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A-Level Revision Notes

SMP 16-19 Mathematics Revision Notes

Unit 5 Calculus Methods
Parameters
1. The equations x = 2t and y = t are called parametric equations, and the time t, which determines
the x- and y-coordinates, is a parameter.
2. