerandreturn
directlytothetank.

6.6 Qualities and Grades of Oil

Differentenginesoperatingindifferentambientconditionswillneeddifferentgradesofoil.The
gradeofanoilismainlydictatedbyitsviscosity.
Viscosityisdefinedasthemeasureoftheinternalfrictionofafluid.Aliquidthatflowsfreelyhasa
lowviscosity,andafluidthatflowssluggishlyhasahighviscosity.
Therearevariousstandardsemployedtodeterminetheviscosityofoilsinorderthatdifferentoilsmay
becompared.
Thetwostandardswhicharegenerallyemployedinaviationarethe'SocietyofAutomobile
Engineers'orSAEandthe
'SayboltUniversal'.Bothsystemsusenumberstodenotetheviscosity,thelowerthenumber,thethinner
theoil.

Someoilshavetwoviscosityvalues.Forexample,SAE15/50.Oilswithtwoviscosityvalues
arecalled'MultigradeOils'.Multigradeoilshavethecharacteristicsoflowviscosityatlow
temperatures,andhighviscosityathightemperatures.
Thetypeofoilnormallyusedinaircraftpiston enginesismineralbased.However,someengine
manufacturershavetrialedandapprovedtheuseof'SemiSynthetic'oils.

Ifanoilcontainsnoadditivesitiscalleda'Straight'oil.Astraightoilcanberecognisedbythefact
thatitonlyhasanidentificationnumber.Forinstance,thebottlewiththebluelabelmarked'Oil
80'inFigure5.10containsastraightoil.NotethattheoilhasaviscosityratingofSAE40.Generally
speaking,astraightoilisusedonlywhenrunninginnewengines.However,therearecertain
requirementsofsomeenginesthatstraightoilscannotmeet.
Tosatisfysuchrequirements,additivesmustbemixedwiththeoil.Theseadditivescantaketheform
ofantioxidants,detergentsandoilinessagents.
Oilswithadditivesarecalled'Compound'oils.Acompoundoilofthesameviscosityasthestraightoil
shownpreviously,SAE40,wouldbekeptinacontainermarkedW80,liketheonewiththeredlabelin
Figure5.10.Thisparticularoilisusedwherespecificcleaningqualitiesarerequired.

6.7 Oil pressure and Temperature

Oilpressureandtemperaturereadings,wheninterpretedcorrectly,areindicativeofthemechanical
integrityofengineoperation.Ascanoftheaircraftinstrumentsmustalwaysincludethesevitalitems.
Theinformationtheygivemayenablethepilottotakeactionwhichwillpreventabadsituation
gettingmuchworse.

Aspartofthepreflightcheck,thepilotmustverifythattheoilcontentsaresufficientforthe
flightthatistobeundertaken. Theoilfillercapmustbesecureandathoroughcheckmadetoensure
thattherearenooilleaks.
Afterenginestarttheoilpressuregaugemustindicatethecorrectoilpressurewithinaspecified
time.Iftheengineisstartedfromcold,theoilpressuremayinitiallyseemexcessivelyhigh.
However,aslongastheoilpressuredropstonormalastheenginewarmsup,theinitialhighpressure
readingcanbeconsideredacceptable.

Iftheaircrafthasadrysumpengine,itsoilcontentsmustbecheckedimmediatelyaftertheenginehas
stopped:realisticallywithinafewminutesofshutdown.Thisensuresthatthetankcontentsare
recordedaccuratelybeforetheoilmigratesintothesumpundertheinfluenceofgravity.If,onthe
otherhand,theenginehasawetsump,aperiodof15to20minutesmustelapsebeforethecontentsare
checked,toallowalloiltoreturntothesump.

checked,toallowalloiltoreturntothesump.

6.8 Hydraulicing
Radialandinvertedenginescansufferfromaconditionknownas'hydraulicing'.Hydraulicing
happensifoilaccumulatesbetweenthepistonandthecylinderheadinthecylindersatthebottomofthe
engine.
Becauseoilisincompressible,ifitistrappedbetweenthepistonandthecylinderheadonthe
compressionstroke,ahydrauliclockwillbeformed.Ifthishappens,severedamagemayoccurwhen
thestartermotorisbeingusedtostarttheengine.Thepistonmightbreak,theconnectingrodmightbend,
thecylindermaybetornfromthecrankcase,orthecrankshaftmaybreak.
Topreventhydraulicing,theenginemustberotatedbyturningthepropeller,afterconfirmingthat
themagnetosareOFFbeforethepropelleristouched.

6.9 Oil System Malfunctions

Therearefourmainindicationsassociatedwithafailureofthelubricationsystem:
Oilpressuretoohigh
Oilpressuretoolow
Fluctuatingoilpressure
Oilpressurefallingtozero

Oil Pressure Too High.

Toohighanoilpressure,withnormaloiltemperature,maybecausedbythepressurerelief
valvebeingsetincorrectly.Butthisisunlikelyunlessthecomponenthasbeenworkedonjust
priortotheflightIf,ontheotherhand,theoiltemperatureislow,thehighoilpressuremaybe
causedbytherelativelyhighviscosityoftheoilatlowtemperatures makingitdifficultfortheoilto
passthroughtheengine.Theoilpressurereliefvalvemaybeunabletocontrolthesituationcompletely
untiltheoiltemperaturerises.But,aslongastheoilpressuredropstonormalastheenginewarms
up,theinitialhighpressurecanbeconsideredacceptable.However,ifthepressureindicationis
veryhigh,andremainshighevenaftertheoiltemperaturegaugehasindicatedaSignificant
temperaturerisetheenginemustbeshutdowntopreventdamage.

Oil Pressure Too Low.

TooIowanoilpressure,withnormalorevenlowoiltemperature,couldonceagainmeanthatthe
oilpressurereliefvalvehasbeensetincorrectly.Butagainthisisunlikelyunlessthecomponenthas
beenworkedonjustpriortotheflight.Theproblemhereismorelikelytobeexcessiveclearancein
thebearings.duetowear.Potentiallyevenworseisanoilleakfromtheoutputsideofthepressure
pump.

Iftheminimumoilpressurecannotbemaintained,theenginemustbeshutdowninordertoprevent
damage.
Iftheoilpressureistoolow,withanassociatedhighoiltemperature,thenthisisprobablyduetothe
temperaturecausingtheviscosityoftheoiltodropbelowtheviscosityvalueatwhichtheoilpressure
reliefvalvecancope.Remember,thetaskofthereliefvalveistomaintainconstantengineoilpressure,
regardlessofengineR.P.M.oroiltemperature.
Iftheengineisfittedwithoilcoolershutters,theycanbeopenedinanattempttolowertheoil
temperature.Ifoilcoolershuttersarenotfitted,thepilotshouldconsidereitherreducingenginepower,
orloweringthenosetoincreaseairspeed.Themixturemayalsobeenriched.Anyoralloftheseactions
canbetakentocooltheengineand,thus,cooltheoil,bringingitsviscositybackuptothevaluewherethe
lubricationsystemcanfunctionnormally.Onceagainthough,iftheminimumoilpressurecannotbe
maintained,thentheenginemustbeshutdowntopreventdamage.

Fluctuating Oil Pressure.

Smallfluctuationsoftheoilpressuregaugeneedle,eithersideofthecorrectpressure,indicationmaybe
symptomaticofastickingpressurereliefvalve.
Astickingpressurereliefvalvewouldinitiallycausethepressuretobuildupbeyond
theoptimumlevel.Subsequently,whenthepressurereachedavaluehighenoughto
overcomethe"stiction"ofthevalve,thevalvewouldopen,causingthepressuretofallmomentarily
belowthecorrectlevel.Thenthecyclewouldstartagain.
Largefluctuationsoftheoilpressuregaugeneedle,willprobablybecausedbyinsufficientoilinthe
system.Iftheenginehasbeenleakingoil,theoillevelwilleventuallydroptoapointwherethe
pressurepumpcannotsustainitsoutput.Insuchasituationpressurewilldropmomentarilyuntilthe
pumpdrawsinmoreoil.Atthispointthepressurewillriseagain,ifonlyforamoment.Again,
iftheminimumoilpressurecannotbemaintained,theenginemustbeshutdowntoprevent
damage.

Oil Pressure Falling to Zero

Iftheoilpressurefallssuddenlytozero,thepilotneedstoquicklyworkoutwhathashappened.Ifthe
minimumoilpressurecannotbemaintained,theenginemustbeshutdownimmediatelytoprevent
damage.Theprobablecauseofazeropressureindicationiseitherfailureofthepressurepumpora
catastrophiclossofoilfromthesystem.

7 IGNITION SYSTEMS

7.1 Ignition Systems

Allaircraftpistonenginesarefittedwithdualignition:thatis,theyhavetwoelectricallyindependent
ignitionsystems.Eachcylinder.therefore,hastwosparkplugs,andeachsparkplugisfedbya
separatemagneto.

Dualignitionsystemsservetwopurposes.Firstlytheyreducetheriskofenginefailuredueto
faultyignition.Secondly,byignitingthemixturewithinthecylinderattwopoints,thecombustion
timeisreduced,thusreducingthechanceofdetonation.

7.2 Magnetos
Magnetosareselfcontained,enginedrivenelectricalgeneratorswhichproducehighvoltage
sparks.Magnetosarecompletelyindependentoftheaircraftelectricalsystem.
Lowvoltagepulsesaregeneratedintheprimarycoilofthemagnetoandthesearetransformedintohigh
tensionpulsesbyasecondarycoil.Withinthemagneto,arotaryswitchcalledadistributordirects
thesparkstotheplugsInthecorrectfiringsequence.
Themagnetocombinestwobasicprinciples:thatofthepermanentmagnetgenerator,andthatofthestep
uptransformer.

Principles of the Magneto.

TheFigurebelowillustratesthefirstbasicprincipleofthemagneto:thatofthepermanentmagnet
generator.Theonlymodificationtothestandardpermanentmagnetgeneratoristheadditionofacontact
breakerwhichcollapsesthemagneticfieldintheprimarycircuitmorequicklythanwouldnormally
happeninageneratorofthistype.

Thesecondbasicprincipleofthemagneto.thatofthestepuptransformer,isutilisedinthemagneto's
secondarycircuit.Thesecondarycoilisastepuptransformerwhichconsistsofthousandsofturnsof
verythinwire.Averyhighvoltageisinducedinthesecondarywindingsbytherapidcollapseofthe
magneticlinesofforceintheprimarycircuit.

The Capacitor.
Thefasterthemagneticlinesofforcecollapsethegreateristhevoltageinducedinthesecondary
windings.
Toensurethattheprimaryfieldcollapsesasfastaspossible,andalsotopreventthecontactbreaker
pointsbeingerodedbythesparkswhichwouldoccurwhenthepointsopened,acapacitorisplacedin
parallelwiththepoints.

The Distributor.
Oncethehighvoltagesparkshavebeenproduced,theyarepassedtothesparkplugsinthecorrect
firingsequence.Thisisachievedbythedistributor,illustratedinFigure6.2.Thedistributorrotorarm
rotatesathalftheenginespeed.

Ignition Control.
Togivethepilotcontrolofthemagneto,anignitionswitchisfittedinthemagneto'sprimarycircuit.
WhentheignitionswitchisplacedtotheOFFposition,bothendsoftheprimarycoilareearthed,which
makesitimpossibleforcurrenttobegenerated.
WiththeignitionswitchintheOFFposition,theprimarycircuitisearthed.Thesecondary
circuitisnotnowcutbythemagneticlinesofforcewhichwouldotherwiseenableittogeneratethe

circuitisnotnowcutbythemagneticlinesofforcewhichwouldotherwiseenableittogeneratethe
sparks.Therefore,theignitionsystemisdead.
IfthemagnetobecomeselectricallydisconnectedfromtheignitionCircuit,apotentiallylethalsituation
arises.Themagnetoisnowpermanentlylive,andtheenginewillcontinuerunningevenifboth
magnetosareselectedOFF.
Afterenginestart,themagnetos'operationmustbecheckedInseveralways,oneofwhichisthe
DeadCutcheck.This,essentially,isachecktoascertainwhetherornotthepilothasfullcontrolofthe
magnetos.ThecheckrequiresthateachofthemagnetosbeselectedOFFinturn,tocheckthatthereisa
dropinengineRPM,butthattheenginedoesnotstop.If,duringthischeck,itappearsthattheengine
maystop,thepilotmustallowittodoso.Todootherwisemaycausetheenginetosufferdamage.
StartingtheEngineSparkAugmentation.
Duringstartup,theengineiscrankedatabout120rpmAttrusspeed,themagnetoisnotcapableof
producingsparkswithsufficientenergytoignitethemixture.Thismakesitnecessarytoemploy
variousmethodsofsparkaugmentation.Therearethreemethodsofsparkaugmentation.Theyare
thehightensionboostercoil,thelowtensionboostercoilandthemostcommonInsmaI
aircraftengines,theimpulsecoupling.

Thehightensionboostercolisuppliesastreamofhighvoltagempulsestoatrailingbrushonthe
distributorrotor.ThisensuresthatafatretardedsparkISgeneratedinthecylinderThe
retardationofthesparkisnecessaryonlyduringenginestart,becauseofthelowrotationalspeed.
Oncetheenginehasstarted,themagnetoswillproducesparksofsufficientstrength.whichallowthe
hightensionboostercoiltobeswitchedOFF.Asaconsequenceofthis,thehightensionboosterCoil
ISswitchedONonlyforenginestart.
Thelowtensionboostercoilsuppliestheprimarycoilofthemagnetowithalowvoltageduring
theenginestart.Onceagain,assoonastheenginehasstarted,thelowtensionboostercoilisswitched
OFF.

Impulse Coupling.
Theimpulsecouplingisamechanicaldevicewhichusesaspringtotemporarilyincreasethespeed
ofrotationofthemagneto.Thisgivesafatretardedsparkduringthestartingcycle.
Thediagramshowsacutawayviewoftheimpulsecouplingwithinthemagneto.
Thecamisdrivenanticlockwisebygearsfromthecrankshaftathalfthecrankshaftspeed,anddrives
thehubthroughthespring.

Thepermanentmagnetofthemagnetoisattachedtothehub,whichalsocarriesthepawls.
Initiallythecamrotates,turningthespringwhichcarriesthehubrounduntilthepawlscomeinto
contactwiththestops.Thecamcontinuestorotate,tensioningthespring,untiltheleadingedgesofthe
camscontactthepawls,pushingthemoutofcontactwiththestops.Thehub,undertheimpulseofthe
spring,rotatesveryquickly,carryingitsattachedmagnet.
Rotatingthemagnetthisquicklyenablesittogeneratethehighvoltagesparkrequiredtoignitethe
mixture.Thesparkisalsoretarded,whichensuresthattheengineisdriveninthecorrectdirection.
Oncetheenginehasstarted,thepawlsarerotatingatsuchaspeedthatcentrifugalforceholdsthemout
atananglewhichpreventsthemcontactingthestops.Thusthespringhasnofurthereffect.

8 CARBURATION

8.1 Carburation
Withasuperchargedorturbochargedengine,reducingtheboostpressureandincreasingpropeller
RPMwillalsoassistinpreventingdetonation.

Pre-ignition.
Preignitionisoftenconfusedwithdetonation,butis,infact,quitedifferent.Whereas
detonationoccursafterthenormalignitionpoint,preignition,asinferredbyitsveryname,occurs
beforethesparkisgeneratedattheplug.Preignitionisusuallycausedbyalocalhotspotinthe
combustionchamber,eitherapieceofincandescentaccumulatedcarbon,orperhapsveryhotspark
plugpoints.
Preignitionwillcauseroughrunningandaninevitablelossofpower,andmay'causetheengineto
continuerunning(runningon),aftertheignitionhasbeenturnedoff.

Practical Mixture Strengths.

Althoughthechemicallycorrectmixturestrengthwouldtheoreticallyproducethehighest
temperatureand,therefore.enginepower,inpracticemixinganddistributionarelessthanperfect.
Thissituationresultsinthemixtureinsomepartsoftheenginebeingricher,andinotherparts,being
weakerthantheoptimumstrength.Thisvariationinmixturestrengthmayalsoexistbetweenone
cylinderandanother.

The Result of Having a Slightly Rich Mixture.

Aslightlyrichmixturedoesnothavemucheffectonpowersincealltheoxygenisstillconsumed
andtheexcessoffuelsimplyservestoslightlyreducetheeffectivevolumetricefficiency.Infact,
thecoolingeffectofaslightlyrichmixturecanbetosomeextentbeneficial.

The Result of Having a Weak Mixture.

Weakmixtures,however,rapidlyreducepowersincesomeoftheinspiredoxygenisnotbeing
utilized.Thispowerreductionismuchgreaterthanthatresultingfromaslightrichnessofthe
mixture.Itis,therefore,quitecommontorunengines(whenmaximumpowerratherthanbestfuel
economyistheobjective)atsomewhatricherthanchemicallycorrectmixtures(e.g.about12.5:
1),inordertoensurethatnocylinderisleftrunningatseverelyreducedpowerfromdrawinginan
undulyweakmixture.

Mixture Control Setting.

However,mixturerequirementisultimatelydependentuponenginespeedandpoweroutput.TheFigure
belowshowstypicalair/fuelmixturecurvesfordifferentphasesofengineoperation.Thefollowing
sectionsonEngineStarting,TakeOffPower,ClimbingandCruisingrefertotheFigurebelow.

Engine Starting.

Engine Starting.
Noticethatarichmixtureisrequiredforstartingandslowrunningthisisbecausefuelwillburnonly
whenithasvaporizedandismixedwithair.
Whenstartinganenginefromcold,thereislittleheattoassistthevaporizingprocessthereforeonlythe
lightestfractionsofthefuelwillvaporize.

TomakesurethatthereissufficientfuelvapourInthecylinderstosupportcombustion,arichmixtureis
thereforerequired.

Take-off Power.
Whenfullpowerisselectedfortakeoff,themixtureissettofullyrich,thatisabout10:1.
Thismaximumchargeinducedintothecylindersinagiventimedeliversfullpower.Thefullyrich
mixtureprotectsagainstdetonationandpreignition,andalsocontributesto~nginecooling.
Butiftakingofffromanairfieldatveryhighelevations,sayintheUnitedStatesorAfrica,the
mixturemayneedtobeleanerthanfullyrich.

Climbing.
Mostlightaircraftclimbunderfullpower.Againthemixtureshouldbeselectedfullyrichforclimbsup
toabout5000ftabovesealevelAthigheraltitudes.thelessdenseaircancausethemixturetobecome
toorichfortheenginetodevelopfullpower

Cruising.
Thecruiseportionofthediagraminthefigureshowsthatthecnnsephaseofflightisthatinwhichthepilot
needstothinkaboutwhatstrengthofmixturetoset.

Iftimeisnoobject,thenduringcruisingflightonlymoderatepowerisrequiredfromtheengine.Thus
aneconomycruisesettingcanbeused.Fuelconsumptionwilldecreaseaccordingly.Ifahigh
"cruiseclimb"speedisdesired,thenperformancecruisepowercanbeselected,whichrequiresaricher
mixture.Oncecruisingaltitudehasbeenreachedandcruisepowerset,thepilotmaywishtothinkabout
leaningthemixture,tochoosethecorrectair/fuelratioforbestfueleconomy.

Density Change and Mixture Adjustment.

Becausethedensityoftheairdecreaseswithincreasingaltitude,astheaircraftclimbs,theweight
ofairdrawninto.thecylinderdecreases.Feragivenintakevelocity,thepressuredropinthe
carburetterventuriwilldecreaseasambientdensitydecreases.However,thefuelflewdueto.this
pressuredropwillnetdecreasebythesameproportion,andso.themixturewillbecomericher.
Therefore,ifwearenetto.useteemuchfuelwhenflyingataltitude,itbecomesimperativethatwe
havesomemethodofdefiningandregulatingthemixturestrength.

Setting the Mixture Control Using Engine RPM as a Guide.

Therearetwo.approvedmethodsofsettingthedesiredmixturestrength.Thefirstmethodpresumes
someknewledgeoftheeffectsthatmixturechangewillhaveentheengine.
Bearinmindthatasthemixturecontrolismovedfromfullyrichto.aweakersetting,theair/fuelratio.
approachesthechemicallycorrectvalueofapproximately15:1.Atthisratio.alloftheairandfuelare
consumedandtheheatreleasedbycombustionisatitsmaximum.Mereheatmeansmerepower,Witha
fixedpitchpropeller,theRPMwillrise,andairspeedwillincreaseasmerepowerisproduced.
Itthemixtureisweakenedevenmere,theRPMwilldrop.Pushingthemixturecontrolbackto.wherethe
chemicallycorrectmixturewasfoundwillbringtheenginespeedbackup,butthiscannotbemaintained
withoutriskingthegeneratienofdetonation.To.preventthishappening,themixturecontrolshouldbe
movedto.aslightlyricherposition,atwhichpointtheRPMwillfallslightly.Thissettingcanbe
consideredtheoptimummixturesettingforarichcruise..

Using the Exhaust Gas Temperature Gauge to Set the Mixture Control.
TheExhaustGasTemperature(EGT)gaugeconsistsofathermocouplefittedinto.the
exhaustpipeofthehottestcylinderentheengine.Thethermocoupleproducesaveltagedirectly
proportionalto.itstemperature.Thevoltaqeisindicatedonagaugecalibratedtoshowexhaust
gastemperature.
Ifthemixturecontrolismovedtowardlean,thetemperaturewillpeakattheratio.of15:1.It
shouldberememberedthatthisratio.shouldnetbeused,asdetonationcanoccur,Onreachingthe
peakEGT,themixture.controlshouldthenbemovedtowardsrichandtheexhaustgastemperature
willdrop.Theaircraft'sflightmanualwillspecifyatemperaturedropwhichwillgivetherichcruise
setting.

8.2 Principles of The Float Chamber of The Carburettor

Thesimplestsolutiontotheproblemofmaintainingthecorrectairfuelratioinresponsetothrottlesettings
atalloperatingaltitudesisthefloatchambercarburettor.

Principles of the Float Chamber Carburettor, the 'U' Tube and the Venturi.
Thefloatchambercarburettoremploystwobasicprinciples.Theyare:the'Utube'Principleandthe
VenturiPrinciple.
The'Utube'Principlestatesthatifatubeisbentintotheshapeofa'U',asinthedischargetubein
Figure7.5,andthenfilledwithliquid,thelevelinthetwolegsofthe'U'tubewillbethesame,provided
thatthepressureactingoneachendofthetubeisthesame.
If,however,apressuredifferenceiscreatedacrossthe'U'tube,theleveloftheliquidwillriseinoneof
thelegs.Inthecarburettor,thisprinciplewillcausefueltoflowthroughthedischargetube.
The'U'tubeinthecarburettor,then,isthedischargetube.Inthefloatchambercarburettor,oneleg
ofthe'U'tubeisopenedouttoformthefloatchamber,itself,andaconstantfuellevelinthechamberis
maintainedbyafloatandvalvemechanismregulatingtheflowoffuelfromafuelpump(orpumps)
deliveringasupplyfromthemainaircrafttanks.Theotherlegofthedischargetubeislocatedwithin
theVenturitubesectionofthecarburettor,sometimesreferredtoastheChokeTube.

Bernoulli's Theorem.
Bernoulli'sTheoremstatesthatthetotalenergyperunitmassalonganyonestreamlineina
movingfluidisconstant.
Themovingfluidpossessesenergybecauseofitspressure,temperatureandvelocity.Ifoneofthese
changes,oneorbothoftheothersmustalsochangetomaintainthesameoverallenergy.]

Astheairpassesthroughtherestrictionoftheventuriitsvelocityincreases,causingadropinthestatic
pressureandtemperatureoftheair.Inthecarburettor,thepressuredropatthethroatoftheventuriis
proportionaltothemassoftheairflow,andisusedtomakefuelflowfromthefloatchamberbyplacing
onelegofthedischargetubewithintheventuri.
Enginesuctionprovidesaflowofairfromtheairintakethroughtheventuriinthecarburettortothe
inductionmanifold.Thisairspeedsupasitpassesthroughtheventuri,andadropinstaticpressure
occursatthatpoint.
Atmosphericairpressureactsonthefuelinthefloatchamberwhichisconnectedtothefueldischarge
tubelocatedinthethroatoftheventuri.Atmosphericpressureis,ofcourse,higherthanthereduced
staticpressureinthecarburettor'sventuri.

Thedifferenceinpressurebetweenthefloatchamberandthethroatoftheventuriprovidestheforce
necessarytodischargefuelintotheairstream.Asairflowthroughtheventuriincreasessothestatic
pressuredropsfurther,andahigherpressuredifferentialactsonthefueltoincreaseitsflowin
proportiontotheairflow.
Inthissimplecarburettor,theairflowtotheengineiscontrolledbyathrottlevalve,andthefuelflowis
controlledbyameteringjet.
Althoughthissimplecarburettorcontainsallthecomponentsnecessarytoprovideasuitableairfuel
mixtureoveralimitedrange,modificationsarerequiredifitistogiveanythingmorethanthisbasic
service.

8.3 Improvements to The Basic Float Chamber Carburettor

The Pressure Balance Duct.
Tomaintainthecorrectrateofdischargeoffuelthroughthemainjet,thepressureinthefloatchamberand
intheairintakesectionoftheengineinductionsystemmustbeequal.
Equalizedpressureconditionscanbeobtainedonlybyconnectingthefloatchamber
directlytotheairintakebyaductwhichiscalledthepressurebalanceduct.
Asenginespeedandairflowthroughtheventuriincrease,theproportionoffueltoairrisesasaresult
ofthedifferentflowcharacteristicsofthetwofluids.
ThiscausesthemixturetobecomericherastheengineRPMincreases.Insomewaysthismaybe
lookeduponasavirtuouscombinationofevents,becauseathighenginepowerarichmixtureisneeded.
However,amethodforsettingthemixtureaccuratelyisstillrequired.

The Diffuser.
Toovercometheeffectoftheair/fuelmixturebecomingricherwithincreasingengineRPM,some
carburettorsarefittedwithadiffuser.
Asenginespeedisprogressivelyincreasedaboveidling,thefuellevelinthediffuserwelldrops,
andprogressivelyuncoversmoreairholesinthediffuser.Theseholesallowmoreairintothe
dischargetube,and,byreducingthepressuredifferential,preventenrichmentoftheair/fuelmixture.
Theprocessofdrawingbothairandfuelthroughthedischargetubealsohastheeffectofvaporizing
thefuelmorereadily,particularlyatlowenginespeeds.Thiseffectassiststhecompletecombustion
ofthefuelinthecylinders.

Slow Running Systems.

Atlowenginespeeds,thevolumeofairpassingintotheengineissosmallthatthedepressionin
thechoketube(Venturi)maybeinsufficienttodrawfuelthroughthemainjet.Aconsiderable
depressionexistsabovethethrottlevalve,andthisISutilisedtoeffectasecondsourceoffuelsupply
forslowrunningconditions.
Aslowrunningfuelpassagewithitsownjet,(calledtheslowrunningjetoridlejet)leadsfromthe
floatchambertoanoutletatthelipofthethrottlevalve.

Thestrongdepressionbetweenthelipofthethrottlevalveandtheslowrunningpassagegivesthe
necessarypressuredifferencetocreateafuelflow.
Thesizeoftheslowrunning,oridlejetissuchthatitwillprovidetherichmixturerequiredforslow
runningconditions.Anairbleed,openingintothechoketubebelowthethrottlevalve,assists

runningconditions.Anairbleed,openingintothechoketubebelowthethrottlevalve,assists
atomization.
Thepurposeofthetransversepassagedrilledthroughthethrottlevalveistoevenlydistributethe
mixtureovertheareaoftheinductionmanifold.
AsmallholeisdrilledIntothetransversepassagefromthechoketubeside,andactsasanairbleedto
drawsomeofthefuelthroughthethrottlevalvetomixwiththeairpassingtotheengine.
Asthethrottleisopened,thedepressionatthelipofthethrottlevalvedecreasesandthedepressionInthe
choketubeincreasestothepointwherethemainjetstartstodeliverfuelandtheflowthroughthe
slowrunningsystemslowsdown.Carburettorsmustbecarefullytunedinordertoobtainasmooth
progressivechangeoverbetweentheslowrunningsystemandthemainsystemtopreventflatspots.

Flat Spot.
Aflatspotisaperiodofpoorresponsetothrottleopeningcausedbyatemporaryweakmixtureit
normallymakesitselffeltasahesitationduringengineacceleration.

Idle Cut-Off Valve.

Anidlecutoffvalve(seeFigure7.9)isusuallyincorporatedInmes.owrunningpassage,andis
usedwhenstoppingtheengine.Whentheidlecutoffisoperated,thevalvemovesovertoblockthe
passagetotheslowrunningdelivery.Themixturebeingdeliveredtotheenginebecomesprogressively
weakeruntilitwillnotsupportcombustionandtheenginestops.
Usingtheidlecutoffvalvetoshutdowntheengine,ratherthansimplyswitchingofftheignition,
preventsanypossibilityoftheenginecontinuingtorunerraticallydueto.preignition,andalsoprevents
fuelcondensinginthecylinderswhichwouldtendtowashtheoilfromthecylinderwalls,leadingto
insufficientlubricationofthecylinderswhentheengineisnextstarted.
Theidlecutoffmaybeaseparatecontrol,oritmaybeincorporatedinthemixturecontrollever.

8.4 Mixture Control

Aswestatedearlier,asaltitudeincreases,theweightofairdrawnintothecylinderdecreasesbecause
theairdensitydecreases.Foragivenintakevelocity,thepressuredropintheventuriorchoketube
willdecreaseasambientdensitydecreases.However,thefuelflowduetothepressuredropdoesnot
decreasebythesameamountandsothemixturewillbecomericher.
Thisprogressiverichnesswithincreasedaltitudeisunacceptableforeconomicoperationofthe
engine

Needle- Type Mixture Control.

Withaneedletypemixturecontrol.suchastheoneshownhereinFigure7.11,apilotoperatedleveris
connectedtoaneedlevalveinthefloatchamber.Operationofthepilot'slevermovestheneedlein
thejet,andvariestherateoffuelflowthroughthemainjet.
Thepositionoftheneedle,therefore.controlsthemixturestrength.Inthefullyinpositionthe
needlewillblockfuelflowtothemainjetcompletely,causingtheenginetoshutdown.

Fuel Strainer.
ThemixturecontroljetsinthecarburettorarethesmallestorificesInthewholefuelsystem.Toprevent
anyblockageofthejetsbydirtordebris,afuelstrainerisnormallyfittedbetweentheaircraft'sfueltanks
andthecarburettor

Air Bleed Mixture Control.

Theairbleedtypeofmixturecontrol,showninFigure7.12,operatesbycontrollingtheairpressure
inthefloatchamber,thusvaryingthepressuredifferentialactingonthefuel.
Anarrowairbleedbetweenthefloatchamberandtheventuritendstoreduceairpressureinthe
floatchamber.Avalveconnectedtoapilotoperatedlevercontrolstheflowofairintothefloat
chamber.Whenthisvalveisfullyopen,theatmosphericpressureactingonthefuelinthefloatchamber
isgreatest,andthemixtureisfullyrich.Asthevalveisclosedtheairpressuredecreases,thusreducing
theflowoffuelandweakeningthemixture.Inthecarburettorthevalvealsoincludesapassage
connectingthefloatchambertotheenginesideofthethrottlevalve.Whenthisconnectionisopenedby
thepilotmovingthecockpitcontroltotheidlecutoffposition.floatchamberairpressureisreducedand
fuelceasestoflow,thusstoppingtheengine

8.5 Accelerator Pump

Ifthethrottlevalveisopenedquickly,airflowrespondsalmostimmediatelyandalargervolume
ofairflowsthroughthecarburettor.
Thefuelmeteringsystemhowever.respondslessquicklytothechangingconditionsbecausefuelismore
densethanairConsequently.aflatspot(orweakcut)willoccurbeforefuelflowagainmatches
airflow.
Thisweakcutorflatspotispreventedorflatspotispreventedbyfittinganacceleratorpumpwhich
islinkeddirectlytothethrottle.Theacceleratorpumpforcesfuelntotheventuriwheneverthe
throttleisopened.
Insomeacceleratorpumpsacontrolledbleedpastthepumppistonallowsthethrottletobeopenedslowly
withoutpassingfueltotheengine.Inotherpumps,adelayedactionplungerisincorporatedtosupply
anadditionalquantityoffueltotheengineforafewsecondsafterthrottlemovementhasceased.

8.6 The Induction System

The Air Intake.
Theinductionsystemtakesairfromaforwardfacingairintake,whichprovidesasmallpositive
boostasaresultoftheaircraft'sforwardspeed.Thisdynamicpressureboostissensedatthe
carburettorandtheinletmanifold.

Air Filter.
Anairfilterpreventsdebrisgettingthroughtothecarburettorandtheengine.

8.7 Engine Icing

Theproblemsofengineicing,particularlyinenginesfittedwithcarburettors,arewellknown.

Atmosphericconditions,particularlyofhighhumidity.andtemperaturesrangingfrom17C(OOF)to
ashighas+37C(98F),maycausecarburettoricing.
TheFigureillustratesgraphicallythesetypesofconditionsThetemperatureandhumidityrange
indicatedonthegrapharelikelytooccurthroughouttheyearinallareasoftheUnitedKingdomand
Europe.
Pilotsshouldbeconstantlyawareofthepossibilitiesoficingandtakethecorrectiveactionnecessaryto
preventorcountercarburettoricingbeforeicingbecomesaproblemandthreatensthesafetyofthe
aircraft.
Basically,therearethreeformsoficingwhichaffecttheinductionsystemsofpistonenginesfittedwith
carburettors.Theyare:ImpactIcing,RefrigerationIcingandFuelIcing.

Impact Ice.
ImpacticeformsontheairintakeairfilterandonbendsIntheinductionsystem.

Refrigeration Ice (Carburettor Icing).

Refrigerationiceorcarburettoricing,formsInfloattypecarburettorsasaresultofthelow
temperaturescausedbybothfuelvaporizationandlowpressureactingonthemoistureinthe
atmosphere.

Fuel Icing.
Fuelicingiscausedbymoistureinthefuelcomingoutofsuspensionandbeingfrozenbythelow
temperaturesinthecarburettor.ThisIcetendstosticktotheinletmanifoldarounditscorners,
andthisreducestheflowofthemixtureintotheengine.

Recognition of Induction System Icing.

Onceanenginestopsduetoinductionorcarburettoricing,itismostunlikelythatapilotWillbeableto
restartintimetopreventthenecessityofanemergencylanding.Thereforeearlyrecognitionand
correctionoftheonsetoficingisvital.

The Indications of Induction System Icing.

TheindicationsofinductionsystemIcingtothepilotofanaircraftfittedwithacarburettoranda
fixedpitchpropellerwouldbeagradualdropinRPMwhichmaybeaccompaniedbyenginerough
runningandvibration.

runningandvibration.
Iftheaircraftisfittedwithaconstantspeedpropeller,inductionsystemicingwouldbeIndicatedbya
dropinmanifoldpressureorreductioninairspeedinlevelflight.
Whenicingissuspected,thecarburettorheatcontrolshouldbeselectedtofullyhotandleftinthehot
positionforasufficientlengthoftimetocleartheice.Thiscouldtakeupto1minute.orevenlonger.
dependingontheseverityofthesituation.

Fullcarburettorheatmustalwaysbeusedunlesstheaircraftisequippedwithacarburettorair
temperaturegauge.Thecarburettorheatcontroldirectsheatedairfromaroundtheexhaustpipeinto
theinductionsystem.Thehotairmeltstheicewhichthenpassesthroughtheengineaswater.
Icingismorelikelytooccurduringprolongedperiodsofflightatreducedpower,suchasduringaglide
descentorletdownforapproachandlanding.Heatisderivedfromtheengine,soduringlong
descentsatlowpoweroridlepowertheenginetemperatureswillgraduallycool,thusreducing
theeffectivenessofthehotairsystem.
WheneverthereIsariskoficing,thepilotshouldselectfullhotairbeforereducingpower,sothat
benefitisgainedfromthehotenginebeforeitstemperaturestartstolower.
Tohelpmaintainenginetemperaturesandprovideasufficientlygreatheatsourceduringaprolonged
descenttomeltanyice,apilotshouldincreasepowerperiodicallyatintervalsofbetween500and1000
feet.Thisactionalsopreventsfoulingofthesparkplugs.
Carburettoricingcanoccurduringtaxyingatsmallthrottlesettingsorwhentheengineisatidle
RPM.Inthesecircumstancesensurethathotairisusedduringtaxyingtoclearanyice,butremember
toselectcoldairbeforeopeningthethrottletofullpowerontakeoff,andcheckthatthecorrecttakeoff
RPMandmanifoldpressureisobtained.
Undernocircumstancesshouldcarburettorheatbeselected"hot"duringtakeoff.
Whenselectingcarburettorheat"hot"thereareanumberoffactorsthatapilotshouldunderstand.
Theapplicationofhotairreducesenginepoweroutputbyapproximately15%andalsocreatesa
richermixturewhichmaycauseroughrunning.
Carburettorheatshouldnotbeselected"hot"atpowersettingsgreaterthan80%asthereisadanger
ofdetonationandenginedamage.Intakeicingshouldnotoccurathighpowersettings.
Thecontinuoususeofcarburettorheatshouldbeavoidedbecausetodosomodifiesmixture
strength,andincreasesenginetemperatures.

Ground Operation.
Thefollowingtwopointsshouldbeunderstoodwhenusingthecarburettorheatcontrol.
Useoftheheatcontrolonthegroundshouldbekepttoaminimumastheintakeairisnotfiltered
whencarburettorheatisselected"hot"andconsequentlydustanddirtmaybefedintotheinduction
systemcausingadditionalwearonpistonsandcylinders.
Afunctionalcheckofthecarburettorheatcontrolshouldbemadebeforetakeoff.Engine

Afunctionalcheckofthecarburettorheatcontrolshouldbemadebeforetakeoff.Engine
rotationalspeedshoulddropbyapproximately100RPMwhencarburettorheatisselected"hot"
andreturntotheoriginalRPMlevelwhenselectedcold.

Take-Off.
Ificingisevidentonthegroundbeforetakeoft,usecarburettorheattocleartheicebutreturnthecontrol
tocoldbeforeapplyingtakeoffpower.Checkthatnormaltakeoffpowerisavailable.

Climb.
Donotusecarburettorheatduringtheclimboratpowersettingsabove80%.

Operation of the System in Flight.

Beawareofconditionslikelytocausecarburettoricing.Carburettoricingismostlikelytooccurin
conditionsofhighhumidityforexampleondamp,cloudy,foggyorhazydays,orwhenflyingcloseto
cloudorinrainorqrizzle.
Incruisingflight,monitortheengineinstrumentsforanunaccountablelossofRPMormanifold
pressure.Makefrequentchecksforicingbyapplyingheatforaperiodofbetween15to30seconds,
notingfirsttheselectedRPMthenthedropofRPMasheatisapplied.
Listentotheenginenoiseandchecktheoutsideairtemperature.ShouldRPMIncreasewhen
carburettorheatisapplied,ortheRPMreturntoahigherlevelthanoriginalwhenreselectedtocold,
theniceispresent.
Continuetousecarburettorheatwhileicingconditionspersist.

Descent.

Duringglidedescentsorlongperiodsofflightatreducedpower,selectcarburettorheatto"hot",
rememberingtowarmtheengineforshortperiods,sayevery5001000ft,inthedescent.

Approach and Landing.

Duringapproachandlanding,carburettorheatshouldrematnatcold,exceptforaglideapproach,but
ificingconditionsareknowntoexist,orevensuspected,fullheatshouldbeapplied.
Remember,though,thatthecarburettorheatselectormustbereturnedtocoldbeforeapplyingpowerfor
eithera"touchandgo~ora"goaround".

Ice and Fuel-Injection Engines.

Enginesfittedwithfuelinjectiondonot,ofcourse,havetheproblemsoficeformingattheventuri
(choketube)ofacarburettor,butotherpartsofthesystemmayaccumulateice,leadingtoasimilar
lossofpower.

Fuelicingmaygatheratthebendsinthesystem.Impacticingmayformattheimpactsensing
tubesorontheintakeairfilters,particularlywhenflyingincloudatlowtemperatures.Ifsuchicing
problemsarise,thealternateairsystemfittedtofuelinjectionenginesshouldbeselectedandtheicing
drillfollowedinaccordancewiththeaircraftchecklist.

8.8 Principle of Operation of a Fuel Injection Engine

Inthelowpressure.continuousflowfuelInjectionsystem,whichisillustratedhereandwhichisused
inmanyaircraftpistonengines.fuelISsprayedcontinuouslyintotheInductionpipeasclosetotheinlet
valveaspossible.
Theadvantagesclaimedforfuelinjectionarelowoperatingpressure.goodfueldistribution.
freedomfromicingproblemsandtheincorporationofapumpwhichdoesnothavetobetimedto
theoperatingcycle.
Mixturestrengthisvariedbyamanuallyoperatedmixturecontrolvalvewhichadjuststhefuelpressure
foraltitudeandoperatingconditionsasnecessary.Becauseofthemethodofoperationoftheinjector.
nospecialIdlingarrangementsarerequiredandaseparateprimingsystemforenginestartingis
unnecessary.
Themaincomponentsofthesystemare'fuelpumps.afuelcontrolunitandofcourse.thedischargenozzles
themselves.oneforeachcylinder.Inaddition.afuelpressuregaugeisfittedtoenableanymixture
adjustmentstobecheckedaccurately.

8.9 System Components of a Typical Fuel - Injection System

Fuel Pumps.
Thefuelpumpssupplymorefuelthanisrequiredbytheengine.andarecirculationpathisprovided.
Twopumpsareprovided.arrangedinparallelsothatwhenthemechanicalpumpisnotoperating.
fuelunderpositivepressurefromtheelectricapumpcanbypassthemechanicalpump,soallowing
theelectricalpumptobeusedforenginepriming.startingandforemergencysituations

Discharge Nozzles.
Afueldischargenozzleislocatedineachcylinderhead,withitsoutletdirectedintotheinletport.
Nozzlesarefittedtoindividualenginesasaset,eachnozzleinasetbeingcalibratedforthatsetonly.

Fuel Control Unit.

Thefuelcontrolunitismountedontheintakemanifold.Itcontainsthreecontrolelements:the
throttlevalve,thefuelmeteringvalveandthemixturecontrolvalve.Theairthrottleassemblycontains
theairthrottlevalve,whichisconnectedtothepilot'sthrottleleverandcontrolsairflowtotheengine.
Noticethattheintakemanifoldhasnoventuriorotherrestrictionstoairflow.
Thefuelmeteringvalveisconnectedtotheairthrottleandcontrolsfuelflowtothefuelmanifold
valveaccordingtothepositionoftheairthrottle.Thus,fuelflowisproportionedtoairflowand
providesthecorrectair/fuelratio.
Themixturecontrolvalveisconnectedtothepilot'smixturecontrollever,andbleedsofffuelpressure
appliedtothefuelmeteringvalve.Thustheair/fuelratiocanbevariedasrequiredbyoperating
conditions.

9 AERO ENGINE FUELS AND FUEL SYSTEMS

9.1 Aero Engine Fuels and Fuel Systems

ThischapteronAircraftEngineFuelsandFuelSystemsconfinesitselftosystemsandfuelsof
gasoline(petrol)engines,thoughbriefmentionismadeofJetA1fuel.Fortechnicalreasons,the
term'gasoline'hasbeenpreferredto'petrol',butthereadershouldnotethatthesetwotermsare
synonymous.Gasolineorpetrol,whichwasoriginallyabyproductofthepetroleumindustry(kerosene
beingthemainproduct)becamethemostcommonpistonenginefuelbecauseofitsabilityto
mixreadilywithairinacarburettor.

Thefuelusedindieselaeroengines,JetA1(AVTUR)isgivengreatermentioninChapter"Aero
DieselEngines".

Classification of Fuels by Specification Number.

Fuelspecificationsarethemeansbywhichproducersandusersofaviationfuelidentifyandcontrol
thepropertiesnecessaryforsatisfactoryperformance.
Allaviationfuelshaveaspecificationnumber.
Forinstance,JetA1,thefuelnormallyused
injetengines,hasaspecificationnumberDERD2494.Otherjetfuelshavedifferent
specificationnumbers.
Gasoline,thefuelusedinpetroldrivenpistonengines,hasaspecificationnumber(Directorateof
EngineResearchandDevelopment)DERD2485.Containedwithinthatblanketspecificationnumber
aregradesofaviationgasolinesuchasAVGAS100,AVGAS100LLandAVGAS80.

Quality Control.
Manytestsarecarriedoutonthefuelwhenitismanufactured.Oneofthosetestsisusedto
determinethefuel'soctanerating.Todothis,theparticularblendoffuelthatisthesubjectofthetest
iscomparedwithtworeferencefuelsunderstandardisedconditionsinaspecialtestengine
ThetworeferencefuelsareIsooctaneandNormalHeptane.

Iso-octane.
Isooctanehasverygoodcombustioncharacteristicsandshowslittletendencytodetonatewhen
mixedwithairandignitedathightemperatures.Itisgivenanoctaneratingof100.

Normal Heptane.
Normalheptaneontheotherhanddetonatesveryreadilyandhasanoctaneratingofzero.

Comparing the Fuel on Test with Two Reference Fuels.

Theparticularfuelwhichistobetestediscomparedwithablendofthetworeferencefuels.Thisisdone
byfirstrunningthetestfuelinthespecialtestengineandthentryingtoproducethesamedegreeof
detonationintheenginewhileusingablendofthetworeferencefuels.
Iftheblendofthetworeferencefuelswhichgivesthesamedetonationcharacteristicsissay95%isooctane
and5%normalheptane,thefuelundertestwouldbegivenanoctaneratingof95.Theoctanerating
isconsideredtobeameasureofhowwellthefuelresistsdetonation.So,inotherwords,thefuel's
octaneratingisknownasitsantiknockvalue.
Originally,testswerebasedonanair/fuelratiowhichgavemaximumdetonation,butasituationwhich
givesmaximumdetonationisnottrulyrepresentativeoftheworkingrangeoftheengine.Maximum
detonationoccurswitheconomicalmixtureswhicharenormallyusedforcruising,butfortakeoffand
climbrichmixturesareused.

Performance Number.
Itisimportanttoknowhowthefuelwillbehaveunderthesevaryingmixturestrengths,andsoaviationfuel
hastworatings.The'tworating'figureissometimesreferredtoastheperformancenumberor
performanceindex.
Asanexample,AVGAS100isa100octanefuelwithaperformancenumberof100I130.Thelower
figureistheweakmixturedetonationpointandthehigherfiguretherichmixturedetonationpoint.
Itfollowsthatifanengineisdesignedtouseacertaingradeoffuel,thenalowergradeshouldneverbe
used,asthiswouldcausedetonation.Ifatanytimethecorrectoctaneratingisnotavailable,ahigher
octaneratingmustbeused.

9.2 Additives
Tetraethyllead.
Inthepast,inordertoincreasetheoctaneratingofafuel,TetraethylLead,orTEL,usedtobeadded.
Forinstance,2millilitresofleadwereaddedtoeachgallonoffueltotakeitsoctaneratingto100J130.
TheactionofTEListoreducetheformationofperoxideswhichcancausetheendgastoexplode,but
ithastobeusedwithcareas,duringcombustion,'leadoxideisformed.Leadoxideisnotvolatileat
thesetemperatures,andithasacorrosiveeffectontheexhaustvalve,itsseat,andthesparkingplug
electrodes.

Ethylene Dibromide.
Topreventthiscorrosion,itisnecessarytoaddethylenedibromidetothefueltochangethereaction
duringcombustionandtoallowleadbromidetoform.
Leadbromideisvolatileand,thus,iseasilyejectedwiththeexhaustgases.

The Medical Hazards of Lead

Leadintheatmosphereisabsorbedintothebloodstream,andcanharmthebrain.Becauseofthethreat
tothehealthofanyonewhobreathesinexhaustfumes,fuelcompaniesnowuseadditivesotherthan
leadinthefueltoraiseitsoctanerating.ThuswehavefuelssuchasAVGAS100LL,theLLstandingfor
lowlead.

9.3 Identification of Fuels by Colour

Tomakeiteasytoidentifythefuels,theyarecoloureddifferently.Forinstance,AVGAS100LLis
colouredblue,whileAVGAS100iscolouredgreen.AVTUR,whichisaviationturbinefuel,iseither
clearorisofastrawcolour.
Toassistindifferentiatingbetweenthefuelswhenrefuellinganaircraft,allrefuellingequipmentis
markedinsuchawayastomakeiteasytoidentifywhichfuelmaybedispensedfromaparticular
device.

9.4 Mogas
Someaviationauthoritiesallowtheuseofautomobilegasoline,orMOGAS,insomeaircraft.
WithintheUnitedKingdom,therulesgoverningtheuseofMOGASarelaiddowninAirworthiness
Notices,Numbers98and98a.FurtherinformationontheuseofMOGAScanbefoundintheCAA
SafetySenseLeafletNumber4a.GreatcautionshouldbetakenwhenusingMOGAS.
MOGAShasamuchhighervolatilitythanAVGASand,consequently,willevaporatemuchmore
quickly.Thismeansthatthepossibilityofvapourlocksandcarburettoricingoccurringismuchgreater
thanifAVGASwasbeingused.

9.5 Fuel Contamination

Themostcommoncontaminantinfueliswater,thepresenceofwhichmaycauselossofengine
power.Waterisalwayspresentinthefuelinvaryingamountsdespitethemanufacturersstringent
qualitycontrolandpreventativemeasurestakenduringstorageandtransfer.However,further
measurescanbetakentominimizewateraccretiononcethefuelhasbeentransferredtotheaircraft
tanks.Oncethefuelisintheaircraftfueltanks,themainsourceofwatercontaminationis
atmosphericairwhichremainswithinthepartiallyfilledtank.
Ifthetanksaretoppeduptofull,air,ofcourse,isexcluded,togetherwiththemoistureitcontains,thus
minimisingthelikelihoodthatthefuelwillbecontaminated.Ifthefuelisallowedtosettleafter
replenishment,thewaterdroplets,beingheavierthanthefuel,willfalltothebottomofthetankand
canthenbedrainedoffthroughthewaterdrainvalve.Ifwaterisallowedtostayinthefuelsystem,
however,itwilleventuallyfinditswaytotheenginewhereitcouldcauselossofenginepower,or
evenadeadcut.

Inspection for Contamination.

Eachfueltankisequippedwithadrainvalve.Thisislocatedatthelowestpartofthetank,sometimes
withinasumpwhichwillcollectanywaterasitsettles.Thesewingtankdrainsshouldbeusedfirst,to
drainthesumps.Sufficientfuelshouldbeallowedtoflowtoensureremoval.ofcontaminants
includingwater.Thisfuelshouldbecollectedinasuitablecontainer,examinedforcontaminant,
andthendiscarded.Afterhavingdrainedanyamountoffuel,alwaysensurethatnofirehazard
existsbeforestartingtheengine.Ifalargequantityofwaterisfoundinthetanks,theaircraft
shouldbedeclaredunserviceable
Afterusingeachdrain,alwaysensurethatithasbeenclosedcompletelyandisnotleaking.

Fuel Tank Vents.

Whilecheckingthefueltankdrains,thepilotshouldalsocheckthefueltankvents.Eachtankis
fittedwithaforwardfacingventpipewhichallowsatmosphericpressuretobemaintainedinside.
Theyareusuallyfittedinthelowersurfaceofthewing.
Makesurethatthefuelventsarenotdamagedorthattheyarenotblockedupinanywayotherwise
adepressionwillforminthetankwhichwilladverselyaffectfuelflowtotheengine.

Fuel Strainer.
Thefuelstrainerisalsoequippedwithaquickdrainfacility.Thefuelstraineritselfislocatedatthe
lowestpointofthefuelsystem,usuallysomewhereintheenginecompartment.Thefuelstrainer
shouldbedrainedonceforeachofthetankswhichcanbeselectedontheaircraft'sfuelselectorvalve.
Onceagain,sufficientfuelshouldbeallowedtoflowtoensurecompleteremovalofanywater.

9.6 The Fuel System

AsimplelightaircraftfuelsystemisshowninFigure8.8.Thefueliscontainedintwowingtanks,each
ofwhichhasaquickdrainfittedatitslowestpoint.

Fuelquantityismeasuredbysimplefloattypesensorsinthetanksandisindicatedtothepilotinthe
cockpitonfuelguages.Floattypesensorsarefairlyunreliable,exceptwhentheaircraftisontheground
orinprolongedstraightandlevelflight.So,beforeflight,apilotmustalwaysvisuallycheckthefuel
contents,byremovingthetankfillercapsandlookingintothetankstomakehisownassessmentofthe
quantity.
Thefuelpassestotheenginesystemviaatankselectorvalve.Thisallowsthepilottocontrolfuel
flowfromeachtankinturnand,thus,keeptheaircraftbalancedlaterally.
Nextinlineisthefuelstrainer,atthelowestpointinthesystem.Remember,duringthepreflightcheck
thefuelstrainershouldbedrainedtwiceviaitsdrain,witheachtankselectedinturn.

Mechanical and Electrical Pumps.

Afterthefuelstrainercomestheelectricalfuelpump.Itissometimescalledtheboosterpump,or
theauxiliarypump.Itisfittedtothesystemincaseoffailureofthemechanicalfuelpump.Somefuel
systemshavetheirfuelpumpsinparallel.

ThePilot'sOperatingHandbookformostlightaircraftadvisesthattheelectricalfuelpumpshouldbe
switchedonfortakeoff,flightbelow1000feet,andforlanding.Itisalsoadvisabletoselectthis
pumpto'on'whenusingthetankselectorvalvetochangetanks.
Afuelpressuregaugemaybeincludedinthesystem.Thiscanbeusedtochecktheoutputoftheelectrical
pumpwhentheengineisnotrunning.
Downstreamoftheelectricalpumpistheenginedrivenmechanicalpump.Thefuelpressuregaugewill
sensetheoutputpressureofthemechanicalpumpwhenevertheelectricalpumpisswitchedoff.
Highwingaircraft,withtanksinthewingsonly,maynotrequireafuelpump,relyingongravityasthe
primemoverofthefueltotheenginesystem.

Carburettor and Priming Pump.

Thefinaliteminthesystemisthecarburettor.Thismetersthefueltotheengineinresponsetothe
pilot'soperationoftheauthorityofthethrottleandthemixturecontrol.
Theprimingpumpisahandoperateddevicewhichisusedtopumpfueltotheinletvalveportsofthe
cylinderspriortoenginestart.Theprimingpumptakesitsfuelfromthetopofthefuelstrainer

Greatcaremustbetakentoensurethattheprimingpumpplungerislockedinafteruse.Ifit
inadvertentlybecomesunlocked,itmayvibrateopen.Thiswillcreateariskoffuelbeingsucked
fromthetopofthefuelstrainerintotheinletmanifoldoftheengine,therebymakingthemixture
extremelyrich:andperhapsstoppingtheengine.

9.7 Fuel System Management

Itisessentialthatapilotunderstandsthefuelsystemoftheaircraftheisabouttofly.Apilotshould
thereforestudythePilot'sOperatingHandbook(POH)andfollowtherecommendedfuelmanagement
procedures.
Thebasicprinciplesoffuelsystemmanagementareasfollows:
Ensurethattheaircrafthassufficientfuelfortheflightbeingundertaken,includingallnecessary
reserves.
Iftheaircraftrequiresrefuelling,ensurethatthecorrectgradeoffuelisused.Checkthatfuelcapsare
replacedandaretightlyclosed.Fuelcapssituatedonthetopofwingsurfacesareinthelowpressure
areaoftheairflow.Ifacapinthislocationbecomesloose,fuelcanbesyphonedoutofthetanksin
flight.
Beforethefirstflightoftheday,carryoutfuelcontaminationchecks.
Ensurethattherearenoleaksinthefuelsystemduringthepreflightcheck.
Switchontheelectricfuelpumpbeforeswitchingtanksinflight.Switchtanksaccordingtothe
proceduredetailedinthePOH.

Refuelling.
Noonemustremainintheaircraftduringrefuelling.Theenginemustbeshutdown.
Ignitionswitchesmustbeoff.
Appropriateextinguishersandfirefightingequipmentmustbeathand.Noonemustsmokeinthe
vicinityofanaircraftbeingrefuelled.
Allearthwiresfittedtotherefuellingequipmentmustbeemployedinaccordancewith
operationprocedurestoeliminatetheriskofstaticelectricitygeneratingasparkwhichmightignite
fuelvapour.

10 PROPELLERS

10.1 Purpose of a Propeller

Mostgeneralaviationaircraftarepoweredbypropellers.Thepurposeofapropeller(Figure9.1)isto
convertthepowerdeliveredbyanengineintopropulsivethrust.
Thedetailedtheoryofhowthrustisproducediscomplex,butexpressedsimply,therearetwo
principleswhichexplainthenatureofthrust:
Thepropelleracceleratesamassofairrearwardsand,inaccordancewithNewton's3rd
law,experiencesaforceactingonitselfintheoppositedirection.Thisforceiscalledthrust.
Thepropellerbladesareaerofoilswhichactlikerotatingwingscausingadifferencein
staticpressureacrosstheblades.

Justasawinggeneratesaliftingforceactingupwards,thepropellergeneratesaforwardhorizontal
forcecalledthrust.Airflowoverapropellerismorecomplexthanoverawingbecausethe
propellerisnotonlyrotating,butmovingforwardsSomeaerodynamicistsbelievethatbothofthe
aboveprinciplesofpropellerthrustareconnected,andareexplainedbyNewton'sSecondLawm
thesensethatrotatingpropellerbladesImpartarateofchangeofmomentumtotheairflowmg
overtheblades,thusapplyingaforcetotheair,changingitsvelocityandpressuredistribution.
The'PrinciplesofFlight'volumeofthisseriesdiscussespropelleraerodynamicsindetail.Inthis
chapterwewilldealprimarilywiththetechnicalandmechanicalaspectsofpropellersandtheiroperation.

10.2 Blade Geometry

Thepropellerconsistsoftwoormoreaerodynamicallyshapedbladesattachedtoacentralhub.This
hubismountedontoapropellershaftdrivenbytheengine.

Thewholeassemblyisrotatedbythepropellershaft,ratherlikerotatingwings.
Likeawing,apropellerbladehasarootandatip,aleadingandtrailingedgeandacamberedcross
sectionwhosechordlinepassesfromthecentreoftheleadingedgeradiustothetrailingedge.At
therootarea,wherethesectionofthebladebecomesround,isthebladeshank.Thebaseoftheblade.
whereanypitchchangemechanismwouldhavetobeattached.iscalledtheblade'butt'.

Chord Line.
ThechordlineofthepropellerbladeisastraightlineJoiningthecentresofcurvatureoftheleading
andtrailingedgesoftheblade.

Chord.

ThechordofthepropellerbladeIsthedistancebetweenitsleadingedgeanditstrailingedge,
measuredalongthechordline.

Blade Angle Or Pitch.

Thebladeangleorpitchistheanglebetweenthebladechordlineandtheplaneofrotation.
Bladeangledecreasesfromtheroottothetipoftheblade(seeFigure9.5)becausetherotational
velocityofthebladeincreasesfromroottotip.Thistwistalongthelengthofthebladeensuresan
optimumangleofattackthroughoutthebladelength.Forreferencepurposes,thebladeangleismeasured
atapoint75%ofthebladelengthfromtheroot.

Blade Twist.
Bladesectionsnearthetipofthepropellerareatagreaterdistancefromthepropellershaftand
travelthroughagreaterdistanceforeachrotation.Therefore,foranygivenenginespeed(measuredin
revolutionsperminuteorRPM),therotationalspeedofthetipofthepropellerisgreaterthanthatof
bladeelementsnearthebub.
Thebladeanglemustbedecreasedtowardsthetipacrossthewholelengthofthebladetoensurean
optimumangleofattack.Thisaspectofapropeller'soperationisdiscussedfullyinthePrinciplesof
Flightvolumeinthisseries.

Thebladeangledeterminesthegeometricpitchofthepropeller.Asmallbladeangleiscalledfinepitch
whilealargebladeangleiscalledcoarsepitch.

Geometric Pitch.
Thegeometricpitch,(Figure9.6),isthedistancethepropellerwouldtravelforwardinonecomplete
revolutionifitweremovingthroughtheairatthebladeangle,justasawoodscrewadvancesthrough
woodasitistwistedbythescrewdriver.

Effective Pitch.
Inflight,thepropellerdoesnotmovethroughtheairatthegeometricpitch,becauseasairisafluid,and
notasolidmedium,slippagealwaysoccurs
Thedistancewhichitactuallymovesforwardineachrevolutioniscalledthe'effectivepitch'or'advance
perrevolution'(Figure9.7,overleaf.)

Propeller Slip.
Thedifferencebetweenthegeometricpitchandtheeffectivepitchiscalledpropellerslip,thisisshownin
Figure9.7,overleaf.

The Helix Angle.

Thehelixangleistheanglethattheactualpathofthepropellermakestotheplaneofrotationasshown
inFigure9.8,overleaf.

Blade Aspect Ratio

Bladeaspectratioistheratioofbladelengthtotheblade'smeanchord.

AngleofAttack.
Theanglebetweenthebladechordandtherelativeairflowduringpropellerrotationistheangleof
attack,showninthediagramasalpha(0)(Figure9.9).
Theangleofattackofafixedpitchpropellerdependsonthepropeller'sRPMandaircraft'sforwardspeed.

10.3 Power Absorption And Efficiency

Propeller Diameter.
Apropellermustbeabletoabsorballtheshafthorsepowerdevelopedbytheengineanditalso
mustoperatewithmaximumefficiencythroughouttherequiredperformanceenvelopeoftheaircraft.

Atanygivenenginespeed.measuredinRevolutionsPerMinute(RPM).thelargerthediameter,the
greaterwouldbethetipvelocity.ForInstance.at2600RPM.an8ftdiameterpropellerwouldhavea
tipvelocityof653milesperhour.approachingthespeedofsoundatsealevel.
Alargediameterpropellerwouldbeagood"absorberofenginepower.Butacnticalfactorintermsof
propellerefficiencyistipvelocity.Iftipvelocityistoohigh,thebladetipswillapproachthelocalspeed
ofsoundandcompressibilityeffectswilldecreasethrustandincreaserotationaldrag.
Supersonictipspeedwillconsiderablyreducetheefficiencyofapropellerandgreatlyincreasethenoiseit
generates.ThisfactorimposesalimitonpropellerdiameterandRPM,andthespeedatwhichitcanbe
achievedbypropellerdrivenaircraft.Anotherlimitationonpropellerdiameteristheneedtomaintain
adequategroundclearance.

Solidity.
Toincreasepowerabsorption,severalcharacteristicsofthepropeller.other'thandiameter,canbe
considered.TheusualmethodIStoIncreasethe'solidity'ofthepropeller.Propellersolidityisthe
ratioofthetotalfrontalareaofthebladestotheareaofthepropellerdisc.
Onewayofachievinganincreaseinsolidityistoincreasethechordofeachblade.Thisincreasesthe
solidity,butbladeaspectratioisreduced,makingthepropellerlessefficient.
Secondly,thenumberofbladescanbeincreasedPowerabsorptionisthusincreasedwithoutincreasingthe
tipspeedorreducingtheaspectratio.Thisisthemethodnormallyusedtoincreasepropeller
solidity.However,Increasingthenumberofbladesbeyondacertainnumber(fiveorsix)willreduce
overallefficiency.

However,aswehavelearnt,thrustISgeneratedbyacceleratingairrearwards.So,makingthedisktoo
solidwillreducethemassofairthatcanbedrawnthroughthepropellerandaccelerated.ToIncrease
thenumberofbladesefficiently,contrarotatingpropellerscouldbeusedthatis,twopropellersrotating
inoppositedirectionsonthesameshaftHowever,contrarotatingpropellersarepracticableonlyon
verypowerfulpropellerdrivenaircraft.

10.4 Moments And Forces Generated by a Propeller

Becauseofitsrotation,apropellergeneratesyawing,rollingandpitchingmoments.Thesearedueto
severaldifferentcausessuchastorquereaction,gyroscopicprecession,spiralslipstreameffectand
asymmetricbladeeffect.

Torque Reaction.
Ifthepropellerrotatesclockwise.theequalandoppositereactionortorquewillgivetheaircraftan
anticlockwiserollingmomentaboutthelongitudinalaxis.Duringtakeoffthiswillapplyagreater
downloadtotheleftmainwheel,causingmorerollingresistanceontheleftwheelmakingthe
aircraftwanttoyawtotheleft.ThisisillustratedinFigure9.11,wheretheleftwheelisshown
ashavingmorepressureappliedtoitthantherightwheel.Inflight,torquereactionwillalsomakethe
aircraftwanttorolltotheleftwithaclockwiserotatingpropeller.Thiseffectisparticularlynoticeable
whenfullpowerisappliedtoinitiateaclimb.Obviously,forapropellerrotatinganticlockwise.all
theeffectsdescribedinthissectionwillbeintheoppositedirection.

Torquereactionwillbegreatestduringhighpower,lowIndicatedAirspeed(lAS)flightconditions.
LowlASwillreducetheeffectivenessofthecontrolstocountertheturningmomentduetotorque.
Torquereactioncouldbeeliminatedbyfittingcontrarotatingpropellers.Torquefromthetwopropellers,
rotatinginoppositedirectionsonthesameshaft,willcanceleachotherout.Thecostofsucha
solutioncould,however,behigh,anditWOUld,inanycase,besuitableonlyforveryhighpowered
engines.

Gyroscopic Effect.
Arotatingpropellerhasthepropertiesofagyroscope:rigidityinspaceandprecession.The
propertywhichproduceswhatisknownasthegyroscopiceffectisprecession.
Gyroscopicprecessionisthenamegiventotheeffectthatoccurswhenaforceisappliedtotherim
ofarotatingdisc.ThisphenomenonisdemonstratedinFigure9.12.Whenaforceisappliedtothe
edgeofthespinningpropellerdisc,theactionoftheforceisfeltatapointat900inthedirectionof
rotation,andinthesamedirectionastheappliedforce.

Astheaircraftispitchedupordownoryawedleftorright,aforceisappliedtotheedgeofthespinning
propellerdisc.
Forexample,ifanaircraftwithananticlockwiserotatingpropeller(asviewedfromthecockpit)is
pitchednosedown,asshowninFigure9.12,theaircraftactsasifaforwardforcehasbeenappliedto
thetopofthepropellerdisc.Buttheeffectivelineofactionofthisforceactsat900inthedirectionof
rotation,causingtheaircrafttoyawtotheright.
Gyroscopiceffectcanbeeasilydeterminedwhenthepointofapplicationoftheforceonthepropeller
discisconsidered.Thefollowingsituationsapplyforapropellerrotatinganticlockwise,asseenby
thepilot.

PITCHUPForwardforceonthebottom,reactionoccursat900anticlockwise,result
leftyaw.
LEFTYAWForwardforceontheright,reactionoccursat900anticlockwise,
resultpitchdown.
RIGHTYAWForwardforceontheleft,reactionoccursat900anticlockwise,
resultpitchup.
Theeffectofgyroscopicprecessionisfeltonlywhentheaircraftpitchesand/oryaws.

Slipstream Effect.
Asthepropellerrotatesitproducesabackwardflowofair.orslipstream.whichrotatesaroundthe
aircraft.asillustratedinFigure9.13.Thisspiralslipstreamcausesachangeinairflowaroundthefin.
Inthecaseshownhere,duetotheclockwisedirectionofpropellerrotation,thespiralslipstreammeetsthe
finatananglefromtheleft,producingasidewaysforceonthefintotheright.thusinducingyawtothe
left.

Theamountofrotationgiventotheairwilldependonthepowersetting.Spiralslipstreameffect
canbereducedbyanyorallofthefollowing:asmallfixedtabontherudder.theenginethrustline
beinginclinedslightlytotheright.oroffsettingthefinslightly.

Asymmetric Blade Effect.

Duringtakeofforlandinginatailwheelaircraft,thepropellershaftwillbeinclinedupwardswith
respecttothehorizontal.Consequently,astheaircraftmovesforward.thedowngoingbladeofthe
rotatingpropellercoversalargerpaththantheupgoingblade,foreachrotation.Thisfactmeans
thatthelinearvelocityofthedowngoingbladeishigherthanthatoftheupgoingblade,anditsangle
ofattackisalsogreater.
Thereforethedowngoingbladewillgeneratemorethrustthantheupgoingblade.Thedifferencein
thrustonthetwosidesofthepropellerdiscwillgenerateayawingmomenttotheleffforaclockwise
rotatingpropeller.
Asymmetric
bladeeffectwillbegreatestatfullpowerandlowairspeedwithhighangleofattack.
.
N.B.TorqueReaction,GyroscopicEffectandAssymetricBladeEffectwillallcausetheaircraftto
swinginthesamedirection:totherightforapropellerrotatinganticlockwise,asseenbythepilot,
andtotheleftforaclockwiserotatingpropeller.GyroscopicEffectandAssymetricBladeEffectare
mostmarkedontailwheelaircraftontakeoff.Duringtakeoft,alleffectswilleitherbeexacerbatedor
counteredbyacrosswind.

10.5 Fixed Pitch Propellers

Disadvantages.
Afixedpitchpropellerreceivesitsrelativeairflowfromadirectiongovernedbytheaircraft'strue
airspeedandthespeedofthepropellerrotationinRPM.
ItcanbeseenfromFigure9.15thatanincreaseinTrueAirSpeed(TAS),i.eanincreaseinthelength
oftheTASvectorarrow,willreducetheangleofattack,causingtheengineRPMtoincrease.On
theotherhand,anincreaseinRPM,i.e.anincreaseintheRPMvectorarrow,willincreasetheangleof
attack.

Propeller Efficiency.
Athighforwardspeed,forinstanceinapoweroffdive,itispossibletoreducetheangleofattackofa
fixedpitchpropellertozeroandoverspeedtheengine,whileatlowTASwithahighRPM,forinstance
inaclimb,propellerangleofattackislargeanditispossibletostallthepropellerblade.
Bothextremesareobviouslyinefficient,andtherefore.undesirable.Theconclusionthatmustbedrawn
isthatafixedpitchpropellerwillonlyfunctionefficientlyatonecombinationoftrueairspeed(TAS)
andRPM(thatis,atanefficientangleofattack.)Thislimitationisthemajordisadvantageofthefixed
pitchpropeller.Themaximumefficiencyofafixedpitchpropellerisintheregionof70%.

ThePropellerEfficiencyEquationconfirmswhatyouhavejustlearnedaboutefficiency.With
afixedpitchpropeller,thelargestincreaseinvelocityimpartedtotheairflowbytherotatingpropeller
occurswhentheaircraftisstationaryunderfullpower.
Butthoughthrustishighatthestartofthetakeoffrun,propellerefficiencyislowbecauseofthe
lowvelocityoftheairflowenteringthepropellerdisc.
Asflightspeedincreases,thevelocityoftheairflowingintothepropellerdiscincreases.Buttheincrease
invelocityimpartedbythepropellerdecreaseswithincreasingairspeed.
Thus,asshownbythe
equation,atveryhighspeedtheefficiencyofthepropellerisagainlow.Onlyatthedesiredcruising
combinationofairspeedandpropellerRPMisafixedpitchpropellerefficient.Iftheaircraft'sairspeed
isincreasedtoamaximumbydiving,thepropelleractslikeawindmill,drivingtheengineinsteadof
beingdrivenbytheengine.Enginedamagecanoccurintheseconditions.
Becausethereisonlyonegivencombinationofforwardspeedandrotationalspeedatwhichthefixed
pitchpropellerwilloperateatitsoptimalangleofattackandthereforeoptimalefficiency
advancedaircraftarefittedwithvariablepitch,constantspeedpropellers.

10.6 Variable Pitch Propellers

Onanaircraftfittedwithafixedpitchpropeller,thepilothasonlyonemethodofincreasingor
decreasingthrustandpropulsivepowerthatisbyvaryingengineRPM.Withvariablepitchpropellers
bothengineRPMandpropellerbladeangle(pitch)canbevariedinordertocontrolthrust.
Thereareseveraldifferenttypesofvariablepitchpropellersherearesomewhichtheprivatepilot
maycomeacross.

Adjustable-Pitch Propellers.
Adjustablepitchpropellers,liketheoneshowninFigure9.16,arepropellerswhichcanhavetheir
pitchadjustedonthegroundbymechanicallyresettingthebladesinthehub.Inflight,theyactas
fixedpitchpropellers.

Two-Pitch Propellers.
Twopitchpropellers,similartotheonefittedtotheGrob109binFigure9.17,arepropellerswhich
havefineandcoarsepitchsettingsthatcanbeselectedinflight.
Finepitchcanbeselectedfortakeoff,climbandlandingandcoarsepitchforcruise.Twopitch
propellerswillusuallyalsohaveafeatheredposition.

10.7 Constant-Speed Propellers

Modernaircrafthavepropellerswhicharecontrolledautomaticallytovarytheirpitch(bladeangle)so
astomaintainaselectedRPM.ThecontrolmechanismiscalledtheConstantSpeedUnit(CSU).The
operationoftheCSUisbeyondthescopeofPPLstudies.Aconstantspeed,variablepitchpropeller
permitshighefficiencytobeobtainedoverawiderrangeofairspeeds,givingimprovedtakeoff
andclimbperformanceandcruisingfuelconsumption.

Constant-Speed Propeller Controls.

Figure9.19illustratesatypicalsetofengineandpropellercontrolsforasmallpistonengineaircraft
withaconstantspeedpropeller.Throttle,propellerandmixturecontrolsareshowninthetakeoff
(allforward)position.
Atanygiventhrottlesetting,coarseningpropellerpitchandpullingbackontheRPMcontrolwilldecrease
RPM.
PushingforwardontheRPMcontrolwillfineoffpropellerpitchandincreaseRPM.

Areasonableanalogyistothinkofthepropellercontrolasaninfinitelyvariablegearchange
forwardmovement(increaseRPM)isfirstgear,backwardsmovement(decreaseRPM)isfifthgear.

Fine-Pitch.
Figure9.20showsconditionsduringtheearlystagesoftakeoffroll.Atlowairspeeds,atthestart
ofthetakeoffrun,thebladeangleneedstobesmall(finepitch)fortheangleofattacktobeoptimum.
Therefore,theRPMissettomaximumandthetrueairspeedislow.
Astheaircraftaccelerates,airspeedwillincrease,causingadecreaseintheangleofattackoftheblades.
Lessthrustandlesspropellertorquewillbegenerated.
ThusthereislessresistancefortheenginetoovercomeandRPMwilltendtoincrease.The
constantspeedunit(CSU)sensestheRPMincreaseandwillincreasebladepitchangletomaintaina
constantbladeangleofattackthroughouttheaircraft'sacceleration.

Coarse-Pitch (High Speed Flight).

Figures9.21aand9.21bshowtheconditionsathighforwardspeedinlevelflight.Astheairspeed
increased,theCSUwouldhavecontinuallyincreasedthebladeangle(coarsenedthepitch)to
maintainaconstantbladeangleofattack,and,thus,constantPropellerRPM.

Cruising Flight.

Cruising Flight.
Figure9.22ashowstheconstantspeedpropellercontrolssetforcruisingflight,andtheassociated
bladepitchangleandTrueAirSpeedvector.ThethrottleandRPMsettingsarenolongeratmaximum.
OptimumsettingsforRPMandmanifoldpressure(throttlesettings)duringcruisingflightwillbe
foundintheaircraft'sPilotOperatingHandbook.Therecommendedprocedurefortransitingfrom
theclimbtocruisingflightistoreducethrottlefirst,thenRPM.
Oncecruisingconfigurationhasbeenestablished,theConstantSpeedUnit(CSU)willadjusttheblade
pitchangletomaintaintheselectedRPMwhateverthesubsequentflightconditions,unlessthepilot
selectsadifferentRPM.

If,forinstance,thepilotloweredthenoseslightlytocommenceashallowdive,theloadonthe
propellerwoulddecrease,andRPMwouldtendtoincrease.TheCSU,however,willsensethistendency
andincreasethepitchangleofthepropellerbladetoslowtheRPMdowntothevalueselectedbythe
pilot.
Ifthepilotenteredashallowclimbthereversewouldhappen.Theloadonthepropellerwould
increaseandthepropellerRPMwouldbegintodecrease.HowevertheCSUwouldsensethisandfine
offthepropellerbladeinordertomaintaintheoriginalRPM.

Windmilling.
Ifthereisnoenginetorque(forinstance,thethrottleisclosedortheenginefails),thepropellerwillfine
offinanattempttomaintainthesetRPM.

AsshowninFigure9.23b,therelativeairflowwillimpingeonthefrontsurfaceofthebladeand
generatedrag,andconsequentlynegativepropellertorque.Thepropellerwillnowdrivetheengine.This
iscalledwindmilling.
Thedraggeneratedbyawindmillingpropellerisveryhigh.Topreventthisundesirableconditionarising,
constantspeedpropellerbladesareabletobefeatheredthatis,thebladescanbeturnededgeontothe
directionofflight.Inthisconfiguration,thepropellerwillceaserotating.
Asingleengineaeroplanefittedwithaconstantspeedpropellermaynothaveafeathering
capability,assuch.However,followingenginefailure,dragcanbereducedtoaminimumbymovingthe
propellerpitchcontrolto.thefullycoarseposition.

Flight Safety.
Arotatingpropellerbladeislethal.Alwaysgivethepropellerarcawideberthwhenapproachingan
aircraft,orcarryingoutchecksorpilotmaintenancetasks.Alwaystreatthepropelleraslive.An
electricalfaultmaycausethepropellertoturn,whenleastexpected.

11 Engine Handling

11.1 Precautions Before Starting

Intheinterestsofthesafetyoftheaircraft,thatofpeopleontheground,andofthepilot,anumberof
precautionshavetobetakenbeforeandafterflight.Thefollowingparagraphsexpandonafewofthese
precautions.

Engine Preparation.
Theengineoilcontentsshouldbecheckedtoensurethatthereissufficientoilfortheplannedflight.Some
aircrafthavetheoildipstickintegralwiththeoilfillercap,asisshowninFigure10.1,somake
surethatthefillercapissecureaftereithercheckingthecontents,orreplenishingtheoil.
Lookforsignsofoil,fuelorhydraulicfluidleaksrememberthatleakswillalwaysgetworsewhenthe
engineisrunning,especiallyoilleaks.

Checkthatplugleadsarefirmlyattachedtotheplugsandthattheprimingliresaresecure.Oncethe
checkinsidethecowlingsisfinished,ensurethatthecowlingsareclosedandthecatchesaresecure.
Thepropellershouldbecheckedfordamage.Makesurethattherearenonicksorcutsontheblades.
Checkthatthespinnerissecureandundamaged.Treatthepropellerwithagreatdealofrespectatall
times.Theresultsoftheenginefiringjustoncecouldbefatalifyouareinthewayofthepropellerblade,
sostayoutofitsarcanddonottouchitormoveitunnecessarily.

Positioning the Aircraft.

Theaircraftshouldbesitedonfirmlevelground,freefromloosestonesorlitterwhichmight
damageservicingequipmentorinjuregroundcrewifthrownupbytheslipstream(Figure10.2).
Wherepracticable,theaircraftshouldbefacingnoseintowind,andsopositionedthattheslipstreamis
directedawayfromotheraircraft,personsandbuildings.Theremustalsoberoomtotaxiaway.

Preparing for Engine Start .

Theparkingbrakeshouldbeapplied,asinFigure10.3,oralternatively,themainwheelsshouldbe
securelychocked,asisshowninFigure10.4,beforestartingtheengine.

Allcovers(e.g.pitottubecovers)andblankingplugsmustberemovedbeforestartingtheengine,andall
accesspanelsandhatchesmustbesecurelyclosed.

Ground Crew.
Ityouneedanyassistancetostarttheaircraft,makesurethatthoseindividualsinvolvedarethoroug'uy
conversantwiththeproceduresused.
Alsoensurethattheyarenotwearinglooseclothingthatmaygettangledinthepropellerorblown

Alsoensurethattheyarenotwearinglooseclothingthatmaygettangledinthepropellerorblown
abouttheairfieldintheslipstream.

Engine Starting.
Bearinmindthattheadvicegiveninthesechaptersisgeneral.Theadvicedoesnotapplytoany
particularaircrafttype.Initially,primetheengine,usingtheprimingpump,(Figure10.6),withthe
recommendedamountoffuelfortheprevailingenginetemperature.
Beingtoogenerouswiththeprimingmaycausetroubleforyoulater.Firstly,itmayfloodtheengine
andwettheplugsand,secondly,itcouldalsoputfuelintotheinductionsystemwhichmaystarta
carburettorfireiftheenginebackfires.Thisispotentiallyaverydangeroussituation.
Ifyouareunfortunateenoughtohaveacarburettorfire,keeptheengineturningoveronthe
startermotorput
themixturecontroltotheidlecutoffpositionandopenthethrottle.Turningtheengineoverwill
tendtosucktheflamesintothecylinders,wheretheywillnotdoanyharm.

Selectingidlecutoffwillstarvethefireoffuel,andopeningthethrottlewillmakeiteasierforthe
enginetosucktheflamesintothecylinders.Ifthefiredoesnotgoout,followtheactionsdetailedinthe
checklistforyouraircraft.
Assumingthatyouhaveprimedtheenginecorrectly,setthemixturecontroltotherichpositionand
setthethrottlejustopen.
Checkthattheareaaroundthepropellerisclearofpersonsandobstacles.Makingsurethatallinthe
vicinitycanhearyou,shout"Clearprop!"
Turnthemagneto/starterswitchthroughtothestartposition.Mostaircraftstartermotorshavea
limitationonhowlongtheycanremainenergised.Makesureyouknowthelimitationonyourparticular
engine,anddonotexceedit.
Assoonastheengineisrunning,releasethestarterswitchandimmediatelycheckthatthe
"starterengaged"warninglightisout.Ifthewarninglightisstillilluminated,stoptheengine
immediately.

Nowchecktheengineoilpressuregauge.Iftheoilpressuredoesnotregisterwithin30seconds,stopthe
engineimmediately.
Theengineshouldnowbeallowedtowarmup.Waituntilminimumtemperaturesandpressuresare
obtainedbeforeopeningthethrottlefurther.ThiswarmingupisdoneattherecommendedRPMas
statedintheoperator'shandbook.
Thisisaconvenienttimetocheckthattheaircraftsystemsarefunctioningsatisfactorily.Checkthatthe

fuelpressureiswithinlimitsandthatthealternatorisonline.Makesurethatthesuctionsystemis
providingthecorrectamountofvacuumandthatthehydraulicsystemisprovidingthecorrectpressures.

Magneto Dead-Cut Check.

WiththethrottlestillsetattheprescribedslowrunningRPM(thiswouldbe1200RPMinthePiper
PA28Warrior),thedeadcutcheckcanbecarriedout.Thischeckendeavourstoascertainwhetherthe
twomagnetosarebothworkingunderyourcontrol.
Eachmagnetomustbeselected"offintum.CheckineachcasethatthereisadropinRPMbutthatthe
enginedoesnotstop.Iftheenginedoesstop,donotbetemptedtoreselectthemagnetoswitchbackto
theBOTHpositionthiscouldpossiblycausemechanicaldamagetotheengine.

Engine Systems Check.

Nowcheckthattheenginepressuresandtemperaturesarewithinthegreenarcs,or,attheveryleast,the
yellowsectorsofthegauges.Changethefueltankselectortotheothertankandsetthethrottletothe
correctRPMforthemagnetocheck:usuallyaround2000RPM.
Checkthecorrectoperationofthecarburettorheatselectornow.Youshouldnoteadropinengine
speedascarburettorheatisselectedONbecausetheengineisreceivinghot,lessdenseair,asthe
mixturehasbeenmadeweaker.TheRPMdropshouldberegainedaftercarburettorheathasbeen
reselected"cold"andoncemorecoldairisbeingfedintothecarburettor.Ensurethatthesuctionsystem
isprovidingthecorrectamountofvacuum.

Magneto Check.
Th'emagnetocheckiscarriedouttomakesurethatbothmagnetosarefunctioningcorrectly.

Aseachmagnetoisselectedinturn,checkforadropinRPM.Thisdropmustbewithinthelimits
laiddownbythemanufacturers,andthedifferencebetweentheRPMdropofeachmagneto
mustalsobewithinatolerancefiguregivenbythemanufacturers.Thefallinenginespeedisdue
tothefactthatasyouswitchoffamagneto,youareessentiallyswitchingoffaplugineachcylinder,
thusincreasingthetimeittakesforthemixturetobefullyconsumedwithinthecylinder
IfnodropinRPMoccurs,thismayindicatethatthedeselectedmagnetohasnotbeenswitchedoff
orthatitwasnotworkinginthefirstplace.However,suchasituationshouldreallyhavebeen
noticedduringthedeadcutcheck.
AnexcessiveRPMdropwhenamagnetoisswitchedoffmaybeindicativeofoneofseveral
problems.Forinstance,theplugsoftheremainingmagnetomaybedefectiveorjustfouled.If
fouledplugsaresuspected,thenitmaybeworthleaningthemixtureoffforabout10or20seconds
toclearthem,andthenresettingthemixturetotherichposition,preparatorytotryingthecheck
again.
Aftercompletingthemagnetocheck,checktheaircraftsystemsonceagain.Notetheengineoil
temperatureandpressuregauges,andthelowoilpressurewarninglight.Ensurealsothatthefuel

pressureiswithintolerancesandthatthesuctionvacuumlevelissufficient.
Aftercheckingthatthealternatorisstillonline,andthattheammeterreadingisnormalforthe
loadsselected,closethethrottleandnotethattheengineidlesatabout600RPM.
ThensettheRPMtotherecommendedidlespeed,usuallyabout1200RPM.Settingthethrottletothis
levelpreventstheplugsbecomingfouledduringprolongedidling.

11.2 Operation of The Throttle

Getusedtooperatingthethrottleleversmoothly.Jerkyorrapidmovementofthethrottleleverwill
notmaketheenginerespondanymorequickly.Infact,itmaycausetheenginetohesitateorstutter
becauseofanoverweakmixture.
Engineshavebeenknowntostopbecauseofaweakcutcausedbyarapidlyopenedthrottle.Thiscould
behazardousatthestartofanattemptedgoaround.Countslowlyuptothreewhileopeningthe
throttlefromidletofullpower.Youshouldthenfindthattheenginewillaccelerateataboutthesame
rateasthatatwhichthethrottlelevermoves.
Thesamepracticeshouldbefollowedwhenreducingpower,especiallywhenthrottlingback
fromtakeoffpowersettings.Smoothoperationoftheenginecontrolswillallowtimeformixture
strengthandchargequantitytochangeinlinewiththeengine'srequirements.

11.3 Cylinder Head and Exhaust Gas Temperature

Theexhaustgastemperaturegaugeandthecylinderheadtemperaturegaugeareoftenconfusedwith
eachother.Theydo,however,performdifferentfunctions.

Theexhaustgastemperatureprobeisinstalledaboutfourinchesfromthecylinderheadinthe
exhaustsystem.Althoughtheexhaustgastemperaturegaugecanhelpintroubleshootinga
problemontheengine,itisprimarilyafuelmanagementinstrument. Ontheotherhand,thecylinder
headtemperaturegaugeisanengineinstrumentdesignedtoprotecttheengineagainstexcessiveheat.
Mostgeneralaviationaircraftenginestakethecylinderheadtemperaturefromthehottestsingle
cylinder.Thehottestcylinderisdeterminedbyextensiveflighttestscarriedoutbytheengine
manufacturers.
Minimuminflightcylinderheadtemperatureshouldbe65Celsius.Maximuminmostdirect
drivenormallyaspiratedenginesis2600Celsius.Someofthehigherpowered,morecomplex
engineshaveamaximumlimitof2450Celsius.
Althoughthesefiguresareminimumandmaximumlimits,thepilotshouldoperatehisengineatmore
reasonabletemperaturesinordertoenableittoachieveitsexpectedoverhaullife.
Inpractice,ithasbeenfoundthatengineshavebenefitedgreatlyduringcontinuousoperationby
keepingCylinderHeadTemperaturesbelow2050Celsiusinordertoachievethebestlifeandwear.
Ingeneral,itwouldbenormalduringallyearoperations,inclimbandcruise,tomaintainthecylinderhead
temperatureswithintherangeof1750to2250Centigrade.

11.4 The Mixture Control

Thewaythemixturecontrolworkshasbeendescribedinthechapteroncarburation.Wewillnowdescribe
itsoperationduringthetakeoffandlandingphases,theclimbandthecruise,andalsoitsuseintheidle
cutoff(ICO)operation.

Use of the Mixture Control During Take-off and Landing.

Weknowthatdetonationismostlikelytooccurunderconditionswherechargetemperaturesand
pressuresarehigh.Thetakeoffisaphaseofflightwhentheseconditionsoccur.Also,becausea
pilotmayhavetogoaroundfromthelandingphase,onceagaingeneratingthesameconditionsason
takeoff,hemustselectthemixturetofullyrich,inthiscircumstance,too.
Theadditionofextrafuelintothecylindersreducesthevolumetricefficiencyoftheengine,which
alsoreducesthepotentialoftheenginetoproducepower.Ontheotherhand.thecoolingeffectthatthe
evaporationofthefuelhasonthecharge,preventsdetonation,andthereforeallowstheenginetodeliver
itsmaximumratedoutput.

Use of the Mixture Control During the Climb.

Wealreadyknowfromthecarburationchapterthat,becauseoftheair'sdecreasingdensitywith
increasingaltitude,thefuelairmixturegetsricherastheaircraftclimbs.Thisisbecausetheweightof
fuelbeingfedintothecylindersdoesnotreducebythesameproportionastheairbeingfedintothe
cylinders.
Aslongastheclimbdoesnotcontinueabove,say,5000feet,thisisnotreallyaproblem.Therich
mixturedoesthesamejobitdidduringthetakeoffphaseitstopsdetonationbycoolingthecharge
temperature.Sothemixturecontrolcanbeleftatfullyrichintheclimb.

Use of the Mixture Control at Altitude.

Duringthecruisephaseofflight,themixturecanbeleanedofftogivebetterfueleconomy.Ifyour
aircrafthasanexhaustgastemperature(EGT)gauge,thiscanbeusedtogiveanindicationofthe
correctmixturesetting.Ifthemixturecontrolismovedtowardslean,theEGTwillpeakwhentheair
fuelratiois15:1.
Itshouldberemembered,though,thatthisratioshouldnotbeused,asdetonationcanoccur.On
reachingthepeakEGT,themixturecontrolshouldbemovedtowardsrich.Thecylinderheadtemperature
shouldthenreduceTheaircraft'sflightmanualwillspecifyatemperaturedropwhichwillgivethe
richcruisesetting.
IfanEGTgaugeisnotfitted,thefollowingalternativemethodofsettingthecorrectmixturestrength
forthecruise,byusingtheengineRPMasaguide,maybeutilized.
Movingthemixturecontrolfromthefullyrichpositiontoaweakersettingbringstheairfuelratio
closertothechemicallycorrectvalueofapproximately15:1Remember,atthisratioalloftheairand
fuelareconsumedandtheheatreleasedbycombustionISatitsmaximum.Moreheatmeansmorepower,

fuelareconsumedandtheheatreleasedbycombustionISatitsmaximum.Moreheatmeansmorepower,
sowithafixedpitchpropellertheRPMwillrise.Butcontinuingtoweakenthemixturefromthis
pointwillcausetheRPMtoreduce
Movethemixturecontroltoapositionalittlericherthanthechemicallycorrectposition,and
notethattheRPMdecreasesslightly.Thissettingcanbeassumedtobetheoptimumforeconomical
cruisinqflight.

Idle Cut-Off.
ThenormalmethodofshuttingdownanaircraftengineisbycuttingoffthefuelsupplyThis
hasseveraladvantagesoverthemethodusedinautomobileengineswheretheIgnitionisswitchedoff.
Cuttingoffthefuelensuresthattheenginecannot'runon,aphenomenonwhichcanoccurifthe
enginehasanyincandescentcarbondepositsinthecombustionchamber.Italsomeansthatnofuel
ISallowedtobesuckedintothecylindersduringthosefewlastrevolutionsbeforetheenginestops.Any
fuelbroughtintothecylinderaftercombustionceaseswilltendtowashthelubricatingoilfromthe
cylinderwalls,and,asaconsequence,thenexttimeitstarts,theengmesufferswear.
Inthechapteroncarburation,theidlecutoffsectionofthecarburettorwasdescribedinsomedetail.
Theidlecutoffmaybeaseparatecontrol,oritmaybeincorporatedinthemixturecontrollever.By
closingthethrottleandpullingthemixturecontrollevertotheIdlecutoffposition,thefuelflow
betweenthefloatchamberandtheventuriiscutoff.

12 ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

12.1 Introduction
Theelectricalsysteminalightaircraftoperatescomponentsandservicessuchasthelanding
light,radios,turncoordinator,startermotor,transponder,navigation equipment,pitot
heater,electricfuelpumpandsoon.

12.2 Electrical Current

Direct Current.
Mostlightaircraftuseadirectcurrent(DC)supplytodrivetheelectricalservices.

Thetermdirectcurrentimpliesthattheelectronswhichmakeuptheflowofcurrentaretravellingin
onedirectiononly.Conventionusedbyelectriciansandelectricalengineers,statesthattheelectrons
flowfromaposnveterrrunatoanegativeterminal.butthescientificexplanationofelectriccurrent
showsthatactualelectronflowISfromthenegativepoletothepositivepoleasdepictedInFigure
11.1Thedifferencebetweenthedirectionsof"conventionalflow"and"actualflow"willnot
concernyouforyourPPLstudies.

Alternating Current.
Inanalternatingcurrent(AC)theelectronsinthecircuitoscillatebackwardsandforwardsabouta
meanpoint.Thismightseematfirstglanceasifitwouldberatherineffective,onemovement
cancellingouttheother,butthisisnotthecase.Anymovementofelectronsgenerateselectrical
energy.

Althoughalternatingcurrentisusedinlightaircraftonlyforpowergeneration,Itisusedmuchmore
thandirectcurrentincommercialairlinerswhererelativelylight,powerful,reliableandefficient
machineryisrequired.

Current Flow.
Thestrengthofcurrentflowingthroughaconductor,suchasanaircraftelectricalcable,ismeasured
inAmperes,commonlyknownasAmps,byaninstrumentcalledanAmmeter.

Water Analogy.
Imaginethecurrentflowingthroughacableasbeingsimilartowaterflowinginapipeline.

Thisanalogy,picturedinFigure11.4,iscalledthe'wateranalogy'.Forpeoplenottoowellacquainted
withelectricity,thewateranalogycancomeinveryhandyinalmostallsituationswhendealingwith
simpledirectcurrentcircuits.
Forwatertoflowthroughthepipe,apressuredifferencemustexistacrossthepipe.Thepressureatone
endofthepipemustbegreaterthanthepressureattheotherend.Pressuredifferenceisusuallyobtained
byplacingaheadertankabovethelevelofthewholewatersystemandthustheforceofgravitycauses

byplacingaheadertankabovethelevelofthewholewatersystemandthustheforceofgravitycauses
thewatertoflow.

Voltage.
Inanelectricalcircuit,the"pressuredifference"requiredtomoveelectronsalongawireistermed
the"electromotiveforce"(EMF),orsimply"voltage",whichismeasuredinvoltsonan
instrumentcalledavoltmeter.

Thiselectromotiveforce,orvoltage,canbegeneratedinseveralways.Inalightaircraft,themain
sourceofEMForvoltageisthegeneratororalternator,withthebatteryservingasabackup.The
batterycanruntheaircraft'sessentialservicesforabout30minutes,ifanaircraft'sgeneratoror
alternatorfails.Thebatteryalsosuppliespowerforenginestarting.

Resistance and Resistors.

Anycomponentorcharacteristicofacircuitwhichopposeselectronflowiscalledaresistor.
Componentswhicharedesignedspecificallytoprovideresistancearecalledresistors.Resistorsare
usedintheconstructionofallpracticalcircuits.

12.3 Power Distribution

Electriccurrentisfedbyageneratororalternatortotheindividualelectricalcomponentsofany
aircraftelectricalsystemviabusbars,whicharemerelyconvenientcollectionanddistributionpointsfor
currentflow.
Thebusbarsareusuallysolidcopperbarswhicharedrilledandtappedsothatsupplyand
distributioncablescanbeattachedtothem.

Single-Pole.
Mostlightaircraftwhichutilisemetalconstructionaresinglepoleorearthreturnelectricalsystems.
Thismeansthattheindividualcomponentsaresuppliedviathebusbarsandcables,andtocomplete
thecircuit,thereturncurrentflowsbackthroughthemetaloftheairframe.

Double-Pole.
Aircraftwhicharemadeofnonconductivematerials,liketheDiamondStarshowninFigure
11.8,requireadoublepoleortwowiresystem.Thismeansthataswellashavingacabletaking
thecurrentflowtoeachindividualcomponent,anothercableisrequiredtocompletetheelectrical
circuitbacktothenegativesideofthegeneratororalternator.

AlternatorsandGenerators.Alternatorsandgeneratorsproducetheelectricityneededtocharge
thebatteryandtooperatetheaircraft'selectricalequipment.Putsimply,whileageneratorproduces
directcurrent,analternatorproducesalternatingcurrentinternally,andusesadevicecalledadiode
rectifiertoturnthealternatingcurrentintodirectcurrent,whichisthenfedtotheaircraftcircuit.
Alternatorsarecommonlyusedinaircraftbecauseoftheirdependability.
Whileageneratorwillgenerallyrequiretheenginetorunatapproximatelyhalfspeedbeforeitwill
deliveritsfulloutput,analternatorwillgivealmostfullpowerevenatengineidlingspeed.

12.4 Batteries
Inalightaircraft,aleadacidbatteryprovidesastoreofelectricalenergyenablingtheengineto
bestarted.Thebatteryisalsoasourceofemergencyelectricalpower,intheeventofalternator
orgeneratorfailure.
Abatteryismadeupofanumberofcellsconnectedinserieswhichconvertchemicalenergyinto
electricalenergy.

Primary Cells.
Therearetwotypesofcell:theprimaryandthesecondary.
Theprimarycellisthetypenormallyusedinhandheldequipment,suchastorchesandtransistor
radiosetc.Itconsistsoftwoelectrodesincontactwithachemicalcalledanelectrolyte.Theelectrolyte
encourageselectrontransferbetweentheelectrodesuntilanelectronimbalancebetweenthemexists,
givingrisetoapotentialdifferenceorvoltage.Apotentialdifferenceofapproximately1.5Voltsexists
betweentheelectrodesofanunusedprimarycell.
Forconvenience,oneoftheelectrodesisthecaseofthecellandcontainstheelectrolyte.Theother
electrodeisplacedwithinthiscase,asshowninFigure11.10b.Whenthetwoelectrodes,whichwe
maycallpositiveandthenegativepoles,areconnectedwithinacircuit,electronswillflowthroughthe
circuit.
Thisflowofelectronsinthecircuitismatchedbyaninternaltransferofelectronsfromthepositivetothe
negativeelectrodeoftheprimarycell.Astheflowofelectronscontinues,thenegativeelectrons
slowlydissolveintotheelectrolyteuntilnofurtherelectronimbalanceexists.Atthispointthecellis
dead.Oncedischarged,primarycellscannotberecharged.

Secondary Cells.
Secondarycellsworkonthesameprincipleasprimarycells,butinthecaseofthesecondary
cell,thechemicalenergyinthecellcanberestoredwhenthecellhasbeendischarged,by
passingachargingcurrentthroughthecellinthereversedirectiontothatofthedischargecurrent.
Inthisway,thesecondarycellcanbechargedanddischargedmanytimesoveralongperiodof
time.
Whenabatteryisrecharged,electricalenergyisconvertedintochemicalenergywhichisretainedwithin
thebatteryuntilitisonceagaindischarged.Theleadacidbatteryisthemostcommontypeof
secondarycellbatteryusedinlightaircraft.Theelectrodesinaleadacidbatteryarecalledplates.
PlatesareillustratedinFigure11.11.
Thereisapositiveplate,whichismadeofleadperoxide,andanegativeplatewhichismadeofspongy
lead.Bothoftheplatesareimmersedinanelectrolyteofdilutesulphuricacid.

Thestateofchargeofaleadacidcellcanbedeterminedbymeasuringthespecificgravityofthe
electrolytesolutionwithahydrometer.anexampleofwhichisshowninFigure11.12.Theelectrolyte
ofafullychargedcellwillhaveaspecificgravityof1.275,whereastheelectrolyteofadischarged
cellwillhavemuchmorediluteacid,withaspecificgravitysomewhereintheregionof1.17.

Voltage.
Thevoltageofaleadacidbatterycellwhenitisoffload,thatis,notgeneratingcurrent,is2.2Volts.Ifa
loadisappliedtotheterminalsofthecell.theoutputvoltagewillfalltojust2.0Volts.

Capacity.
Thecapacityofacellisameasureofhowmuchcurrentitcanprovideoveracertainperiodoftime.
Thecapacityofacellisdeterminedbytheareaoftheelectrodes.orplatesastheyarecalledina
secondarycell.CapacityismeasuredinAmperehours.

Aircraftbatteriesareusually12or24Voltleadacidbatteriesconsistingofanumberofindividualcells
connectedinseries.Batteriesareclassifiedbytheirvoltageandtheircapacitytoprovideacurrent
foragivenamountoftime.
Acellwithacapacityof80Amperehoursshouldprovideacurrentof8Amperesfor10hours,or
alternatively,80Amperesfor1hour.However,becausetheabilityofabatterytoretainitsoutput
voltagediminishesasthedischargerateincreases,capacityisnormallytestedatthe10hourrate.A
typicallightaircraftbatterywouldberatedataround30Amperehours.

Cells Connected in Series.

ThecircuitdiagraminFigure11.13showscellsconnectedinseries.asina12Voltaircraftbattery.
Eachcellisratedat2Volts.andhasacapacityof80Amperehours.Noticehowthevoltageofthecircuit
increaseswiththeadditionofeachcell.Notealso,however,thatthecapacityofthecomplete
batteryremainsthesameasthecapacityofonecell,regardlessofhowmanycellsthereareconnectedin
series.

Cells Connected in Parallel.

ThecircuitdiagramInFigure11.14showsfivecellsjoinedtogetherinparallel.Eachcellisratedat2
Volts,and,inthiscase,hasacapacityof20Amperehours.Theoutputvoltageofthecircuitisthatof
justonecell,2Volts,butthetotalcapacityisthesumoftheindividualcellcapacities,thatis,100Ampere
hours.

Charging A Battery.

Charging A Battery.
Tochargeabattery,itmustbeconnectedtoanelectricalsupplywhichhasaslightlyhighervoltagethan
thatofthebatteryitself.

Whenthebatteryisbeingcharged,greatcaremustbetakenregardingtherateofcharge.Iftherateof
chargeistoohigh,then'gassing'willtakeplace.

Gassingistheformationofhydrogengasontheplates.Thegasmustbeallowedtimetoescapethrough
theventcapofthebatteryiftoomuchgasisproducedintooshortatimethenthereisadangerthata
buildupofgaspressurecouldcausethebatterytoexplode,withthesubsequentreleaseofthesulphuric
acidwithin.
Undernormalcircumstances,theoutputvoltageofthealternatororgeneratorcharginga12Volt
batteryonanaircraftwouldbemaintainedconstantat14Volts.asisshowninFigure11.15,whereasthe
outputofanalternatoronanaircraftwitha24Voltsystemwouldbemaintainedconstantat28Volts.

12.5 Ammeters
Ammetershavealowinternalresistanceandareplacedinserieswithanelectricalcircuittomeasurethe
currentflowingintooroutofthebattery.Therearetwotypesofammeterusedinlightaircraft

The Loadmeter.
Thefirsttypeofammeter,showninFigure11.16a.hasitszeropositiononthedialovertotheextreme
leftofthescale.Thistypeofammeterindicatestheactualloadonthealternator,inotherwordsthe
alternator'soutput,andis,therefore,commonlycalledaloadmeter.

The Centre-Zero Ammeter.

Thesecondtypeofammeter,showninFigure11.16b.hasitszeropositioninthecentreofthescale.
Thistypeofammeterindicatesthecurrentflow.bothinandoutofthebattery.Whenthebatteryisbeing
charged.theneedleisdeflectedtotherightofthecentreposition.Whenthebatteryisdischarging,the
needleisdisplacedleftofcentre.

12.6 Voltmeters
Voltmetershaveahighinternalresistance.Theyareconnectedinparallelwithanelectricalcircuit
orcomponenttomeasurethevoltagedrop,orpotentialdifferencebetweentwopointsinacircuit(see
Figures11.5and11.15).Inalightaircraftthevoltmeterindicatestheconditionofthebatteryandits
abilitytodeliverthecurrentrequiredtopowertheaircraftsystems.

12.7 Load Indications And Faults

Afterstartinganengineusingtheaircraftbattery.thegeneratororalternatorcontinuallyrechargesthe
battery.
Rechargingisindicatedonboththecentrezeroammeterorloadmeterasaload.Initiallythe
indicationofchargewillbequitehigh.butitshouldquicklyreduceasthebatteryisrecharged.
Pilotsshouldbeawarethat,iftheloadincreasesorremainshigh.thiscouldbeanindicationofa
faultybattery.Remember,ahighchargeratecouldresultinabatteryoverheatingandsuffering
damage.

Electrical Faults.
Abnormalconditionsmayariseinanelectricalcircuitforavarietyofreasons.
Forinstance.abreakdownoftheinsulationononeofthecablescarryingthesupplytoa
componentwillcauseadramaticriseinthecurrentflowinginthatcableIfthecablecomesinto
contactwiththemetaloftheairframe.
Thereareseveralseriousproblemsinherentinthissituation.Firstly.andprobablyleastserious,isthe
factthatthecomponentbeingfedbythefaultycablewillceasetooperate.
Secondly,ifthecircuitwasnotprotected.thecurrentwhichwouldflowthroughthisshortcircuit,
causedbycontactbetweenanexposedcableandtheairframe.wouldbesogreatthatitcouldcausethe
powergenerationcircuit.(thealternatororgeneratorandthebattery),tofail.Thiswouldleavethe
aircraftwithoutelectricalpower.
Thirdly,andpotentiallythemostserious,thereistheriskoffire.Atthepointwheretheunprotectedcable
contactstheairframemetal,therewillundoubtedlybesparkswhichwilligniteanythinginthevicinity,
andthecableitselfwillgetsohotthatmoreinsulationwillbemeltedfromthecable.makingthesnuation
worse.

12.8 Types of Circuit Protection

Althoughthereareanumberofprotectiondevicesusedinaircraftelectricalsystems,wewlllonlylookat
onlytwoofthem.Thesearecircuitbreakers(Figure11.18),andfuses(Figure11.19).

Thefundamentaldifferencebetweenfusesandcircuitbreakersisthetimeittakesforeachofthem
tooperatefromthemomentmaximumfaultcurrentflowsinthecircuit.
Afusenormallybreaksthecircuitbeforefullfaultcurrentisreached,whereasthecircuitbreaker
operatestobreakthecircuitafterfullfaultcurrentisreached.
Thecircuitbreakercanalsofunctionincertaincircumstancesasaswitch,openingandclosingacircuit
asrequired.

Fuses.
Themostcommontypeoffuseinuseonlightaircraftisthecartridgefuse,illustratedinFigure
11.19.Itconsistsofatubularglassorceramicbodywiththefuseelementrunningthroughthe
centre,connectedtotwobrassendcaps.
Thewirefuses,orblows,whenthecurrentflowingthroughitissufficienttomeltthefuseelement.
Thetimethistakesvariesinverselywiththecurrent.Allfusesareratedataspecificcurrent
value:thatcurrentbeingthecurrenttheelementwillcarrycontinuouslywithoutundulyheating
upordeteriorating.

Thecurrentratingofafuse(e.g5Ampor15Amp)inaparticularcircuitissuchthatitisnotlessthan
thenormalcurrentflowinginthatcircuit,butwillblowatacurrentlevelbelowthesafetylimitofthe
equipmentorcableused.Forthisreason,onlythespecifiedfuseratingshouldbeusedinaparticular
circuit.
Afusewhichhasblownmaybereplacedwithanotherfuseofthecorrectrating,butonlyonce.Ifthe
replacementfuseblowswhenthecircuitisreactivated,thenthereisobviouslyadefectinthesystem,
andthefusemustnotbechangedagainuntilthecircuithasbeenfullyinvestigated.
Fuseswhichhaveagreaterratingthanthatspecifiedforaparticularcircuitmustneverbeused.
Theconsequencesofdoingsowillmostprobablyincludegreaterdamagebeingcaused,andmaybe
anelectricalfireifthecircuitdoesdevelopafault.

Circuit-Breakers.
Circuitbreakersarefitted,asarefuses,toprotectequipmentfromoverloadorfaultconditions.They
incorporateaheatsensitivetrippingdeviceandamanuallyoperatedtripf'resetswitch.
ThetypeofcircuitbreakershowninFigures11.18and11.20canberatedfrombetween5to45
Amps.Thebuttonisshowninthe"popped"position,indicatingthatthecircuitisbroken.


Acircuitbreakerwhichhasoperated,orpopped,mayberesetonceonly.Donotbetemptedtoreset
itasecondtime.Ifithaspoppedtwice,youmaybesurethatanelectricalfaultispresent.Resettingthe
circuitbreakertwicewillonlyexacerbatethefault.

12.9 The Alternator Circuit

Whentheengineisrunning,thealternatorproducestheelectriccurrenttochargethebatteryand
operatetheaircraft'selectricalequipment.Figure11.21showsasimplifiedalternatorcontrolcircuit.
Figure11.27,attheendofthischapter,showstheconstructionoftherotatingfieldalternatorofthe
typefittedtomostlightaircraft.
Someaircraft,suchasmotorgliders,haveageneratorinsteadofanalternator.Fromthepointof
viewofthepilot,generatorandalternatorcontrolcircuitsareverysimilar,theonlydifferenceworth
notingisthatthealternatorcircuitincorporatesadioderectifierasshowninFigure11.21.Thediode
rectifierchangesthealternatingcurrentoutputofthealternatortodirectcurrent,aprocedurewhichis
unnecessarywithageneratorbecauseitsoutputisdirectcurrent.

Atthetopofthediagramyoucanseethebusbar,which,aswepreviouslyexplainedisadistributionpoint
fortheoutputofthealternator.Ontheleftofthecircuitdiagramisthefieldcircuitandtotherightis
thepowercircuit,bothofwhichwewillnowdescribeinmoredetail.

Field Circuit
Thefieldcircuitisthecircuitwhichexcitesorpowersthemagneticcoilinsidethealternator,and
whichcontrolsthealternatoroutput.Thegreaterthecurrentthroughthefieldcircuit,thegreaterthe
strengthofthecurrentproducedbythealternator.Consequently,thecircuitbreakerinthecockpitis
the5Ampalternatorfieldcircuitbreaker.Thepowercircuitofthealternatorcarriesupto50Amps.
Therecouldbenocircuitbreakerinthecockpitbigenoughtocarrythatsizeofcurrent.

Alternatoroutputiscontrolledbythefieldcircuit.ThefieldcircuitofthealternatorshowninFigure
11.21isprotectedbya5Amperecircuitbreaker.Alsointhefieldcircuitisthealternatormaster
switch(seeFigure11.22.)Thealternatormasterswitchistherighthandswitchofthepairofred
switches.Immediatelytotheleftofthealternatormasterswitchisthebatterymasterswitch,also
red.Thesetwoswitchescontrolallaircraftelectricalsystemsexcepttheignitionsystem.
Thebatterymasterandalternatormasterswitchescanbeswitchedonindividually,butonlythealternator
switchcanbeswitchedoffonitsown.Switchingthebatterymasterswitchoff,willalsoswitchthe
alternatoroff.Ifeitherthefieldcircuitbreakeroralternatormasterswitchisopened,thenthealternator
fieldbecomesinoperativeandthealternatorwillnotproduceanyoutput.
AlsoshowninFigure11.21,inthefieldcircuit,istheovervoltsrelay.Arelayisjustanelectrically
operatedswitch.Thisrelaywilloperatetoopenthefieldcircuitifthealternatoroutputvoltagerises
above16.5Volts.Theeffectwillbethesameasifthefieldcircuitbreakeroralternatormaster
switchhadbeenopened,thatis,thatthealternatorwillceaseproducingoutput.Inthetypeofcircuit
shown,theovervoltagerelaycanberesetbyswitchingoffthealternatormasterswitchforabouttwo
secondsandthenswitchingitbackonagain.
AdjacenttothealternatorinFigure11.21isthevoltageregulator.Asitsnameimplies,it
controlsthevoltageoutputofthealternator,inthiscasemaintainingoutputatbetween14.5to16Volts.

Power Circuit.
ThepowercircuitshowninFigure11.21,conductstheoutputofthealternatortothebusbar,where
currentisthendistributedtotheindividualaircraftelectricalcomponents.Thedioderectifieris
necessary,toconvertthealternatingcurrentoutputofthealternatortodirectcurrent.The
ammetermeasuresthetotalcurrentflowingfromthealternatortothebusbar.

12.10 Electrically Operated Services

Figure11.23showsasimplifiedelectricalwiringdiagramofatypicallightaircraft.Itisworth
studyingthecircuitcloselyandnotingthatin'thetypeofaircraftelectricalcircuitillustrated,allof
theloadsbuttwoareprotectedbycircuitbreakersofvaryingamperage.Theexceptionsarethepower
sideofthestartercircuitandthebattery.

The Starter Circuit.

AlthoughthepowersideofthestartermotorcircuitshowninFigure11.23isnotprotected,the
controlpartofthatcircuitis.Notethatthestarterswitchgetsitssupplyfromthebusbarviaa15Amp
circuitbreaker.
Astartermotorwilltakeconsiderablymorethan15Ampswhenitisfirstselecteduponenginestart.
Infact,theinitialloadonthebatterywillexceedthisfigurebymorethanafactoroffour.Thisstrengthof
currentflowwouldcausethecircuitbreakertopopopeninaninstant,and,ifsuchacurrentwereto
flowthroughthestarterswitch,itwouldeithermeltitscontactsorweldthemtogether.
Topreventeitheroftheseoccurrences,thestartingcurrentistakenfromthebatteryandpassedthrough
astarterrelay.
Thestarterrelayisremotelycontrolledbythestarterswitch.Whenthestarterswitchisoperated,itsends
asupplyofcurrenttoenergizethecoilofthestarterrelay.Thestarterrelayhaslargecontactswhich
arecapableofpassingtheveryhighcurrentrequiredbythestartermotor.So,usingthisrelaymethod,
thesmallcurrentflowingthroughthestarterswitchcircuitisabletogenerateamorepowerfulcurrent,
causingthestartermotortorotatetheengine.

The Battery Circuit.

Oncetheenginehasstarted,thecurrentthathasbeendrainedfromthebatterymustbereplacedby
thealternator.Wehavealreadystatedthatinitiallythiscurrentflow,whichwillbeindicatedonthe
ammeter,willbequitehigh.Howeverthecurrentflowshouldquicklyreduceasthebatterybecomes
recharged.Ifnoloadsatallareselected,thentheonlycurrentflowingthroughtheammeterwillbe
thebatterychargingcurrent.Evenwhenthebatteryisfullyrecharged,theresidualchargingcurrent
willstillbeabout2Amps.Duringnightflying,thepilotshouldaddthistotheotherloadsplacedonthe
alternatorandyouwouldexpectareadingofapproximately32Amps.
Iftheammeterreadingdropstozeroinflight,thisprobablyindicatesthatthealternatorhasfailed.
InFigure11.16weshowedtwowaysinwhichammeterscanbewiredintotheelectricalsystem.
Onetypeofammeterhasthezeropositionontheleftsideofthedialandiscalledaloadmeter.Theother
typeofammeterhasthezerointhecentreofthedialandisreferredtoasacentrezeroammeter.
Priortoenginestart,withperhapsthenavigationlights,instrumentpanellightsandtheelectricalfuel
pumpselectedon,acentrezeroammeterWillshow,bythefactthattheneedleisindicatingInthe
negativeportionofthedial,thatthebatteryisdischarging
Justafterstart,whenthebatteryissomewaytowardshavingrecovereditscharge,theammeterneedle

Justafterstart,whenthebatteryissomewaytowardshavingrecovereditscharge,theammeterneedle
shouldindicateinthepositiveportionofthedial.ThistellsthepilotthatthealternatorIScapableof
supplyingalltheelectricalloadsaswellasthebatterychargingcurrent.
If,ontheotherhand,withtheenginerunning,theammeterneedleisinthenegativesideofthescale,itis
tellingthepllotthatthealternatorisunabletosupplydemandandthatthebatteryisdischarging.In
thissituation,thepilotshouldswitchoffunnecessaryelectricalloadsuntiltheammeterneedleis
onceagaininthepositiveportionofthedial.Thiswillthenindicatethatthereisaflowofcharge
currentintothebattery.
Anaircraftwithaflatbatteryshouldnotbeflown.Thealternatormaynotfullychargethebattery
duringtheflight.Ifanalternatororgeneratorfailureshouldoccur,thebatteryneedsbefullycharged
ifthebatteryistobeabletopoweressentialelectricalequipmentforareasonableminimumamountof
time.

12.11 Recognition of Malfunctions in The Electrical System

Mostmalfunctionsoftheaircraftelectricalsystemwillbeindicatedtothepilotbyeitherthe
illuminationofwarninglightsorbythereadingsontheammeter.
Iftheaircrafthasanannunciator(warninglight)system,itislikelythatthisincludesanalternatorfailure
warninglight.Atestbuttonwillbeincorporatedintotheannunciatorsystemtocheckthelightbulb
filaments.
Theammeterreadingshavealreadybeencovered,butwewillcoverthemoncemorefromthepoint
ofviewoftheindicationsofmalfunctions.

Malfunctions Indicated on the 'Loadmeter'.

Theloadmeter,thetypeofammeterwhichhasthezeroontheleftsideofthedial,willindicatealternator
failurebytheneedledroppingtozero.

Ontheotherhand,iftheloadmeterreadingremainsexcessivelyhigh,beyondthetimeperiodduring
whichthebatterywouldnormallyhaverechargeditself,thisreadingmayindicatethatthebattery
hasanexcessivechargerate.

Anexcessivechargeratewillcausethebatterytostartlosingsomeofthematerialfromitsplates.This
willcauselastingandseriousdamagetothebattery.Thehighchargewillalsocausethebatteryto
getveryhot,possiblysomuchsothattheelectrolytewillevaporate,exposingtheplatestotheairandonce
againcausingthemdamage.\

Thepilot.however.shouldbearinmindthatthehighchargeratecouldperhapsbebroughtabout
byafaultyvoltageregulator.Ifthisisthecase,alloftheaircraftequipmentwillbeatriskof
becomingoverheatedandimpaired,especiallyheatsensitivecomponentsliketheradioandnavigation
equipment.

Indications on the Centre-Zero Ammeter.

Theindicationonthecentrezeroammeterthatthebatteryischarged,andthesystemis
functioningnormally.isgivenbytheneedlestayingcentral,orjustrightofcentreofthegauge.

Thecentrezeroammeterwillindicatealternatorfailurebytheneedleshowingaconstantheavy
dischargethatis,farintotheleftsideofthescale.
Iftheneedlestaysjustinthenegativeportionofthescaleforanylengthoftime,thismayindicate
thatthealternatorisincapableofsupplyingalltheloadsaswellasrechargingthebatteryatthe
sametime.Thissituationwillrequiresomeoftheelectricalequipmenttobeswitchedoff,otherwise
thebatterywilleventuallybecomecompletelydischarged.

thebatterywilleventuallybecomecompletelydischarged.

Alternator Failure Drill.

Thefollowingpracticesarenottobeconsideredasbeingrepresentativeofemergencydrillsforany
particularaircrafttype.Theyarepurelygeneralrecommendationswhichshouldbeconsideredifan
alternatorshouldfail.
Ifthealternatorwarninglightilluminatesatnormalenginespeed,andeithertheloadmetershows
zeroorthecentrezeroammeterindicatesaheavydischarge,thefollowingactionsshouldbe
considered.
Initially,judiciouslyselectoffanyelectrical,radioandnavigationservicesnotvitaltothesafeoperation
oftheaircraft.
Next,checkthefieldcircuitbreakertoseeifithastripped.Ifitlooksnormal,considertrippingand
resettingitanyway.Ifyouraircraftsystemhasovervoltageprotectionandthefieldcircuitbreaker
hasnottripped,theseindicationsmaybeevidencethattheovervoltagerelayhastripped.
Switchoffthealternatormasterswitch,showninFigure11.22,andleaveitoffforabouttwo
seconds.Thenswitchitbackonagain.Nowchecktheloadmeterorcentrezeroammeterand
thealternatorfailurewarninglight.Iftheindicationsarethatthealternatoroutputhasbeen
restored,switchontheservicessinglyinorderoftheirimportancetothesafeoperationoftheaircraft.
Dothisrelativelyslowlyanddeliberately,allowingsufficienttimebetweeneachserviceselectionfor
theloadtobetakenupbythealternator.Shouldthealternatorfailagain,thedrillshouldbe
repeated,butthistimewithoutselectingthefaultyservice.
Ifthepilot'sattemptatrestoringthealternatorisunsuccessful,itisadvisabletoreducethe
electricalloadasmuchaspossible.andlandassoonasispracticable.Thebatterywillcontinue
poweringelectricalequipmentforashortwhile,butallunnecessaryequipmentshouldbeshut
down.
Rememberthatforsomeelectricalequipment,suchastheturncoordinator,theonlywaytoswitch
offistopullthecircuitbreaker.Ifthealternatorhasfailed,youshouldturnoffthealternatorhalfof
themasterswitchbecausethefieldcircuitoftheinoperativealternatorwillstillbedrawingelectric
currentand,ifnotisolatedfromthebattery,willuseupbatterypowerunnecessarily.
Remember,too,thatanyradiotransmissionsyoumakewillalsouseupbatterypower.

13 VACUUM SYSTEMS

13.1 Introduction
Mostmodernlightaircraftuseenginedrivensuctionpumps,liketheoneshowninFigure12.
1,togenerateavacuum,or,moreaccurately,alowpressureareawhichinducesanairflowinto
themaingyrooperatedinstruments.(Thereisusuallyatleastoneelectricallydrivengyroinstrument,
usuallythetumcoordinatororturnindicator,incaseofvacuumsystemfailure.)
Theairflowisdirectedoverbucketsformedintherimoftherotoroftheinstrumentgyrosandthis
spinsthemroundatveryhighspeed.
TheinstrumentswhichareusuallypoweredbythevacuumsystemaretheAttitudeIndicator,or
ArtificialHorizon,andtheHeadingIndicator,oftencalledtheDirectionIndicator(01),shownin
Figure12.2.

13.2 Components
Thevacuumsystemconsistsofameansofgeneratingavacuum,amethodofcontrollingthe
vacuum,afiltertocleantheairbeingsuckedthroughtheinstrumentsandthenecessarypipeworkto
joinallthecomponentstogether.Thecomponentsformingasimplifiedvacuumsystemareshownin
Figure12.3.

Thevacuumsystemusuallygeneratesvacuuminoneofthefollowingways:
Anenginedrivenvacuumpump
Aventuritubeplacedintheairstream
Connectiontotheinletmanifoldofanormallyaspiratedengine

Venturi Tubes.
OlderaircraftsuchastheAusterMark6,andtheDeHavillandHornetMoth.mayhaveaventuritube
fittedtotheoutsideoftheairframetogeneratethevacuum,liketheoneshowninFigure12.4.
Theventuritubeworksontheprinciplethatwhenitisplacedintheairstream,itseffectistoaccelerate
theairpassingthrough
thetube.Whentheairaccelerates itsstaticpressuredrops.Atthe
narrowestpomtoftheventurithespeedoftheairisgreatestandItsstaticpressurelowestOnce
throughthenarrowestpoint,theairdeceleratesanditsstaticpressurerisesoncemore.Placingthe
suctiontubeatthepointoflowestpressuremakesuseofthepartialvacuumthusgenerated.

ThepilotshouldbeawarethatthesystemwillworkreliablyonlywhensufficientairIS
flowingthroughtheventuri.Thismaynothappenforsometimeaftertheaircrafthasbecome
airborne.Acertainelapsedtimeisrequiredtoallowthepartialvacuumtobecomeeffectivein
driVingthegyrosfastenoughtogivethecorrectindicationsontheinstruments.

Inlet Manifold Suction.

AfewaircraftarefittedwithaninletmanifoldsuctionsystemsimilartotheonedepictedinFigure12.5.
ThistypeofsystemworksontheprinciplethatwheneveranormallyaspiratedpistonengineIS
running,thereisadepressioncreatedintheinletmanifold.Thisdepressionisgreatestwhenthe
engineisjusttickingoverwiththethrottlealmostfullyclosed,andgetslessasthethrottleis
opened.Thepartialvacuumthuscreatedatlowtomediumenginespeedsissufficienttodrivethe
instrumentgyros.

Vacuum Pumps.
Someearlylightaircraft(thosebuiltinthe1960's)werefittedwith'wet'vacuumpumpsliketheone

Someearlylightaircraft(thosebuiltinthe1960's)werefittedwith'wet'vacuumpumpsliketheone
showninFigure12.6.Wetpumpsusedmetalvaneswhichweretubrrcatedwithengineoil.Wet
vacuumpumpsworeoutslowlyandgraduallyandwereveryreliable.
Mostmodernlightaircraft,sinceabout1970,haveusedwhataretermed'dry'vacuumpumpstopowertheir
suctionsystem.Theyarecalleddrybecausetheyuseselflubricatinggraphitevaneswhichrotatewithin
aneccentricaluminiumcavity.

Dryvacuumpumpsaregenerallyveryreliable.However,whentheyfailtheydoso
catastrophicaJlyandwithoutwarning.Toensurethatafailurecannotdamagetheengine'saccessory
drive,thepumpdriveincorporatesashearcouplingwhichwillbreakifthepump'sinputtorqueexceeds
itsnormaloperatingfigurebyanysignificantamount.
Ifthedrivedoesshear,then,ofcourse,thegyrodriveninstrumentswillceasetofunction.To
coverforthiseventuality,someaircrafthaveanelectricallydrivenauxiliaryvacuumpumpwhich
willprovideanindependentbackupIntheeventofenginedrivenpumpfailure.

Pressure Regulator.
Airdrivengyroinstrumentsaredesignedtooperatewithapressuredifferentialofabout5inchesof
Mercury.Modernenginedrivenvacuumpumpsaredesignedtoproducealargesurplusofairflow
throughtheinstrumentsevenwhentheengineisrunningslowlyontheground.AtenginecruiseRPM
thepumpsincreasetheircapacitybyafactorof8ormore,and,asaconsequence.ifthesuctionwere
uncontrolledthegyroswouldbedrivenfartoofast.
Aconstantairflowthroughthegyrosismaintainedbythepressureregulator,whichadmitssufficient
airtoleakintothesystemdownstreamofthegyrostolimitthepressuredifferentialacrossthem
toabout5inchesofMercury.Thepressurerequlatorinmostsystemsisadjustable.

Vacuum Gauge.
Thevacuumorsuctiongauge(Figure12.8)isconnectedtoreadthepressuredifferentialacross
thegyroinstruments.Mostsuctiongyroinstrumentsrequireapressuredifferentialof5inchesof
Mercurytoensurethattheyoperatecorrectly.

Filter.
Ambientairentersthesystemthroughavacuumfilter.Arepresentativeinletfilterisillustratedin
Figure12.7.Thisensuresthatthegyrosarefedwithonlycleanairthathashaddirtandother
contaminantsremovedfromit.
Whenthefilterisfirstfittedtothesystemthereisalmostnopressuredropacrossit.

13.3 System Malfunctions

Dryvacuumpumpsareveryvulnerabletocontaminationbyliquids.Thegraphitevanesaredesigned
tooperateinanabsolutelydryenvironment.Ifanyformofliquid,forinstancewater,oilorengine
cleaningfluid,getsintothepump,thevanesmaybedestroyed.

Anotherformofcontaminationwhichwillquicklydestroyadrypumpiscarbon.Whenapumpfallsit
willdososuddenly,generatingacloudofcarbonfragmentswhichcanlodgeIntheoutletpipesofthe
pump.IfthesystemisnotmeticulouslycleanedwhenIareplacementpumpisbeingfitted,there
ISadangerthatthesefragmentswillfallbackintoit.Ifthisisthecasethenthereplacementpumpwill
notlastlong.
Pumpfailurecanalsobebroughtonthroughoverheatingbecausethepumpishavingtoworktoo
hardtoproducetherequiredsuctionlevel.Thiscanbetheresultofapartiallyblockedfilter,orperhaps
ahoseinthesystemcollapsingorhavingakinkinIt.Ifthepressureregulatorisadjustedtobring
thesystempressurebacktoitsnormaloperatinglevelthenthepumpwillbeworkingharderto
producethesameresultsinthecockpit.Apumpthatisworkingtoohardwillrunhotandwillfail
prematurely.
Ifthereisasystemmalfunction,therearetwoindicationsinmostaircraftcockpitstowarnthepilotof
vacuumsystemfailure.Theyarethesuctiongaugeandthelowvacuumwarninglight,whichare
illustratedinFigure12.8.Afurthercluetosystemmalfunctionmaybetheerraticoperationofthe
gyrodriveninstruments.
IftheDirectionIndicatorindicatestothepilotthattheaircraftisnotmaintainingasteadyheading.
whiletheAttitudeIndicator,atthesametime,showswingslevelthentheremaybeavacuumsystem
malfunction.
Ifbothinstrumentsappeartobegivingerroneousindications,thenitisafairassumptionthat
thesuctionsystemhasfailed.Systemmalfunction,ofcourse,shouldalreadyhavebeenindicated
tothepilotbythesuctiongaugeandthelowvacuumwarninglight.
ProceduresintheeventofMalfunctions.
Ifthepilotdeterminesthathisenginedrivenvacuumpumphasfailed,andhisaircraftisfittedwithan
auxiliaryvacuumpump(seeFigure12.9),itshouldbeselected'ON'.Acoupleofwordsofcaution
however:
Firstly,beawarethattheelectricalloadthatthesepumpsplaceontheaircraft'selectricalsystemis
quitesubstantial.
Itmaybethatthepilotwillhavetoconsiderswitchingoffunnecessaryelectricalservicesif
heisobligedtoselecttheauxiliaryvacuumpump.
Secondly,thestrengthofthemagneticfieldgeneratedbytheelectricmotorinthepumpissuch
thatitcancausecompasserrors.
Someaircraftmayhave'inletmanifoldsuction'fittedasabackuptothenormalvacuum
system.Itshouldbeselectedasabackupassoonasthepilotdeterminesthattheenginedriven

vacuumpumphasfailed.Ifthereisnobackupvacuumsystemfittedtotheaircraft,theplotwillhave
toreverttothelimitedpanelflyingtechnique.

14 ENGINE INSTRUMENTS

14.1 Inroduction
Itwouldbeverydifficulttoflyamodemlightaircraftsafelyiftherewerenoengineinstrumentsto
Indicatetothepilotthestateoftheengine.
SomeengineInstruments.likethoseshowninFigure13.1aretermedenginecondition
indicatorsTheseIncludetheCylinderTemperatureandOilTemperaturegaugesandtheExhaustGas
Temperaturegauge.

Otherengineinstrumentsarecalledperformanceindicators.Withinthisgroupareplacedthe
EngineRPMGaugeandtheManlfodPressureGauge,examplesofwhichareshowninFigure132.
Astheirnamesuggests,theseinstrumentsareintendedtoshowhowwelltheengineISperforming.

Furthermore.withoutengineinstruments.effectivemanagementoftheenginewouldbe
Impossible.theenQlnewouldnotgivelongandefficientserviceandfaultyoperationwouldbe
commonplace.
Itis.thus.essentialthattheengineinstrumentsfunctioncorrectly.Thepilotmustalsobeassiduous
inmonitoringtheengineInstruments.

14.2 Temperature Sensing Equipment

Pistonenginesareheatengines.ThepowertheyproduceISdirectlyproportionaltotheheat
releasedduringthecombustionofthefuel.Enginecomponentsandsystemsaredesignedto
withstandcertaintemperatures.Ifthetemperaturelimitsareexceeded,thecomponentsmayfail.
Forsafeoperation,theenginetemperaturesmustbemonitored.Thefollowingtemperaturesare
monitoredonpistonengines:oil.exhaustgas.andcylinderhead.

Oil Temperature Gauge.

Monitoringtheengineoiltemperatureisimportantfromatleasttwopointsofview.
Firstly.theoilitselfwillretainitslubricatingpropertiesuptoacertainmaximum
temperature.Abovethattemperature.theoilbreaksdownandthemovingpartsoftheengine
beginrubbingagainsteachother.generatingexcessiveheat.Enginefailurequicklyfollows.

Secondly.theengineexpendsapercentageofitspowerforcingtheoilintothebearings.The
coldertheoil,thelargerthatpercentageofpowerwillbe.Iftheaircraftistoperformsafely.theengine
oiltemperaturemustreachacertainlevelbeforethepilotcanbesurethathisengineisdeliveringthe
powertothepropellerthatthemanufacturersintended.
Inawetsumplubricationsystem.oiltemperatureisnormallysensedatthepointwheretheoilenters
theengine.afterithasexitedtheoilcooler.Inadrysumplubricationsystem,theoiltemperature
issensedbetweentheoilcoolerandtheoiltank.Inatypicalengineoiltemperatureindicatingsystem.
theindicatorispoweredbytheaircraftelectricalsystem.Anelectricalresistancetypethermobulb,
installedintheengineoilpumphousingmeasuresthetemperatureofoilenteringthatunit.The
temperaturereadingisusuallyindegreesCelsius,althoughtheexampleshowninFigure13.3.
fromaPiperWarrior,isdisplayingthetemperatureindegreesFahrenheit.Thepilotmusttake
particularcaretoensurethattheoiltemperatureremainswithinlimitsduringaprolongedclimbor
glidedescent.

Exhaust Gas Temperature Gauge.

Anexhaustgastemperaturegauge.liketheoneshowninFigure13.4.canshowyouwhetheryour
engineisrunningtooleanortoorich.
Anexhaustgastemperatureprobeisinstalledaboutfourinchesfromthecylinderheadontheexhaust
system.Theprobeisthejunctionoftwodissimilarmetalscalledathermocouple.Whena
thermocoupleisheated.avoltageisproducedwhichisproportionaltothetemperatureatthe
junction.Thegauge.itself.isamillivoltmeterwhichiscalibratedindegreesCelsiusor
Fahrenheit.FahrenheitisstillcommoninAmericanmadelightaircraft.Althoughtheexhaustgas
temperaturegaugecanhelpintroubleshootingaproblemontheengine.itisprimarilyafuel
anagementinstrument.

Cylinder Head Temperature Gauge.

TheCylinderHeadTemperatureGauge,ofwhichanexampleisshowninFigure13.5,isanengine
instrumentdesignedtoprotecttheengineagainstexcessiveheat.
TheprincipleofoperationoftheCylinderHead TemperatureGaugesystemissimilartothatof
theexhaustgastemperaturegauge.Aprobeconsistingoftwodissimilarmetals,joinedtogetherto
formathermocouple,ismountedontheenginecylinderhead.Theprobetransmits avoltageto
thegaugeinthecockpitwhichisproportionaltothetemperaturesensed.
Mostgeneralaviationaircraftenginessamplethecylinderheadtemperatureofthehottestcylinder.
Thehottestcylinderisdeterminedbyextensiveflighttestscarriedoutbytheenginemanufacturers.
Again,thepilotmustensurethatthecylinderheadtemperature remainswithinlimitsin
aprolongedclimb(riskofoverheating),oraprolongeddescent(riskofovercooling).

14.3 Pressure - Sensing Equipment

Direct Reading and Remote Indicating Instruments.
Thefunctionofmanyaircraftenginesystemsreliesontheactionofliquidsandgaseswhosepressure
mustbemeasuredandindicatedtothepilot.Thegaugesandindicatingsystemsfallintotwo
categories:DirectReadingandRemoteIndicating.
BothofthesesystemsareillustratedinFigure13.6.

"Directreading"describesthetypeofinstrumentusedwhenthefluidthatisbeingsampledisfed
directlytotheinterioroftheinstrumentpositionedinthecockpit.
"Remoteindicating"iswhereaseparatesensingelementisconnectedtoapressuresourceatsome
remotepointandtheinformationrequiredistransmittedelectricallytotheinstrumentinthecockpit.

14.4 Principle of Operation of Pressure Sensing Instruments

Pressureisdefinedasforceperunitarea.Inlightaircraftengineinstrumentterms,itisnormally
indicatedineitherpoundspersquareinch(PSI),bars,orinchesofmercury(in.Hg).
Inenginepressuremeasurement,weareconcernedwiththefollowingterms:AbsolutePressure
andGaugePressure.Mostpressuregaugesmeasurethedifferencebetweentheabsolute
pr:essureandtheatmosphericpressure.ThisisGaugePressure.Toactuallymeasurepressurein
asystem,elasticpressuresensingelementsareused,inwhichforcescanbeproducedbyapplied
pressuresandconvertedintomechanicalmovement.Themovementoftheseelementscanthen
operateadirectreadinggaugeoranelectricaltransmitter.Thesensingelementscommonlyusedare
diaphragms,capsules,bellowsandbourdontubes.

Diaphragms.
Diaphragms,liketheoneshowninFigure13.7,consistofcorrugatedcircularmetaldiscs
whicharesecuredattheiredge,andwhenpressureisappliedtheyaredeflected.
Diaphragmsareusedtomeasurerelativelylowpressures.

Capsules.
Capsules,similartotheoneshowninFigure13.8,aremadeupoftwodiaphragmsplacedtogether
andjoinedattheiredges.

Thedevicethusconstructedcanthenbeusedtoformeitherasealedchamber,whichiscalledan
aneroidcapsule,orachamberwhichiscommunicatedtoapressuresource,whichiscalleda
pressurecapsule.Capsules,likediaphragms,arealsousedtomeasurelowpressure,butcapsulesare
moresensitivetosmallpressurechanges.

Bellows.
Thebellowstypeelement,whichisshowninFigure13.9,canbeconsideredasanextensionofthe
aneroidcapsuleprinciple. Itmaybeusedforhigh,lowordifferentialpressuremeasurement.Note:
"Aneroid"means"withoutliquid".

The Bourdon Tube.

TheBourdontube,whichisrepresentedinFigure13.10,isprobablytheoldestofthepressuresensing

methods.
Theelementisessentiallyalengthofmetaltubewhichhasanellipticalcrosssection.Thetubeis
shapedtorepresenttheletterC.Oneendofthetubeissealedthisiscalledthefreeend.Theother
endisconnectedtothepressuresourceandfixedsothatitcannotmoveinrelationtotheinstrument
base.Whenpressureisappliedtothetube,ittriestostraighten.Thismovementisthenmagnifiedby
leversandusedtodriveanindicatorpointer.

TheBourdontubecanbemanufacturedtoindicatehighorlowpressures,butitisnormallyassociated
withhigherpressuressuchasengineoilpressure.

Oil Pressure Gauge.

Oilpressureissensedattheoutletoftheoilpressurepump.Normally,theoilpressureofanengine
ismaintainedconstantbyanoilpressurereliefvalve.Thereare,however,situationswhichmayaffect
theengineortheoiltotheextentthatitisbeyondtheabilityofthepressurereliefvalveto
maintaintheoilpressurewithintheprescribedlimits.Inthissituation,theoilpressuregauge,ifitis
usedinconjunctionwiththeoiltemperaturegauge,canindicatetothepilotthebestcourseofactionto
retrievethesituation,(seechapteron"Lubrication".)

Manifold Pressure Gauge.

TheManifoldAbsolutePressureGaugeofapistonengine,liketheoneshownhereinFigure13.12,uses
twobellowstomeasurebothambientatmosphericpressure
andthepressureintheinlet
manifold.Notethatthisgaugemeasures
absolutepressureandinamericanaircraftis
usuallycalibratedininchesofmercury(in.Hg).
Whentheengineisrunning,themanifoldpressuregaugeindicateslessthanatmospheric
pressure.

Earlierversionsofthisgaugewerecalibratedtoread'Boost'inpoundspersquareinchandcalledBoost
PressureGauges.
Whentheengineisnotrunning,bothtypesofgauge,theManifoldAirPressureGaugeandtheBoost
Gauge,readambientatmosphericpressure.Whiletheaircraftisstationaryontheground,thisparticular
indicationiscalledstaticboost.

Fuel Pressure Gauge.

AFuelPressureGaugecanbefittedinfuelinjectionfuelsystemswhichindicatesmeteredfuel
pressure,and,bysuitablecalibration,willenablethemixturetobeadjustedaccordingtoaltitude
andpowersetting.

andpowersetting.

14.5 Fuel Contents Gauge

Themeasurementofthequantityoffuelinthetanksofanaircraftfuelsystem,anditsaccurate
indicationtothepilot,isanessentialrequirement.Thesimplestformofvolumeindicationisafloat
system.Earlyaircrafthadafloatwhichsatonthetopofthesurfaceofthefuel.Attachedtothefloatwas
apieceofwirethatprotrudedoutthetopofthefueltank.Asthefuellevelreduced,sothewire
disappearedfromview.

Therehavebeenmanyvariationsofthissystem.Onmodernlightaircraft,themostcommonofthese
usesafloatmovingtopositionawiperonavariableresistorwhichaltersthecurrentsuppliedtoan
indicatordisplacingapointeroverascalecalibratedtoindicatefuelvolumeingallonsorlitres(Figure
13.13).
Thedisadvantageofthissystemisthattheindicationisnotlinear,andthereisnoprovisionformaking
adjustmentsforsystemaccuracy.Thegaugeissettobeaccurateatthelowandemptypositions.The
systemisalsosubjecttoerrorswhenevertheaircraftmanoeuvresandtheattitudechanges.

14.6 Fule Flowmeter

Aswellasmeasuringthequantityoffuelcontainedinthetanks,instrumentscanalsoindicatethe
rateoffuelflow.TheFuelFlowmetercandisplayvolumeflowormassflow.
Asimpleflowmeter(Figure13.14)canbeanadaptationofapressuregauge.Thissystemisusedin
manylightaircraftpistonenginefuelinjectionsystems.

14.7 The Tachometer or RPM Gauge

Themeasurementofenginespeedisofvitalimportance,enablingaccuratecontrolandmonitoringof
theenginebythepilot.Onpistonengines,itiscrankshaftspeedthatismeasured,inrevolutionsper
minute(RPM).TheRPMindicatorisoftencalledaTachometer.Thebasicinstrumentformeasuring
enginerotationalspeedonpistonenginesisthemechanical(ormagnetic)tachometer.

Mechanical Tachometer.
ThemechanicaltachometerconsistsofaflexibledriveshaftandtheRPMindicator.Oneendofthe
flexibledriveshaftisconnectedtotheRPMIndicatorInthecockpit.Theotherendofthedriveshaft
isconnectedtotheaccessorydrivecasingontheengine,whereitisdriventhroughgearsfromthe
crankshaft.

Theinputdrivecausesamagnettorotateinsideacopperoraluminiumdragcup,inducingeddy
currentsinthecup.
Eddycurrentsarecausedbythemagneticfieldofthemovingmagnetactingontheelectronsofany
metalinthevicinityofthemagnet.Theeddycurrentsthemselvesgenerateamagneticfieldwhich
interactswiththemagneticfieldofthemagnetitself.Thisinteractioncausesatorque,orturning
moment,whichturnsthedragcupinthesamedirectionasthatofthepermanentmagnet'srotation.
AshaftextendsfromthedragcupandisconnectedtoapointeronthedialoftheRPMgauge.The
turningmotionofthepointertakesplaceagainstthetensionofahairspringwhichcontrolsthedrag
cuppositionandhencethepositionofthepointer.Theflexibledriveisdrivenslowerthantrueengine
RPM,buttrueRPMwillbeshownontheindicator.TheRPMindicatorincorporatescompensation
devicesforchangeintemperature.

15 PRESSURE INSTRUMENTS

15.1 Introduction
Pressureinstrumentsaresocalledbecausetheyrelyonvariationsinairpressureinordertofunction.
ThepressureinstrumentsaretheAirspeedIndicator,theAltimeter,andtheVerticalSpeedIndicator.
Theairpressuresensedbytheseinstrumentsiseitheratmospheric(static)pressure, or
dynamicpressure(generatedbymovingair),oracombinationofboth.(Staticpressure+
dynamicpressureiscalledtotalpressure).
Anaircraftatrestontheground,instillair,issubjecttonormalatmosphericpressure,whichacts
equallyinalldirectionsand,therefore,exertsanequalpressureonallpartsoftheaircraft,
asillustratedinFigure14.1.Thisatmosphericpressureisknownasstaticpressure.

Anaircraftinflightatagivenairspeed,whilestillsubjecttothestaticpressurewhichprevailsatIts
flightlevel,experiencesanadditionalpressureontheleadingedgesduetothevelocityoftheair
relativetotheaircraft.

Thisadditionalpressureiscalleddynamicpressure.Thevalueofdynamicpressuredependsbothonthe
speedoftheaircraftthroughtheair,andonthedensityoftheair.Theleadingedges,therefore,
encounteratotalpressureconsistingofstaticplusdynamicpressures.Thissituationisillustrated
byFigure14.2.Youcanfeelthistypeof"totalpressure"foryourselfifyouholdyourhandoutofa
movingcarwiththeflatofyourhandfacingthedirectionofmotion.
Staticpressure,dynamicpressureandtotalpressurearesensedbythepressureinstrumentsthrough
thepitotstaticsystem.("pitot"ispronounced"peetoe").

15.2 Pitot - Static System

Thepitotstaticsystem,anexampleofwhichisshowninFigure14.3,transmitstotalandstatic
pressurestotheAirspeedIndicator(ASI),andstaticpressuretotheAltimeterandtheVerticalSpeed
Indicator(VSI).

Totalandstaticpressuresaresensedbywhatisknownasapitotheadorpltotstatichead(see
Figures14.3and14.4)situatedwhereitisnotlikelytobeaffectedbyturbulentairflowcausedby
projectionsfromtheaircraftskin.
Topreventwaterenteringtoofarintothesystem,andaffectingtheaccuracyoftheinstrumentreadings,
drainvalvesmaybefittedatthelowestpointinthepipelines.Partofthepreflightcheckshould
involveopeningthesevalvestoallowanymoisturetoescape.Ensurethatthevalvesareclosedproperly
afterthecheck.Letusnowlookmorecloselyathowtotalpressureandstaticpressurearesensed.
Note:ThepitottubeisnamedafterHenriPitot,whoinventedtheinstrumentin.1732.

Pitot Heads.
Anopenendedtubeparalleltothelongitudinalaxisoftheaircraftisusedtosensethetotalpressure
(staticplusdynamic).Thisdeviceiscalledapitottubew.hichismountedinthepitothead.
Theopenend.ofthetube(seeFigures14.4and14.5),facesintothemovingairstream,whiletheotherend
leadstotheairspeedcapsulesintheairspeedindicator.Themovingairstreamisthusbroughttorest
inthetube.
Theairstreamgeneratestheextradynamicpressurewhichtogetherwiththestaticpressure
alreadyinthetubeprovidestherequiredtotalorpitotpressure(seeFigure14.5).Anelectric
antiicingheatercoilisusuallyincorporatedinthepitottubewhichiscontrolledfromaswitchinthe
cockpit.

Static Sources and the Pitot Static Head.

Staticpressuresourcesareoftenincorporatedinthetotalpressuremeasuringhead,whichisthenknown
asapitotstaticheadorpressurehead(seeFig14.5).Thestaticholestaketheformofholes
drilledinthesideofthePitotStaticTubeandareconnectedwithseparatepressurelinesleadingtoall
thepressureinstruments.(Inmanyaircraft,staticpressureisalsosensedbystaticventslocatedinthe
sidesofthefuselage,asshowninFigure14.6.)Totalpressureandstaticpressurepipelinesleading
fromthepitotstaticheadandpassingthroughthewingandfuselage,transmitthepressuretothe
gaugesontheinstrumentpanel.

Withanunpressurisedaircraft,ifthealternatestaticsourceiswithinthecockpit,thepressure
sensedwillnormallybelowerthanexternalstaticpressurebecauseofaerodynamicsuction.

Position Error.
Youwilldoubtlessappreciatethatif,duetoturbulentairflowintheregionofthepressure
sources,thepressuressensedarenotrepresentativeofthetruevalueoftotalandstaticpressures,the
pressuredependentinstrumentswillnotreadcorrectly.Thistypeoferroriscalledpositionerror(or
alternatively
'pressure'error).Approximately95%ofthepositionerrorassociatedwithapitotstaticheadis
producedbyturbulenceaboutthestaticvents.

Itwasinordertominimisepositionerrorduetoturbulencethatstaticvents,locatedinthefuselagesides,
wereintroducedasasourceofstaticpressureinsteadofthepitotstatichead.About90%ofthe
combinedpressureheadpositionerroriseliminatedbyusingaseparatetotalpressureheadandstatic
vents.AfuselagemountedstaticventisshownonthepreviouspageinFig.14.6.

Thereisusuallysomeplaceontheairframe,quiteoftenonthesideofthefuselage,wheretrue(ornearly
true)staticpressurecanbesensedoverthewholespeedrangeoftheaircraft.

15.3 Airspeed Indicator (ASI)

Principles of Operation of the AS/.
Earlierinthischapterwelearntthat,whereasanaircraftonthegroundinstiliairissubjectonlyto
staticpressure,theleadingedgesoftheaircraftinforwardflightaresubjecttoanadditionalpressure
whichwecalleddynamicpressure.Thisresultsinatotalpressureontheleadingedges.This
relationshipofpressurescanbeexpressedmathematicallyas:

Bothtotalpressureandstaticpressurearefedtotheairspeedindicator(ASI).TheASIis,infact,a
differentialpressuregaugewhichmeasurestheairspeedasafunctionofdynamicpressure.Withinthe
ASI,dynamicpressureis"isolated"fromtotalpressureinordertoindicateairspeed.Dynamicpressure
isameasureofairspeed,becauseofthemathematicalrelationship:

whereVistrueairspeedandpisthedensityofthesurroundingair.SotheASImeasuresairspeed
bymeasuringdynamicpressure,anddisplayingtheresult(usuallyinknots)onasuitably
calibratedscale.Youcanseefromtheequationhowindicatedairspeedishardlyeverequivalent
totrueairspeed.Thoughtheindicatedairspeed,whichisgivenbythedynamicpressure,isa
functionoftrueairspeed(V),itisalsoafunctionoftheairdensity(p).Butairdensitydecreases
withaltitude,soatanygivenairspeed,V,theindicatedairspeedwilldecreasewithaltitude,asp
decreases.Wewilllookatthismorecloselylateron.

Construction of The Airspeed Indicator (ASI).

Inprinciple,thesimpleASIcanbeconsideredasanairtightboxdividedbyaflexiblediaphragm,with
totalpressurefromthepitothead(Dy+5)fedintoonesideofthediaphragmandstaticpressure,5,
totheotherside,asshowninFigure14.7.
Thepressuredifferenceacrossthediaphragmisthereforethedynamicplusthestaticpressure(total
pressure),minusthestaticpressure,whichleavesthedynamicpressureastheresultantpressureacting
onthediaphragm.Accordingly,thediaphragmisdeflectedbyanamountproportionalsolelytothis
dynamicpressure,itsmovementbeingtransmittedbyasystemofleverstotheindicatingneedleonthe
faceoftheASI.Notethatstaticpressureiscommontobothsidesofthediaphragm,andsodoes
notinfluencediaphragmmovement.

Inpractice,asshowninFigure14.8,thestaticpressureisfedintothehermeticallysealedcaseoftheASI,
thetotalpressure(Oy+5)beingpipedtoathinmetalcapsulecapableofexpansionandcontraction.
Notethatthepressuredifferentialbetweentheinsideandoutsideofthecapsuleisexactlythesame
asitwasacrossthediaphragminFigure14.7.Expansionorcontractionofthecapsulewill,therefore,
beproportionaltothechangesindynamicpressureproducedbychangesofairspeed.

ThecapsulemovementsaretransmittedbyatemperaturecompensatedmagnifyinglinkagetotheASI
pointerwhichindicatesairspeedonthefaceoftheinstrument.

Airspeed Indicator Calibration.

Wementionedearlierthatthedynamicpressureoftheair,whichisrecordedasairspeedbytheASI,
isequalto"'hpV2Fromthisrelationshipwecanseethatdynamicpressuredependsnotonlyonthespeed
oftheairflowbutalsoontheairdensity,p.Thisdensityvarieswithtemperatureandpressureand,thus,
withaltitude.
TheASIiscalibratedtoreadtrueairspeed(TAS)atanairdensityof1225grammespercubicmetre
whichwouldprevailinICAOStandardAtmosphere(ISA)meansealevelconditionsthatis,ata
pressureof1013.25millibars(hectopascals)andatemperatureof+150Celsius,indryairconditions.
NoallowanceismadeinthecalibrationoftheISAforthechangeindensitywhichoccurswithchange
ofaltitude.
Itfollowsthat,evenifthere",!erenoothererrors,theASIwillindicateTASonlywhenISAmeansea
levelairdensityexistsatitsflightlevelthatistosaywhentheaircraftisflyinginairhavingadensity
of1225grammespercubicmetre.Thisdensityvaluecanbefoundonlyat,orcloseto,sealevel,
dependingonhowmuchtheactualatmosphericconditionsdeviatefromISA.Thus,apilotalwayshasto
calculatehistrueairspeedbycorrectingtheindicatedairspeedbyafactorwhichdependsonhisaltitude
andtheambienttemperature.

Airspeed Indicator Errors: Instrument Error.

Manufacturingimperfectionscanresultinsmallinstrumenterrorswhichmaybedeterminedon
theground,underlaboratoryconditions,byreferencetoadatuminstrument.Acorrectioncard
canthenbeproducedforthespeedrangeoftheinstrument.

Airspeed Indicator Errors: Position Error.

Positionerrorarisesmainlyfromthesensingofincorrectstaticpressure,becauseofturbulence,as
indicatedinFigure14.9.

Positionerrorsthroughoutthespeedrangearedeterminedbytheaircraftmanufacturer
duringthetestflyingprogrammeforaparticularaircrafttype.Itisnotunusualtocompileajoint
correctioncardforpositionandinstrumenterrorsandplaceitintheaircraftneartheAirspeedIndicator
(ASI),unlesstheerrorsareverysmall.Indicatedairspeedcorrectedforinstrumenterrorand
positionerrorisknownascalibratedairspeed.

Indicated Airspeed and Calibrated Airspeed.

TheIndicatedAirspeed(lAS)plusorminusinstrumenterrorcorrectionandpositionerror
correctiongivesustheCalibratedAirspeed(CAS).Often,forpracticalpurposes,lASistreated

bypilotsasCAS,whennoerrortableisfittedontheinstrumentpanel.

Airspeed Indicator Errors: Density Errors.

Unlesstheairaroundtheaircraftisatthecalibrationdensityof1225grammespercubicmetre,which
canonlyoccurnearsealevel,theAirspeedIndicator(ASI)cannotcorrectlyindicateTrueAirspeed(TAS).

Fromtheformula:
weknowthatdynamicpressureis
proportionaltodensity,(p),aswellasairspeed,(V).So,ataltitude,wherepislessthanatsealevel,the
dynamicpressuregeneratedbyagivenairspeedwillbelessthanthatforthesameairspeedatsealevel.
ASIcapsuleexpansionwillconsequentlybeproportionatelyless,andthelASwillbelowerthanTAS.The
differencebetweenlASandTASiscalleddensityerror.Thisdensityerrorwill,therefore,causetheASI
to'underread'ataltitude.

True Airspeed (TAS).

Itispossible,usinganavigationcomputer,tocorrectfordensityerror,computingTASfromtheCAS,
whichwementionedearlier.

ApilotmustuseTASforhisnavigationcalculations,notlAS.YouwilllearnhowtocalculateTASin
the"NavigationandRadioAids"volume.

Colour Coding on the Airspeed Indicator.

TheaerodynamicloadsonanairframeareafunctionofIndicatedAirspeed(lAS)only.Therefore,
ASlshavecolouredarcsontheirdialstoindicatespecificspeedranges(Figure14.11).

Thewhitearcdenotestheflapoperatingrange,fromstallspeedatmaximumallupablockedweightin
thelandingconfiguration,uptothe'maximumflapsextendedspeed'whichstaticsourceisknownas
VFE.
Thegreenarcdenotesthenormaloperatingspeedrange,fromstallspeedatmaximumallup
weight,withflapsupandwingslevel,uptoVNO'VNOisusuallycalledthenormaloperatinglimit
speedor,sometimes,maximumstructuralcruisingspeed.VNOshouldnotbeexceeded,exceptin
smoothairconditions.
Operationsatindicatedairspeedsinthegreenarcshouldbesafeinallconditions,includingturbulence.
Theyellowarcatthehigherendofthescaledenotesthecautionrange,extendingfromVNO'upto
VNE'whichistheneverexceedspeed.Theaircraftshouldbeoperatedatindicatedairspeedsinthe
cautionrangeinsmoothaironly.

cautionrangeinsmoothaironly.
AredradiallinedenotesVNE.

15.4 Blockages And Leaks of The ASI Circuit

The Pitot Tube.
Ifapitottubebecomesblocked,theASIwillconstantlyindicatetheairspeedatwhichtheaircraftwas
flyingatthemomentthepitottubebecameblocked.Subsequentchangesinactualairspeed,then,
willnotberecordedontheASI.
Inlevelcruise,apitottubeblockagewilllockintheexistingtotalpressureandanychangeinactual
airspeedwillnotberegistered.However,aslowleakageinthepitotpipelineislikely,sothatthe
IndicatedAirspeedmaygraduallydecrease.
Ifanaircraftwithablockedpitottubeandaclearstaticsourceisclimbing,theIndicatedAirspeedwill
increasebecausethepressurelockedinsidetheASIcapsuleremainsconstantwhilethestaticpressureof
theairsurroundingthecapsuledecreases.
Converselywithablockedpitottube,theIndicatedAirspeedwilldecreaseduringadescentwith
blockedpitottube.
AleakinthepitottubecausestheASItounderread,inallphasesofflight.
TheeffectofaleakinastaticpipelineisnormallytomaketheASIoverread.Thisisbecause,almost
inevitably,thepressuresurroundingthepipelinewillbelowerthanstatic,becauseofaerodynamic
suction.
NotethatreadingsoftheAltimeterandVerticalSpeedIndicatorwillnotbeaffectedbyablockedpitot
tube.Theseinstrumentswillcontinuetoreadcorrectly,astheiroperationdependsonlyonstatic
pressurereadfromthestaticvents.

Blocked Static Vents.

Astaticventinapitotheadismoreexposedtoicingconditionsandis,therefore,morelikelyto
becomeobstructedthanisafuselagemountedstaticvent.
Ablockedstaticsourceduringdescentwillmeanthattheprevious(higheraltitude)staticpressure
surroundingtheASI'stotalpressurecapsulewillbelowerthanitshouldbe,sothattheASIwill
overread.'[hiscouldbedangerous,becausetheaircraftcouldbenearerstallspeedthantheASIis
indicating.
AclimbwithblockedstaticsourcewillresultintheASIunderreading.

15.5 ASI Serviceability Checks Before Flight

The,followingchecksoftheASIandpressureheadsand/orventsshouldbemadebeforeflight.
Pitotheadcoversandstaticventplugsmustberemovedandstowedaboardtheaircraft..
Thepitottubesandstaticventsshouldbecheckedtoensurethattheyarefreefromobvious
obstructionssuchasinsects.
Thepitotheadheatermustbecheckedtoseethatitisoperatingnormally.
TheinstrumentdialglassoftheASImustbecleanandundamaged.
(Rememberthat,duringtheinitialpartofthetakeoffrun,theASIneedstobecheckedtoensure
thatitisregisteringanairspeed.Ifitisnot,thetakeoffshouldbeaborted.)

15.6 The Altimeter

Principle of Operation.
Thepressurealtimeterisasimple,reliable,pressuregaugecalibratedtoindicateheight,altitudeor
flightlevelaboveapressuredatumwhichissetonthealtimetersubscale.
Thepressureatanylevelwithintheatmospheredependsontheweightofthecolumnofairwhich
extendsverticallyupwardsfromthatlevel,totheouterlimitoftheatmosphere.Thehigheran
aircraftisflying,theshorteristhecolumnofairaboveItand,consequently,theloweristhe
atmosphericpressureactingontheaircraft.

So,bymeasuringtheatmospheric(static)pressure.thealtimetermeasurestheaircraft'svertical
distanceabovethesetdatumlevel.
Therelationshipbetweenpressureandheightisnotalinearone,socalibrattonofthealtimeterisnota
simplematter.

Calibration of the Altimeter.

Withallthevariablesandchangingrelationshipsthataboundintheatmosphere,itbecomesnecessary
toassumecertainaverageor'standard'atmosphericconditions.Wecanthenbasethealtimeter
calibrationformulaeonthese,andapplycorrectionsappropriatetothedeviationsfromstandard
conditionswhichoccurwithpositionandtime.Theconditionsusedforcalibrationareusuallythose
assumedfortheICAOStandardAtmosphere(ISA)whichareillustratedinFigure14.13.overleaf.
SeveralassumptionsaremadeinconstructingtheISA.Thefirstassumptionisthatatmeansealevel
(MSL)thepressureis1013.25millibars,thetemperatureis+150Celsius,whilethedensityis1225
gramspercubicmetre.

Thesecondassumptionisthatfrommeansealevelupto11kilometres,or36090feet,thetemperature
fallsatarateof6.50Celsiusperkilometreor1.980Celsiusper1000feet.

Thethirdassumptionisthatfrom11kilometresto20kilometres,orfrom36090feetto65617feet,
thetemperatureisconstantat56.5Celsius.Andfinally,from20kilometresto32kilometres,or
from65617feetto104987feet,ISAconditionsassumethatthetemperaturerisesat1Celsiusper
kilometre,orat0.3Celsiusper1000feet.Havingmadetheseassumptions,thepressure
correspondingtoanygivenlevelintheISAcanbecalculatedfromstandardcalibrationformulae.
Graphsortablescanbeproducedshowingheightintermsofpressureunderstandard
conditions.Thesetablescanbeusedforthemanufacturer'scalibrationofthealtimeterscale.
Basically,thelaboratorycalibrationconsistsofapplyingaseriesofpressurestothealtimeterand
checkingthattheinstrumentindicatestherespectivelevelswhichcorrespondtothesepressuresinthe
ISA.Anydiscrepancies,ifwithincertainagreedtolerances,wouldbelistedovertheoperatingheight

rangesasinstrumenterrors.Intheloweratmospherewheremostlightaircraftoperate,pilotsmay
assumeatmosphericpressurefallsattherateofapproximately1millibarforevery30feetgainin
altitude.

Construction of the Simple Altimeter.

Atmosphericpressureisfedintothecaseoftheinstrumentfromthestaticsource.
Asheightincreases,staticpressuredecreasesandthesealed,partiallyevacuated,aneroidcapsule
expandsunderthecontrolofaleafspring.Conversely,asheightdecreases,staticpressure
increasesandthecapsulecontracts.
Amechanicallinkagemagnifiesthecapsule'sexpansionandcontractionandconvertsthemtoa
rotationalmovementofapointerovertheheightscaleonthedial.Figure14.14showshowthe
linkageofasimplealtimeterworks,buttheactualarrangementsare,ofcourse,muchmorecomplex.

Altimeter or Subscale Setting Knob.

Thesimplealtimeterhasasettingknobwhichisgearedtothepointer.Withthisknobthepointermay
besettoreadzerowiththeaircraftontheground,sothat,whenairborne,thealtimeterindicates
heightaboveaerodromeelevation.
Alternatively,thepointercanbeset,(beforeflight)totheaerodromeelevationsothat,when
airborne,theinstrumentshowstheaircraft'sverticaldistanceabovemeansealevel(MSL).Vertical
distanceaboveMSLisknownasaltitude.

The Sensitive Altimeter.

Mostaircraftarenowequippedwiththesensitivetypeofaltimeter,themechanismofwhichissimilar
tothatdepictedinFigure14.15.Theprlncipleofoperationofthesensitivealtimeterissimilarto
thatofthesimpleraltimeterbuttherearesomerefinements,asdefinedinFigure14.15.

Forinstance,inthesensitivealtimeter,abankoftwoorthreecapsulesgivestheincreased
movementnecessarytodrivethecountersandpointers.Also,jewelledbearingsarefittedinthe
linkage,reducingfrictionand,thus,theassociatedlaginindication.
Finally,andprobablymostimportantly,avariabledatummechanism,orsubscale,isbuiltin.This,
withtheaidofasettingknob,enablestheinstrumenttobesettoindicateverticaldistanceaboveany
desiredpressuredatum.
Thevariabledatummechanismcanbeusedtosetthedesiredpressurelevel(say,1005millibars)ona
pressuresubscaleonthefaceoftheinstrument.Asthepilotturnsthesubscalesettingknob,the
altimeterreadingchangesuntil,whentheprocedureiscompletedwiththesubscaleshowingthe
desired1005,thealtimeterindicatestheaircraft'sverticaldistanceabovethispressurelevel.
Achangeinaltitudeorsurfacepressurehasnodirecteffectonthereadingofthesubscalethesubscale

readingchangesonlywhenthepilotturnsthesettingknob.Britishaltimetershaveasubscalesetting
rangebetween800and1050millibars.

Reading Accuracy.
ThetypeofthreepointerinstrumentsshowninFigure14.16giveamuchmoresensitive
indicationofheightoraltitudethanthesinglepointeraltimeter,buttheysufferfromthedisadvantage
thattheycanbeeasilymisread.Thealtimeterspicturedarereading24300feet.

Itisnotdifficultforthepilottomakeareadingerrorof10000feetonthethreepointeraltimeter,
particularlyduringarapiddescentunderdifficultconditionswithahighworkload.Althoughalight
aircraftpilotisnotlikelytofindhimselfinsuchasituation,accidentshaveoccurredasaresult
ofsuchaltimetermisreadingatloweraltitudes.Variousmodificationstoaltimeterpointers,andthe
incorporationofwarningsystemsinsomeaircraft,haveconsequentlybeentriedwiththeobjective
ofpreventingaccidents.Forinstance,forcommercialaircraft,andaircraftwhichhabituallyflyathigher
altitude,astripedwarningsectorappearsastheaircraftdescendsthroughthe16000footlevel
(seeFigure14.18).

However,thegreatestsafetyadvanceforcommercialaircrafthasbeentheintroductionofthe
counterpointeraltimeter,showninFigure14.17,whichgivesamuchmorepositiveindicationthan
eitherofthethreepointerdialsshowninFigure14.16.Comparethesimplicityofthisaltimeter's
indication,whichisalsoshowing24300feet.Althoughthisaltimeterhasonlyonepointer,themain
readingisdigital,andthepointerindicatesonlyhundredsoffeet.Evidently,thistypeofaltimeteris
designedforhighaltitudeflightonly.Inlightaircraft,the3pointeraltimeterisstillthemost
commonlyused.Sotakegreatcarethatyoudonotmisreadyourheightoraltitude.

15.7 Altimetry Definitions

Therefollowseveralcommondefinitionsusedinthesubjectofaltimetry.

Transition Altitude.
Figure14.18definesthedifferencesbetweenTransitionAltitude,LevelandLayerTheTransition
Altitudeisthealtitudeat,orbelowwhich,theverticalpositionofanaircraftisexpressedand
controlledintermsofaltitude.AnaltimeterreadsaltitudewhenthecorrectQNHorRegionalPressure
SettingISsetInthealtimetersubscale.

IntheUnitedKingdom,thetransitionaltitudeis3000feetexceptinorbeneathairspace
specifiedintheUKAlP,forexampleIntheLondonTMA,thetransitionaltitudeis6000feet.

Transition Level.
TheTransitionLevelisthelowestFlightLevelavailableforuseabovetheTransitionAltitude.Atand
aboveTransitionLevel,verticalpositionisexpressedasaFlightLevel.ThealtimeterreadsFlight
LevelwhentheStandardPressureSetting(SPS)of1013.25hectopascals(millibars)issetinthe
altimetersubscale

Transition Layer.
ThisisthespacebetweenTransitionAltitudeandTransitionLevel.WhenclimbingthroughTransition
Layer,theaircraft'sverticalpositionisexpressedintermsofFlightLevelwhendescendingthrough
theTransitionLayertheaircraft'sverticalpositionisexpressedintermsofaltitude.Pilotsmustnot
assumethatseparationexistsbetweentheTransitionAltitudeandtheTransitionLevel.

Flight Levels.
FlightLevelsaresurfacesofconstantpressurerelatedtotheSPSof1013.25hectopascals
(millibars).FlightLevelsareseparatedbyspecifiedpressureintervals.IntheUnitedKingdom,these
intervalsare500feetbetweenTransitionLevelandFlightLevel245,whilefromFlightLevel250
upwardstheintervalsare1000feet.AFlightLevelisexpressedasthenumberofhundredsoffeetwhich
wouldbeIndicated,atthelevelconcerned,byanISAcalibratedaltimeteronwhichthesubscaleissetto
1013.25millibars,or29.92inchesofmercury.Forexample,at4500feettheFlightLevelwouldbe
FL45.

15.8 Altimeter Settings

Itisimportanttounderstandthatthealtimeterindicatesverticaldistanceabovethepressurelevelseton
itssubscale.IntheUK,pressuresettingsareexpressedinmillibars(mb).Theunitcommonlyused
throughoutEuropeisthehectopascal(hPa).ThembandthehPaareidenticalinvalue.ThehPaisthe
standardJMunit.Therearefouraltimeterpressuresettings:QFE,QNH,RegionalPressureSetting
(RPS)andtheStandardPressureSetting(SPS):1013.25hPa(mb).

QFE

QFEistheaerodromelevelpressurewhich,whensetonthealtimetersubscale,willcausethealtimeter
ofanaircraftonthegroundtoreadzero,assumingthereisnoinstrumenterror.
Inflight,withQFEset,thealtimeterwillindicateheightabovetheaerodromeQFEreferencedatum,
providedISAconditionsprevailbetweenaerodromelevelandtheaircraft,andthatthereare.noother
altimetererrors.Inpractice.QFEisusedmainlyforcircuitflyingandforflightintheimmediate
vicinityofapilot'shomeaerodrome.

QNH

AerodromeQNHistheobservedaerodromepressureconvertedtothepressureofMeanSeaLevelin
accordancewiththeICAOStandardAtmosphere.
WithaerodromeQNHsetonthesubscale,thealtimeterofanaircraftonthegroundattheaerodrome
indicateselevation,thatis,theheightofthatpartoftheaerodromeaboveMeanSeaLevel.
WithQNHset,thealtimeterofanaircraft,inflight,willindicatealtitude,thatis,vertical
distanceaboveMeanSeaLevel.

Regional Pressure Setting (or Forecast QNH).

WithQNHset,thealtimeterreadstheverticaldistanceoftheaircraftaboveMeanSeaLevelinthe
localarea.BecausethenumberofaerodromesreportingactualQNHislimited,theUKisdivided
upintoAltimeterSettingRegions,(seeFigure14.26,p220).
TheMetOfficeforecaststhelowestQNHforeachoftheseregionseveryhour,andsendsthese
RegionalPressureSettingforecaststoAirTrafficServiceUnits.Whenflyingcrosscountrybelow
theTransitionAltitude,apilotwillnormallysettheRegionalPressureSystemfortheareaheis
transiting,forexample,CotswoldRegionalPressureSystem.

Standard Pressure Setting (SPS).

Standard Pressure Setting (SPS).

WhentheStandardPressureSettingof1013.25hectopascalsormillibarsISsetonthesubscale,the
altimetershowstheaircraft'sverticaseparationfromthatpressurelevelwhereveritmaylie.This
settingisusedintheUnitedKingdomabovetheTransitionAltitudeorTransitionLevel.An
aircraft'sverticalseparationfromthe1013.25hectopascalpressurelevelisknownasIts"pressure
altitude".The"pressurealtitude"ofanaircraftisexpressedintermsofFlightLevelsasalready
detailedonpage213.WithallaircraftabovetheTransitionLevelhavingtheiraltimetersubscalessetto
1013,airtrafficcontrollerscanensuresafeverticalseparationbetweenaircraftundertheircontrol.

15.9 Altimeter Errors

Time Lag.
Withmanytypesofaltimeter,theresponsetochangeofaltitudeisnotinstantaneous.Thiscausesthe
altimetertounderreadinaclimbandoverreadinadescent.Thelagismostnoticeablewhenthe
changeinaltitudeisrapidandprolonged.

Instrument Error.
Manufacturingimperfections,includingfrictioninthelinkage,causeerrorsthroughouttheoperating
range.Theerrorsarekeptassmallaspossiblebyadjustmentswithintheinstrument,andthecalibration
procedureensuresthattheyarewithinpermittedtolerances.Residualerrorsmaybelistedona
correctioncard.

Position (or Pressure) Error.

PositionerrorIslargelyduetotheinabilityofthealtimetertosensethetruestaticpressureoutsidethe
aircraft.Theerrorisusuallysmall.PositionErroriscoveredonPage203.

Manoeuvre-induced Error.
Manoeuvreinducederroriscausedmainlybytransientfluctuationsofpressureatthestaticvent
duringchangeofpitchattitude.

Temperature Error.
Evenwithnoothererrorsatall,thepressurealtimeterwillnotindicatethetruealtitudeunlessthesurface
temperatureandlapserateofthecolumnofairarethosewhichwereassumedinthecalibrationofthe
altimeter,(i.e.ISAconditions).
WhenflyinginairwhichiscolderthantheISA,thealtimeterwilloverread.Whenflyinginairwhich
iswarmerthantheISA,thealtimeter
WherethetemperatureatcruisingleveldeviatesfromISAassumptions,anapproximate
correctioncanbemadewithmostnavigationalcomputers.Thecorrectionwill,however,
onlybeapproximatesinceverticaltemperaturevariationsarenotknown.

Density Altitude.
DensityaltitudecanbedefinedasthealtitudeintheICAOStandardAtmosphereatwhichthedensity
prevailingatthelocationofmeasurementwouldoccur.Itisaconvenientparameterbywhichto
measureengineperformance.
Densityaltitudecanbeobtainedbyuseofanairspeedcorrectionchartorbynavigational
computer.
Iftheprevailingdensitydecreases,thelocationatwhichthedensityismeasuredwillcorrespondtoa
greateraltitudeinISA.Thus,densityaltitudeincreases.

greateraltitudeinISA.Thus,densityaltitudeincreases.

Blockages And Leaks.

Ifthestaticsourcebecomesblocked,thealtimeterwillnotregisteranychangeinaltitude.Inthe
caseofastaticsourceblockage,thealtitudeatwhichtheblockageoccurredwillremaintheindicated
altitude.regardlessofanyclimbordescent.

Afractureorleakinthestaticlinewithinthecockpitofanunpressurisedaircraftwillnormallyresultin
thealtimeteroverreading.Thepressureinthecockpitwillbelowerthanambientpressurebecause
ofaerodynamicsuction.

Checks Before Take-off.

Thefollowingchecksofthealtimetershouldbemadebeforeflight.
Theinstrumentdialglassmustbecleanandundamagedandthecorrectaltimetersettingmustbeset
onthesubscale.
Ifyouareoperatingfromacontrolledaerodrome,AirTrafficControlwillpassyouthecorrectaltimeter
setting,normallyaerodromeQNH.

15.10 The Vertical Speed Indicator

TheVerticalSpeedIndicator(VSI)sensesstaticpressure,likethealtimeterbutissoconstructedthatit
indicatesrate.ofclimbordescentinhundreds,orthousandsoffeetperminute.

Principle of Operation of the VSI.

TheconstructionoftheVSIisshowninFigure14.22.Whenanaircraftdepartsfromlevelflight,the
staticpressureactingonanaircraftchangesaccordingly.TheVSImeasuresthepressuredifference
betweeneachsideofameteringunitwithintheinstrumentcase.Inlevelflight,thepressuresoneach
sideofthemeteringunitarethesame,(seeFigure14.22).Butwhereas,duringaclimbordescent,
thestaticventimmediatelysensesthechangeofatmosphericpressure,thestaticpressureintheVSI
instrumentcasechangesatalowerratebecauseofthepresenceofthemeteringunit.Thedifferencein
pressureacrossthemeteringunitwilllastthroughoutaclimbordescent,causingQrateofclimbor
descenttobeindicated.Oncetheaircraftisinlevelflightagain,thepressureacrossthemeteringunit
equalisesandtheVSIindicates0thatis,levelflight.

The Construction of the VSI.

AsisshowninFigure14.22,staticpressurefromthestaticventisfedtoacapsulelocatedwithinthe
airtightcaseoftheVSIinstrument.Theinstrumentcaseitselfisalsofedwithstaticpressurefrom
thesamevent,butthisfeedcomesthrougharestrictedmeteringunit.Thusasthestaticpressure
changes,thepressurewithinthecasesurroundingthecapsulechangesataslowerratethanthatwithin
thecapsule.
Forexample,iftheaircraftisclimbing,becauseoftheactionofthemeteringunitthepressurein
thecapsulewillbelessthanthatintheVSIinstrumentcase.Thecapsulewill,therefore,be
compressed,thiscompressionbeingconvertedbyasuitablelinkagetoapointerwhichindicates
therateofclimb.Ontheotherhand,iftheaircraftisdescending,thepressureinthecasewillbeless
thanthepressureinthecapsule,causingthecapsuletoexpand.Thisexpansionwillmovethelinkageso
thatthepointerindicatestherateofdescentontheVSIinstrumentface.

VSI Presentation.
Twotypesofpresentationareavailable:alinearscaleandalogarithmicscale.Itwillbeobviousfrom
comparingthetwoinstrumentsdepictedinFigure14.23,thatthelogarithmicscale.shownonthe
right,iseasiertoreadatthelowerratesofclimbanddescent.

15.11 The Errors of The VSI

Instrument Error.
Instrumenterrorisduetomanufacturingimperfections.

Position (or Pressure) Error.

Ifthesensingofstaticpressurechangesissubjecttopositionerror,theVerticalSpeedIndicator
willwronglyindicateaclimbordescentwhenspeedissuddenlychanged.Thiserrorismostnoticeable
duringtakeoffacceleration.

Manoeuvre-induced Error.
Anyfluctuationsinpressureatthestaticventduringattitudechangeswillcausetheinstrumentto
indicateafalserateofclimbordescent.Consequently,mostVSlshaveasmallcounterbalanceweight
includedinthelinkage,theinertiaofwhichcausesdelaysintheindicationsofchangesinvertical
speedduringmanoeuvres.

Time Lag.
TheVSIpointertakesafewsecondstosteadybecauseofthetimetakentobuildupasteadypressure
differenceduringclimbordescent.
Therewillalsobeatimelagwhentheaircrafttransitstolevelflightbecauseofthetimetaken
forthepressurestoequalise.Thiserrorismostnoticeableafteraprolongedclimbordescent,
especiallyatahighrate.

The Instantaneous VSI

Toovercometheproblemoflag,theinstantaneous,orIVSI,incorporatesanaccelerometer
unitwhichrespondsquicklytoachangeofaltitude.Inadescent,asshowninFigure14.24,thepistonin
theverticalaccelerationpumpimmediatelyrisesinthecylinderandincreasesthepressureinthecapsule.

Thecapsuletherefore,expandsalmostimmediatelyandthepointerwillgiveaninstantindication
ofdescent.Iftheverticalaccelerationceases,afterafewsecondsthepistonwillslowlydescendtoits
originalposition,butbythistimethecorrectdifferentialpressurebetweenthecapsuleandthecase
willhavebeensetupandthecorrectrateofdescentwillcontinuetobeshown.

Inaclimb,asshowninFigure14.25,thepistonintheverticalaccelerationpumpimmediatelyfallsin
thecylinderanddecreasesthepressureinthecapsule.Thecapsulecontractsandthepointerwillgive
aninstantindicationofclimb.Iftheverticalaccelerationceases,afterafewsecondsthepistonwill
slowlyrisetoItsoriginalposition.Butbythistimethecorrectdifferentialpressurebetweenthe
capsuleandthecasewillhaveestablisheditselfandthecorrectrateofclimbwillcontinuetobeshown.

Blockages and Leaks.

Anyblockagesofthestaticlineorventwillcausetheneedletoreturntozeroafterashortdelay.Ifthe
supplyofairtotheVSIisblocked,itishighlyprobablethattheotherpressuremstruments.,theAir
SpeedIndicatorandtheAltimeter,willalsobeaffected.

Checks Before Take-off.

Thefollowingchecksoftheverticalspeedindicatorshouldbemadebeforeflight.
Theinstrumentdialglassmustbecleanandundamagedandtheinstrumentshouldreadzero.
Inflight,theaccuracyoftheVSImaybecheckedagainstthealtimeterandastopwatchduringa
steadyclimbordescent.
TheVSIshouldindicatezerowheninlevelflight.

16 GYROSCOPIC INSTRUMENTS

16.1 The Gyroscope

Agyroscopeisaspinningrotororwheelwhosespin.axisis,itself,freetorotateinoneormore
directions.Anyrotatingbodyexhibitsgyroscopicphenomena.TheEarthisagyroscope,spinningabout
animaginaryaxispassingthroughthegeographicpoles.Achild's'top'isagyroscopeandsoisan
aircraft'spropellerwhenitisturning.Therotorwhichformsanaircraftinstrumentgyroscopemaybe
littlemorethananinchindiameter,spinningatperhaps25000RPM.

Gimbal Rings and Freedom of Movement.

Gimbalrings,orgimbals,aretherotorsupportswhichgivetherotor'sspinaxisitsown
freedomofmovement.
Figure15.1showsarotormountedintwogimbalrings,theoutergimbalbeingsupportedbya
fixedframe.Therotoritselfisametaldiscwhichrotatesaboutitsaxis(markedasxxinthe
diagram).Therotorspinaxisissupportedbybearingsinaringcalledtheinnergimbal.The
innergimbalisinturnsupported'bybearingsmountedinsidetheoutergimbal.Boththeinnergimbal
andtheoutergimbalarefreetorotatewithinthefixedframe.

Thethreeaxesoftherotor,innergimbalandoutergimbalrunperpendicularlytooneanother.The
outergimbalhasonedegreeoffreedom,butitsaxishasnone.Theinnergimbalhastwodegreesof
freedom,whileitsaxishasonedegreeoffreedom. Therotor,itself,hasthreedegreesoffreedom,
anditsaxishastwo.Itistheinteractionofthesethreeaxestogetherwiththegyroscopicphenomena
ofrigidityandprecession(seebelow)whichallowthegyroscopetobeusedinaircraftinstruments
whichindicateturning,attitudeandposition.

16.2 The Fundamental Principles of The Gyroscope

Rigidity.
Aspinninggyroscopeatalltimestendstomaintainitsaxispointinginafixeddirectioninspace.
Whereveragyroscopeismoved,itsspinaxiswillcontinuetopointinthesamedirection,unless
acteduponbyanexternalforce.Thispropertyiscalledrigidityorgyroscopicinertia.Rigidityis
ameasureofthegyroscope'stendencytoresistchangestoitsorientationinspace.Thisresistanceto
directionalchangeisafunctionofthegyroscopes'sangularmomentum.

Factors Affecting Gyroscopic Rigidity.

Therearethreefactors,showninFigure15.2overleaf,whichaffecttherigidityofagyroscope.They
aretherotormass,theeffectiveradiusatwhichthemassactsandthespeedofrotation.An
increaseinmass,effectiveradiusandrotationalspeedwillallincreasetherigidityofthegyroscope.

Inordertoincreasetheeffectiveradiusatwhichthemassacts,thematerialoftherotorisdistributed
sothatthegreaterpartofitsmassisnearitsrim.

Gyroscopic Precession.
Anyspinningbody,orgyroscope,willresistmovementwhenaforceisappliedtoit.Ifyouwereto
holdthetwoendsoftheaxisofawheelspinningtowardsyou(whenviewedfromabove).youwould
noticethatifyouattemptedtotilttheaxis,byloweringoneend.theaxiswouldnotmoveveryfarin
thedirectionyouwisheditto,butwouldinsteadmoveinthehorizontalplaneasifyouhadtriedto
pushtheendoftheaxisawayfromyou(seeFigure15.3).Thisphenomenonisknownasgyroscopic
precession.Theresultofgyroscopicprecessionisthatthelineofactionofanyforceappliedto
thespinaxismovesthrough90inthedirectionofspin,beforetakingeffect.

Rate Gyroscopes.
Rategyroscopesareusedtomeasurerateofangulardisplacement.Inarategyroscopethe
gimbalinwhichtherotorismountedisfreetomoveinoneplaneonly.Thismeansthattherotor
spinaxishasonlyonedegreeoffreedom.TurnIndicatorsarefittedwitharategyroscope.

Figure15.4adepictsasimplifiedTurnIndicatorasitwouldappearinanaircraftinstraightflight.
Figure15.4bdepictstheTurnIndicator,indicatingaturntotheright.Thegimbalinwhichtherate
gyroscopespinsisfreetorotateintheverticalplaneonly.TheneedleoftheTurnIndicatoris
attachedtothegimbalbyanappropriatemechanism(notshownhere).
Aturntotherightcausesaforcetobeappliedtothegyroscopeassembly,asindicatedbythegreenarrow.
Precessioncausesthelineofactionofthatforcetomovethrough90inthedirectionofrotation

Precessioncausesthelineofactionofthatforcetomovethrough90inthedirectionofrotation
oftherotor,tobecometheforceshownbythebluearrowlabelled"precessionforce".Thegreater
therateofturnoftheaircraft,thegreatertheprecessionforce.Thegimbalwilltilttotheright,
increasingitstiltuntilstoppedbytherestrainingspring.Theneedleindicatestherateofturnofthe
aircraftonthedial.
Whentheaircraftstopsturning,theprecessionforcedisappears,thespringslevelthegimbal,
returningthegyroscopetotheverticalposition,andtheneedleonceagainindicatesstraightflight.

16.3 The Turn And Slip Indicator

TheTurnandSlipIndicator(showninFigure15.5),incorporatestwomeasuringdevices,theturn
indicatorandasimplependulousdeviceknownasthe"ball".

The Turn Indicator.

TheTurnIndicatoremploysarategyroscope,whoseoperationisdescribedabove,tomeasure
therateatwhichanaircraftchangesdirectioninturningflight.Therateofturnisindicatedbya
needleonthefaceofthe.instrument.MostTurnIndicatorsonlightaircrafthaveascale
whichwillshowamaximumrateofturnof'RateOne'.ARateOneTurnis3persecond,or
acomplete3600turnin2minutes.ARateOneTurnistherateusedininstrumentflyingprocedures.

ConstructionoftheTurnIndicator.
EithervacuumorelectricallydriventypesofTurnIndicatorarefittedtolightaircraft.Withtheformer,an
engfnedrivenpumporventuritubeisusedtoapplysuctiontotheinstrumentcasetodrivetherategyroscope.
EffectofVaryingRotorSpeed.
Ifthesuctiontoanairdriveninstrumentisinadequate,aconditionwhichcanoccurasaresultofeitherhigh
altitudeorachokedfilter,orevenperhapsaleakingsuctiontube,gyroscoperigiditywillbelowered
becausethegyroscopewillrotateatalowernumberofrevolutionsperminutethanitsdesignspecifications.
Withloweredrigidityinspace,anygivenrateofturnwillcausethepointertomovebyasmaller'amount
thaniftherotorwerespinningatnormalspeed.TheTurnIndicatorwillthereforeunderread.Inother
words,theactualrateofturnoftheaircraftwillbegreaterthantheindicatedrateofturn.
Ontheotherhand,ifthegyroscopeweretooverspeed,theTurnIndicatorwilloverread,indicatingagreater
rateofturnthantheactualrateofturnoftheaircraft.Forthecorrectoperationofvacuumdrivengyroscopic
instruments,asuctionof3%to5%inchesofMercuryshouldbeindicated.Ifthevacuumgaugeindicatesless
than2%inchesofMercury,thereisariskthatgyroscopeindicationswillbeerroneous.Inflight,apilotcan
checktheaccuracyoftherateofturnindicatedbytheTurnIndicatorwithhisstopwatch.

The Ball and the Balanced Turn.

TheotherdevicewithintheTurnandSlipIndicator,the"ball",isaverysimplependulousdevicewhichis
usedmainlytoshowwhetherornotaturnisbalanced,and,iftheturnisD.Q!balanced,toindicatetheextent
ofsliporskid.
Turnsshouldbeproperlybalanced,withnosidesliporskid.Abalancedturnimpliesthattheangleofbank
shouldbecorrectfortheairspeedandtherateofturn.

Inbalancedflight,theballwillbe'inthemiddle'ofthecurvedtubebetweenthetwoverticallines.If
theaircraftisoutofbalance(if,forinstance,yaw,sliporskidispresent),theballwillbedisplaced

toonesideortheotherofthetubeasshowninFigure15.6.
Ifapilotisturningwithtoolittlebankortoomuchrudder,theaircraftwillbeskiddingandtheballwill
bedisplacedtowardstheoutsideoftheturn.Ifthereistoolittlerudderortoomuchbank,theball
willbedisplacedtowardsthecenteroftheturn,indicatingaslip.

Balanced Flight.
YourflyinginstructorwillteachyouhowtoflyInbalance.Basically,anaircraftisInbalanced
flightiftherelativeairflowmeetstheaircraftparalleltoitslongitudinalaxis.Iftherelativeairflowis
meetingtheaircraft'slongitudinalaxisatanobliqueangle,yawispresentandtheaircraftiseither
slippingorskiddingthroughtheair,causingtheballoftheslipindicatortobedisplacedtoone
side.Iftheballisouttotheright,inordertoreturntheballtothemiddle,thatis,toreturntheaircraft
tobalancedflight,anappropriateamountofrightrudderISapplied.Iftheballisdisplacedtothe
left,leftrudderisappliedtoreturntobalancedflight.

The Rate One Turn.

Asyouhavelearnt,aRateOneTurnisaturnat3persecondchangeindirection.(360in2minutes)
ThefollowingIsagoodruleofthumbforcalculatingtheangleofbankrequiredtogiveabalancedRate
OneTurnatagivenairspeed.ToachieveaRateOneTurn,takeonetenthoftheindicatedairspeedin
knotsandaddseventogiveapproximatelytherequiredbankangleindegreesForexample,atan
airspeedof110knots,bankangleshouldbe11+7=180.ThisrulegivesreasonableaccuracyforRate
OneTurnsforairspeedsbetween100and250knots

16.4 the Turn Coordinator

TheTurnCoordinator,showninFigure15.7,isadevelopmentoftheTurnIndicator.Theprimary
differencesbetweentheTurnIndicatorandtheTurnCoordinatorareinthesettingoftheappropriate
axisoftheRateGyroscope,andinthemethodofdisplay.TheRateGyroscopeintheTurn
Coordinatorismountedinsuchawayastomakethegyroscopesensitivetobankingoftheaircraftas
wellastoturning.
TheTurnCoordinator,therefore,willindicaterateofroll,aswellasrateofturn.TheTurn
Coordinatordoesnot,however,indicateangleofbank,neitherdoesitgivepitchinformation.When
thewingtipofthewhiteaeroplaneshownontheTurnCoordinatorisagainsteitheroneofthe
lowerwhitemarksontheinstrumentscale,theaircraftisexecutingaRateOneTurnthatis,a
turnof1800perminute,or3600in2minutes(hencetheannotation'2min'ontheinstrument
face.)

Pilot Serviceability Checks.

ThebasicserviceabilityofboththeTurnIndicatorandTurnCoordinatorcanbecheckedbythe
pilotduringtaxying,priortotakeoff.Whilethepilotisturningtheaircrafttocheckcorrect
operationoftherudderbaranddifferentialbrakes,heshouldverifythattheTurnIndicator,orTurn
Coordinator,showsaleftturnwhentheaircraftisturningleft(withtheballbeingdisplacedtothe
right),andarightturnwhentheaircraftisright(withtheballbeingdisplacedtotheleft.)Intheair,the
pilotcanchecktheaccuracyoftheRateOneIndication,usinghisstopwatch.

16.5 Introduction to The Aircraft Horizon

ShowninFigure15.8istheArtificialHorizonorAttitudeIndicatorasitissometimes
called.TheArtificialHorizonprovidesthepilotwithinformationontheaircraft'sattitude,bothin
pitchandroll.Itisaprimaryinstrument,replacingthenaturalhorizoninpoorvisibility.

Theattitudedisplayconsistsofaminiatureaircraftshapeorgullwingattachedtothefrontofthe
instrumentcase.Behindthissymbolicaircraftisapictureofthehorizon,linkedtothegyroscopeinsuch
awaythatthepictureofthehorizonisgyrostabilisedparalleltothetruehorizon.Apointeratthetopof
theinstrumentindicatesangleofbank.Sooncethepilothasestablishedtherelationshipbetween
airspeed,angleofbankandrateofturn,theArtificialHorizoncanalsobeusedtoflyagivenrateof
turn.TheArtificialHorizonmayb.esuction,drivenorelectricallydriven.

Construction of the Artificial Horizon.

TheArtificialHorizonusesanEarthgyroscopeinwhichthespinaxisismaintainedintheEarth'svertical
axis,becauseofgyroscopicrigidity.Thismeansthattheplaneoftherotorrotationishorizontal,thus
providingthestablelateralandlongitudinalreferencesrequired...
Anenginedrivensuctionpump(orventuritubeinsomelightaircraft)isusedtocreateasuctionof
about4or5inchesofMercuryintheinstrumentcaseoftheairdrivenArtificialHorizon.
Replacementair,drawninbythissuctionviaafilter,isductedthroughtheouterandinnergimbalsto
entertherotorcaseasajetwhichspinstherotoratupto15000revolutionsperminute.Afterdrivingthe
rotor,theairpassesintotheinstrumentcasethroughslotsatthebaseoftherotorhousing.
Whentheaircraftismaneouvring,thewholeaircraft,includingtheinstrumentsandthesymbolic
aircraft,movesaroundthegyroscopewithitsattachedhorizonpicture.Consequently,theArtificial
Horizonisabletodisplay.bothpitchattitudeandbankangletothepilot.

Limitations of the Artificial Horizon.

BeawarethattheArtificialHorizonindicatespitchattitudeandbankattitude,butitdoesnotindicate
aircraftperformance.Forinstance,theArtificialHorizonwillindicateanosehighattitude
irrespectiveofwhethertheaircraftisclimbingorabouttostall.
TheamounttheArtificialHorizoninstrumentcasecanmoverelativetothegyroscopeiscontrolledby
fixedstops.Witholderdesigns,typicallimitsare600inpitchand1100eachwayinroll.In
moderninstruments,thereiscompletefreedominrollandupto85inpitch.
Iftheinstrument'slimitsareexceeded,thegyroscope'topples',causingviolentanderratic
movementsofthehorizonbar.Unlessafastreerectionsystemisincorporated,accurate
indicationswillnotbeobtainedfromtheArtificialHorizonuntilthegyroscopehasreerecteditself
overaperiodof10to15minutes.

Artificial Horizon Control Systems.

Therotorassemblyismadeveryslightlybottomheavyinordertokeeptoaminimumthetimetakenfor

initialerectionwhenthe.gyroscopeisfirststartedup.Acomplexcontrolsystemisrequiredtomaintain
therotoraxisverticalinflight.

Pilot Serviceability Checks.

Whenmanoeuvringonthegroundpriortotakeoff,andwhenthegyroscopeisuptospeed,checkthat
thehorizonbartakesupalaterallylevelpositionwiththecorrectpitchindicationforthe
aircrafttype.ThecorrectpitchattitudeforyouraircrafttypecanbesetontheArtificialHorizon,
beforetakeoff,byanadjustingknob.Ifacagingdeviceisfltteo,theinstrumentshouldbeuncaged
atleastfiveminutesbeforetakeofftoensurethattherotoraxishashadtimetoreachalignmentwiththe
truevertical.
Inflight,theArtificialHorizonshouldgiveanimmediateandcorrectindicationofanychangein
pitchorrollattitude.
Whencarryingouttaxingchecks,apilotshouldensurethatthehorizonbarremains
horizontalwhentheaircraftisturnedtotheleftandrightduringverificationofground
steering.Checkalsothatthevacuumgaugeisshowingsufficientsuctionforcorrectoperationofthe
ArtificialHorizon.

16.6 Directional Gyroscope Indicator

Introduction.
TheDirectionalGyroscopeIndicator,whichisalsocalledtheHeadingIndicator,DirectionalGyro,
DirectionIndicator,orsimply,the01,providesastabledirectionalreferenceinazimuthformaintaining
accurateheadingsandforexecutingpreciseturns.ThereisnomagneticelementintheDirection
Indicator,soitisnotnorthseekinganditmustinitiallybesynchronizedwiththeMagnetic
Compass.

RememberthattheMagneticCompassistheprimaryindicatorofdirectioninmostlightaircraft.The
synchronisationofanuncompensatedDirectionIndicatorwiththeMagneticCompassmustbe
checkedatregularintervalsofabout15minutes.Thisisbecausemechanicalerrorsandapparent
gyroscopicwander,sometimescalledgyroscopicdriftorprecissioncausetheDirectionIndicator
todriftawayfromaccuratealignmentwiththeCompass.
TheDirectionIndicatordoesnotreplacetheCompassbut,havingnomagneticelement,the
DirectionIndicatordoesnotsufferfromtheCompassturningandaccelerationerrors,makingit
easierforthepilottorolloutaccuratelyonadesiredheading.Theoutergimbalpermitstherotorto
rotatethrough3600inthehorizontalplane.Theoutergimbalalsohasaringscaleattachedtoit,usually
graduatedin50intervals,whichprovidestheinstrumentdisplayoftheDirectionIndicator.

The Principle of Operation and Construction of the Directional Gyroscope Indicator.

TheDirectionIndicatoremploysatiedgyro,thatistosay,agyroscopehavingfreedomof
movementinthreeplanesmutuallyatrightanglestoeachother,butwiththerotoraxismaintainedinthe
horizontalplane.Becauseofitsgyroscopicrigidity,therotorprovidesthedatumfromwhichheading
canbemeasured.
Duringatum,theaircraftandtheinstrumentcaseturnontheverticalaxisbearingsoftheoutergimbal,
whilstthegyroscoperotor,gimbalsandringscaleallremainfixedinazimuthbecauseofgyroscopic
rigidity.
InthetypeofDirectionIndicatorshowninFigure15.10a,headingisindicatedontheringscalebya
lubberlinepaintedonaglasswindowintheinstrumentcase.

AnothertypeofDirectionIndicatordisplay,showninFigure5.10b,hasacircular,verticalcard
Indicatingscalegearedtotheoutergimbal,insteadofthecylindricalscale.Inthistypeofdisplay,the
headingisindicatedbythenoseoftheaeroplaneshapedpointer.

The Control System - Suction Gyroscopes.

WithearlierdesignsofDirectionalIndicators,therotorisdrivenbytwinjetsofairappliedfrom
theoutergimbalringasshowninFigure15.11.

Suctionisappliedtothecaseoftheinstrument,andreplacementairentersthecasethroughafilterand
isductedtothejetsontheoutergimbalwhichacton'buckets'cutintherotor.
Thejetsnotonlyspintherotorbutalsoservetomaintain,or'tie',therotoraxisintheyawingplaneofthe
aircraft.

Pilot Serviceability Checks for the Direction Indicator.

Beforetakeoff,butafterenginestart,checkthatthevacuumgaugeisindicatingsufficientsuction
forthegyroscoperotortooperateatthecorrectrotationalspeed.Assoonaspracticable,settheDirection
Indicatorheadingtothecompassmagneticheading.Whiletaxing,checkthattheDirection
Indicatorshowsanincreasingreadingwhentheaircraftisturnedtotheright,andadecreasing
readingwhentheaircraftisturnedtotheleft.

16.7 Direction Indicator Errors - Gyroscopic Wander

Iftheaxisofagyroscoperotordepartsfromitssetdirection,itissaidtowander,orprecess.
Iftheaxisofthegyroscoperotorwandersinthehorizontalplane,asindicatedbythe
horizontalarrowinFigure15.12,itissaidtodrift.
AweighthungonthegimbalatpointAwillproducedrift.
If,ontheotherhand,therotoraxiswandersintheverticalplane,itissaidtotopple.

Mechanical Wander or Drift.

Manufacturingimperfectionsinagyroscopecausesmallratesofrandomprecession.Other
termsgiventothisprecessionarebalancewanderor,iftheprecessionisinthehorizontalplane,
mechanicalwander.
Theimperfectionsconcernedareunevenrotorbearingfriction,unbalancedgimbals,andfrictionin
gimbalbearings.Inflightturbulencemayincreasetheeffectoftheseimperfections.

Apparent Wander or Drift.

ConsideraDirectionIndicatorsuchastheonedepictedinFigure15.13,withtherotoraxis
horizontalandalignedwiththegeographicmeridian.TherotoraxisiscausingtheDirection
IndicatortoindicateTrueNorthontheEarthandisalsoalignedwithapointataninfinitedistance
inspace.

FivehourslaterwhentheEarthhasrotatedthrough75onitsaxis,thegyroscoperotoraxisisstill
alignedwiththesamefixedpointinspace(assumingnootherdisturbingforces)andtheDirection
IndicatornolongerindicatesthedirectionofNorthontheEarth.TheDirectionIndicator
appears,therefore,tohavechangeditsalignment,asseenbyanobserveronEarth:by75inthecase
illustrated,from360(0)to285.Thistypeofwanderiscalledapparentwander,orapparentdrift.
ApparentWanderisdueonlytotherotationoftheEarthaboutitsaxis.

16.8 The Magnet

Eveninancienttimestheoxideofironcalledmagnetite,shownhereinFigure15.14,wasobservedto
attractsmallpiecesofiron.Thispropertyisknownasmagnetism.
Anotherpropertywhichtheancientsrecognisedinmagnetitewasthat,ifitwasmountedona
pieceofwoodtoallowittofloatonwater,itwouldswingroundandalignitselfinaroughlynorth
southdirection,soactingasaprimitivecompass.

Inmoremoderntimes,itwasfoundthatthemagneticpropertiesofmagnetitecouldbetransferred
tocertainmetallicmaterials.Magnetizedmaterialsofthiskindwerecalledmagnets.

Magnetic Fields.
Thefieldofamagnetisthespacearounditinwhichitsmagneticinfluenceisfelt.Wemaygeta
pictureofamagneticfieldbyplacingapieceofcardoverabarmagnetandscatteringironfilings
onit.Whenthecardisshakenortappedthefilingswilladoptthepatternofthemagneticfieldasshown
inFigure15.15.

The Poles of a Magnet

Figure15.15alsoillustratesthatthelinesofforcetracedbytheironfilingsareclosertogetherinthesmall
areasneartheendsofthemagnet.Thesetwoareasarecalledthepolesofthemagnet.Itisatthepolesof
amagnetthatamagnet'smagnetismismostintense.Magnetscanbemadeinvariousshapesbut
everymagnethastwopoles.Aunitpolecannotexist.Ifamagnetiscutintotwopieces,eachpiece
willhavetwopoles.

North Seeking and South Seeking Poles.

AfreelysuspendedmagnetintheEarth'smagneticfieldwillalignitselfroughlyNorth5outh
asdepictedinFigure15.16.
OneendofthemagnetpointstotheEarth'sNorthMagneticPole.Thisendofthemagnetis
knownasaNorthseekingpoleor,simply,themagnet'sNorthPole.TheotherendisaSouthseeking
polemorecommonlycalledthemagnet'sSouthPole.
Byconvention,amagnet'sNorthseekingpoleiscolouredred,andtheSouthseekingpoleis
colouredblue.

Terrestrial Magnetism.
TheEarthbehavesasthoughahugepermanentmagnetweresituatednearitscentre,producingamagnetic
fieldoverthesurfaceoftheearth.TheEarthrotatesaboutanaxispassingthroughitsgeographical

NorthandSouthPoles.Figure15.17showsthatthepolesofthehypotheticalEarthmagnetdonot
lieontheEarth'sspinaxis.TheNorthandSouthMagneticPolesarenotcoincidentwiththe
GeographicalNorthandSouthPoles.

TheEarth'smagneticpoleshavebeengiventhenamesMagneticNorthandMagneticSouth,
becausetheyarenottoofardistantfromtheEarth'sgeographicalpoles.
TheEarth'sMagneticNorthPole.liesatpresent(2006)beneathNorthernCanadaIntheareaaround
700N95W.TheMagneticSouthPoleiscurrentlybelowAntarcticanearSouthVictoria
Land.
Theangulardifferencebetweenthelocationsofthemagneticandgeographicpoles.asmeasuredatany
givenpointontheEarth'ssurfaceiscalledmagneticvariation(seeFigure15.20).

16.9 The Magnetic Compass

Aninstrumentwhichisfoundinallaircraft.fromthesimplestlightaircrafttothemostmodernglass
cockpitairliner,isthesimpleMagneticCompass.
AcompassisaninstrumentdesignedtoIndicatedirectiononthesurfaceoftheEarth,relativeto
theEarth'smagneticpoles.
Inidealconditions.themagnetattheheartoftheaircraft'sMagneticCompass,willpointatalltimesto
theEarth'sMagneticNorthandSouthPoles.Theoreticallyastheaircraftchangesdirectionthe
compassmagnetremainsalignedtothetwoMagneticPoles.Becauseofthispropertyofthe
magnet,thepilotisabletoreadoffhisaircraft'smagneticheadingfromthecompassAsweshall
learnlaterinthischapter,however.thereareseveralreasonswhythecompassmagnetmaynot
alwayslieNorthSouth,leadingtoerrorsincompassindications.
Thepurposeofamagneticcompassinanaircraft.then,istoindicateheadingthedirectioninwhich
theaircraftispointing.
Magneticinfluences,suchasthoseproducedbyironorsteelcomponents,electriccurrentsetc.,cause
localdistortionsintheEarth'smagneticfieldwhichleadtoerrorsinthecompassreading.Thistypeof
erroriscalledcompassdeviation.
Therulesforapplyingcorrectionsformagneticvariationanddeviationtothecompass
headingindicationinordertodetermineanaircraft'sheadingwithrespecttoGeographical
North(otherwiseknownasTrueNorth)arediscussedlaterinthisChapter.

Direct Indicating Magnetic Compass.

ThispartofthechapterdealswiththeDirectIndicating.orDirectReadingMagneticCompass,where
thepilotdirectlyreadshisheadinginrelationtoapivotedmagnetassembly.

TherearetwobasictypesofDirectReadingMagneticCompassusedinaircraft:theSimple
MagneticCompassand,lesscommonly,butstillfoundinolderaircraft,theGridRingCompass.

The Simple Magnetic Compass.

TheSimpleMagneticCompasssometimesreferredtoastheE2Borstandbycompass,shownon
thenextpageinFigure15.18,isthedirectreadingcompassingeneraluseinmostaircraft.TheSimple
MagneticCompassisusuallythemainmagneticheadingreferenceinlightaircraft,andthestandby
compassinlargeraircraft.TheSimpleMagneticCompassconsistsofacircularcompass
cardattacheddirectlytoamagnetassembly.Thiscombinedunitissuspendedwithinthecompassbowl.

Averticallubberlineontheglasswindowofthebowlenablestheheadingtobereadfromthe
compasscard.

The Grid Ring Compass.

ThePtypecompassorGridRingCompass,illustratedinFigure15.19,isfoundonolderaircraft,
suchastheDeHavillandChipmunk.ItismoreaccuratethantheSimpleMagneticCompassandis
morestable.
TheGridRingCompassis,however,heavier,bulkierandmoreexpensive.Inadditionitcanonlybe
readinstraightandlevelflight,asthegridringhastobeundampedandalignedwiththeNorth
referencebeforeareadingcanbetakenagainstthelubberline.

16.10 Magnetic Variation

TheEarthbehavesasthouqha.hugepermanentmagnetwassituatednearitscentre,producingamagnetic
fieldoveritssurface,asseeninFigure15.17.
Aswehavesaid,thedirectionofthatfieldatanygivenpointcanbeindicatedbyafreelysuspended
magnet.Suchamagnetwillalignitself,roughly,inaNorthSouthdirection
However,thepolesoftheEarth'smagneticfielddomoveandareseldomcoincidentwiththe
Earth'sspinaxis.ThepositionoftheNorthMagneticPoleismovingatabout22nauticalmilesperyear.
Sinceitwasfirstlocatedin1831ithasmovedapproximately625miles.TheNorthMagneticPole
ispresentlyclosetoEllesmereIslandintheCanadianArcticIslands,whichis650mileswestof
theGeographicNorthPole.Consequently,thelinesofforceoftheEarth'smagneticfieldlieatan
angletothetruemeridians,andso,afreelysuspendedmagnetwillalignitselfasshowninFigure
15.20.

Theangle,measuredinthehorizontalplane,betweenthemagneticlinesofforce
atagivenpointontheEarth'ssurface,andthetruemeridianatthesamepointisknownasthe
magneticvariation.MagneticVariationisdesignatedWestorEastdependingonwhetherthe
magneticpoleliestotheWestortotheEastofTrueNorth,relativetothepointfromwhichthe
variationismeasured.

MagneticVariationcanhaveanyvaluefromzeroto180,thelatteroccurringonthetruemeridianlinking
theNorthGeographicPolewiththeNorthMagneticPole.
Whenmagneticdirectionisthesameastruedirection,thevariationisnilotherwise
MagneticNorthdirectionmaylieeithertotheWestorEastofTrueNorth.Asimplerhymehelpsin
workingoutwhichwaytoapplyvariationtoyourheading:"VariationWest,Magneticbest,Variation
East,Magneticleast".
InFigure15.21,anaircraftisflyingdueEast(090True)byreferencetopointsontheground,and
variationis110West.Therefore,thepilothashadtoaddthemagneticvariationtohisplannedtrue
headingtoobtainthecorrectmagneticheadingof101whichhemustflyinordertotrackdueEast
(0900True)overtheground.
Conversely,asshowninFigure15.22,ifthevariationis110East,thenthepilotmustsubtractthe
variationfromhisplannedtrueheadingtogetthecorrectmagneticheadingof0790whichhe
mustflytotrack0900Trueovertheground.Remember:"VariationWest,MagneticBest,Variation
East,MagneticLeast."

Isogonals
SomenavigationalchartsaremarkedwithlinescalledIsogonals.Isogonalsjoinplacesonthe
Earth'ssurfaceofthesamemagneticvariation(seeFigure15.23).YouwillfindIsogonalson
the1:500000charts.

16.11 Deviation
TheMagneticCompassIS,ofcourse,notonlysensitivetotheEarth'smagneticfieldbutalsotothe
magneticfieldsofelectricallydriveninstrumentsandmetallicobjectswithinthecockpitThe
presenceofthese"secondary"magneticfieldswithinthecockpitwillcausetheMagneticCompass
todeviatefrompointingtowardsMagneticNorth.
Theanglebetweenthelocalmagneticmeridianandthedirectioninwhichthecompassmagnetsare
lying,becauseofsecondarymagneticinfluenceswithinthecockpit,iscalledtheangleof
deviationor,simply,deviation.

DeviationcanbeEastorWestofMagneticNorth.
Deviationvarieswithindicatedmagneticheading,soithastobemeasuredonaseriesofdifferent
headings.Thisisusuallydonebyconductingacompassswing.Measureddeviationisthen
eliminatedasfaraspossiblebymakingadjustmentstothecompassitselfbymeansofacorrecting
screw.Oncedeviationhasbeenreducedasfaraspossible,theresidualdeviationisrecorded
onacompassdeviationcard,whichislocatedincloseproximitytothecompass.Duringthe
compassswing,normalflyingconditionsshouldbesimulatedasfaraspossible,withengines
running,electrical/radioservicesswitchedon,andtheaircraftinalevelflightattitude.Itis
obviouslymostimportantthatnoferromagneticobjectssuchastools,orwatchesareplacednearthe
compassasthiswouldintroduceunknownamountsofdeviation.
InFigure15.24theaircraft'scompassreadingis269degrees.Thecompassreadingisthe.
magneticheadingplusorminusthedeviationonthatparticularheading.Thedeviationcard
makesiteasyforapilottoflyanaccuratemagneticheading.LookcloselyatthedeviationcardinFigure
15.24thecardtellsthepilotthatifhewishestofly270Magnetic,hemuststeer269.

The Compass Swing.

Thebasicmethodofdeterminingdeviationistocomparetheaircraft'scompassreadingwithaveryaccurate
magneticheadingobtainedfromthereadingofahighquality'land'or'datum'compass(seeFigure
15.25).Thiscomparisoniscalledacompassswing.Thecompassswingiscarriedoutinanareaselected
specificallyforthispurposeMajorcompassdeviationerrorsarecorrectedbyadjustingsmallmagnets
mountedintheaircraft'scompasssystemAsalreadyexplained,residualerrorsthatremainareshownona
compassdeviationcarddisplayedincloseproximitytothecompassInthecockpit,asillustratedinFigure
15.24.

Thereareseveraloccasionswhenanaircraftmightrequireacompassswing.
Amongtheseare:

Whencompasscomponentsareinstalledorreplaced.Whenevertheaccuracyofthecompassisindoubt.
Afteramaintenanceinspection,ifrequtredbytheschedule.
Afterasignificantaircraftmodification,repairorreplacementinvolvingmagneticmaterial.

Iftheaircrafthasbeenstruckbylightning.

MagneticDip.
ExceptneartheEarth's'magneticequator',wherethelinesofforceareparalleltotheEarth'ssurface,
oneendofthefreelysuspendedmagnetwilldipbelowthehorizontal,pointingtothenearerpole.Tothe
NorthoftheMagneticEquator,themagnet'snorthseekingpolewilldip,asshowninFigure15.26,
whereastotheSouthoftheMagneticEquatorthesouthseekingpolewilldip.
Theangle,measuredintheverticalplane,betweentheaxisofthemagnetandthehorizontaliscalledtheangle
ofdip.

ThefurtherNorthorSouthoftheMagneticEquatorafreelysuspendedmagnetislocated,the
greaterwillbethemagneticdip,reachingabout66intheUnitedKingdom.OvertheEarth's
magneticpoles,thedipis90.Thephenomenonofmagneticdipisthecauseoferrorsinthe
indicationsofthemagneticcompasswhenanaircraftisacceleratingorturning.

16.12 Compass Errors

Acceleration Errors.
Directreadingmagneticcompassesaresubjecttoerrorsduringlinearacceleration,
lineardeceleration.orduringatum,which,ofcourse,involvescentrifugalacceleration.
Mostmaneouvreswhichcausethecenterofgravityofafreelysuspendedmagnetassemblytomove
awayfromitsnormalposition(whichisalmostdirectlybelowthepivot)willproduceanerrorinthe
indicationofacompasssoastoshowanapparentturnwhennoturnispresent.
However,ifthemaneouvredisplacesthecenterofgravitytothenorthorsouthofitsusualposition
beneaththepivot,sothatthecenterofgravityandpivotarestillintheplaneofthemagneticmeridian,
themagnetassemblymerelychangesitsnorthsouthtiltangle,withnorotationinazimuth,and
consequentlynoerror.Thereare,therefore,nolinearaccelerationerrorsincompassindications
whentheaircraftisonaheadingof360or180.Conversely,asyoumightexpect,linearacceleration
errorsaregreatestwhentheaircraftisheading090or270.
Note,thatturningandlinearaccelerationerrorsoccuronlywherethereissignificantmagneticdip,so
thatexceptforasmallliquidswirleffectinturns,theerrorsarenonexistentneartheMagnetic
Equator.
Whendipispresent,thecenterofgravityofthependulouslysuspendedmagnetisnotdirectly
underthepivot(seeFigure15.27).Therefore.whenanaircraftacceleratesonanEasterlyor
Westerlyheading,theinertialreactionatthemagnet'scenterofgravitycausesthesuspended
magnettobe"leftbehind"givingrisetoaturningmomentwhichactsonthemagnet'scenterof
gravitywhiletheaccelerationlasts.

Thisactioncausesthemagnettorotatealittleandindicateaturn.Oncelinearaccelerationis
completeandtheaircraftisagainflyingatconstantspeed,noaccelerationforceactsonthe
magnet'scentreofgrav.ity,andthecompassreadingisagainsteadyandcorrect.

Accelerating West.
Figure15.27showsbothaplanviewandapilot'seyeviewofapendulouslysuspendedmagnet
(withresidualdip)intheNorthernHemispherewiththeaircraftacceleratingonawesterlyheading.
Notethatthepivotpointandthemagnet'scenterofgravitydonotlieonthesameverticalline.The
magnetisdippingtowardsthenearerpole:MagneticNorthinthiscase.
Themagnetisattachedtotheaircraftatthepivotpoint.Whenthepivotisbeingaccelerated, the
magnetwilllagbehindbecauseofitsinertia.Theinertialforceactsatthemagnet'scenterof
gravity.Theresultwillbethat,eventhoughtheaircraftisflyinginastraightline,themagnetwill
rotate(inthiscaseanticlockwise)indicatingaturntowardsNorth.

Cruise Phase (Westerly Heading).

Whentheaircraftisincruisingflight,thereisnoaccelerationthemagnet,therefore,movesbacktoits
originalpositiononaWesterlyheading,andoncemoreindicatesthecorrectreading.Thissituationis
illustratedinFigure15.28.

Deceleration (Westerly Heading).

IftheaircraftdecelerateswhilemaintainingaWesterlyheading,thependulousmagnetassembly
willmoveaheadofthecompasspivot,inducingthecompasstoindicateanapparentturntowardsthe
South.

Accelerations and Decelerations on Easterly Headings.

Byanalogousreasoning,anaccelerationanddecelerationonanEasterlyheadingwill,likewise,cause
thecompasstoindicateanapparentturntowardsNorthandSouth,respectively.Acceleration
errorsonEasterlyheadingsarethereforeidenticaltothoseonWesterlyheadings.Duringcruising
flightatconstantairspeed,thecompasswillreadcorrectly.
ThetablebelowsummarisestheaccelerationerrorsofthemagneticcompassintheNorthern
Hemisphere.

AccelerationErrorsonEasterlyandWesterlyHeadingsintheNorthernHemispherecan
bememorisedbyusingthemnemonicANDS:AccelerationNorth,DecelerationSouth.Inthe
SouthernHemisphere,compassaccelerationerrorsaretheoppositetothoseshowninthe
table.Remember,therearenolinearaccelerationerrorsonNortherlyandSoutherly
Headings.

Turning Errors.
Aturningerrorinacompassindicationisaspecialisedtypeofaccelerationerror.Whenanaircraft
turnsataconstantspeeditissubjecttocentripetalaccelerationtowardsthecenteroftheturn.This
acceleration,whichisaresultoftheaircraftcontinuouslychangingdirection,iscausedbythe
centripetalforcegeneratedbythebankedwingsoftheaircraft.Thecentripetalforceactsonall
partsoftheaircraft,includingthecenterofgravityofthecompassmagnetsandonthemagnetpivot
points.Thissituationleadstothemagneticcompassdisplayingindicationerrorsduring
turns.
TurningerrorsaremaximumwhenturningthroughNorthandSouth,and,ignoringliquid
swirl,zerowhenturningthroughEastandWest.Thebasictheoryofturning errorsismuchthe
sameasthatforthelinearaccelerationerrorsthatwehavejustcovered.
Awayfromtheregionsofthemagneticequator,duetotheeffectofmagneticdip,thecompass'scentre
ofgravitywillbedisplacedfromapositiondirectlybeneaththepivotpoint.Inaturn,theaircraft
acceleratestowardsthecentreoftheturn,andthereforeanaccelerationforceactsthroughthepivot
towardsthecentreoftheturn,whiletheinertialreactionforceactsoutwardsthroughthecenterof
gravity.Thissituationresultsinthemagnetassemblytendingto'swingout'fromtheturn,rotatingthe

gravity.Thissituationresultsinthemagnetassemblytendingto'swingout'fromtheturn,rotatingthe
magnetassemblyaroundthepivotpointandproducingaturningerror.
Turningerrorsareusuallymoresignificantthanlinearaccelerationerrorsfortworeasons.
Firstly,becausetheyareinherentlyofgreatermagnitude,resultingfromthegreaterdisplacementof
themagnetassemblyinturnsandsecondly,turnsarelikelytobemoreprolongedthanlinear
accelerations.

Liquid Swirl.
Duringaturn,theliquidincontactwiththeinsideofthecompassbowltendstobedraggedaround
withthebowl,soproducingsmalleddiesintheliquidwhichdriftinwardsfromthecircumference
anddeflectthemagnetassemblyinthedirectionoftheturn.Thereforetheliquidtendstoswirland
rotatethemagnetassemblywithitinthesamedirectionastheaircraft'sturn.
WhenturningthroughNorthintheNorthernHemisphere,liquidswirlwillincreasethemagnitudeof
anyturningerror(inwhichtheassemblyturnsinthesamedirectionastheaircraft).
ThesizeoftheturningerrorwhenturningthroughSouthintheNorthernHemisphere(wherethe
assemblyturnsintheoppositedirectiontotheaircraft)willbereduced.IntheSouthernHemisphere,
theswirleffectwillbeintheoppositesense.
NotethatattheMagneticEquatorwherethereisnomagneticdip,liquidswirlisthesolesourceof
turningerrorwithmostcompassesthiseffectisonlyslight.

Turning through North, South. East and West.

TurningerrorsaremaximumwhenturningthroughMagneticNorthorSouth,decreasingtozero
whenpassingthroughEastorWest.

Turningerrorincreaseswithincreaseinmagneticlatitude.AttheMagneticEquatortheonlyturning
errorisduetoliquidswirl.
Wheneverthepilotturnsthroughthenearerpole(thatistheNorthPoleintheNorthern
Hemisphere,ortheSouthPoleintheSouthernHemisphere)theaircraftandcompass
magnetrotateinthesamedirection.Inthissituation,therelativemovementbetweenthecompass
card(attachedtothemagnet)andthecompasshousingwillbesmall,andthecompasscardwillappear
toreactsluggishly.Therefore,thepilotmustrolloutoftheturnearly,justbeforetheindicated
headingisreached(seeFigures15.30and15.31).

Wheneverthepilotturnsthroughthefurtherpole(thatistheSouthPoleintheNorthern
Hemisphere,ortheNorthPoleintheSouthernHemisphere)theaircraftandthecompass
rotateinoppositedirections.Inthissituation,therelativemovementbetweenthecompasscard
andthecompasshousingwillbelargeandthecompasscardwillreactinalivelymanner.Therefore,the
pilotmustrolloutoftheturnjustaftertheindicatedheadingisreached(seeFigures15.32and
15.33overfeaf).

IntheNorthernHemisphere,whenrollingoutofaturnontoamagneticheading,usingadirect
indicatingmagneticcompass,thepilotshouldmemorisethemnemonicNESt...(NORTH(roll
out)EARLY,SOUTH(rollout)LATE).

16.13 Synchronising Direction Indicator And Magnetic Compass

Havinglearnedabouttheindicationerrorstowhichthemagneticcompassissusceptible,you
arenowinapositiontoappreciatewhytheaircraftmustbeflownataconstantspeed,withwings
level,whenevertheDirectionIndicatoristobesynchronisedwiththeMagneticCompass.

16.14 Compass Serviceability Checks

Priortotakeoff,thefollowingchecksoftheMagneticCompassshouldbecarriedout.Thechecksare
donebeforeenginestart,duringtaxyingorafterlininguponarunway:as"ePropriate.

Prior to Engine Start.

Checkthatthereisnoobviousdamagetothecompassbodyorglass,suchasdentsorcracks,andthatthe
compassissecurelymounted.
Checkthatthecompassliquidisfreefromsedimentanddiscolouration,eitherofwhichwould
indicatecorrosion,resultinginincreasedpivotfriction.
Thecompassliquidshouldalsobefreefrombubbles,whichwouldprobablyindicatealeakingseal.
Turbulenceandmanoeuvreswouldcauseanybubblestomoveabout,creatingeddieswhichcould
disturbthemagnetsystem.
Thecompassreadingcanalsobecheckedforgrosserrorswhenyoufirstentertheaircraftbyverifying
thatthecompassisgivingasensiblereading.

During Taxying.
Checkthecompassreadingwhiletaxyingtheaircraft.Thecompassreadingsshoulddecreasewhen
turningleft,andincreasewhentheaircraftisturningright.

After lining up.

Justbeforetakeoff,checkthecompassreadingagainsttherunwayheading.

17 AIRWORTHINESS

17.1 Introduction
TheUnitedKingdomAirNavigationOrderstipulatesthatallUnitedKingdom
registeredaircraftshouldmeetspecificairworthinessrequirements.Themostimportant
airworthinessdocumentsasfarastheprivatepilotisconcerned,are:
TheCertificateofRegistration.
TheCertificateofAirworthiness.
TheFlightManual.
MaintenanceDocuments.
Illustrationsofthesedocumentsaretobefoundonthisandthefollowingpages.

17.2 Certificate of Registration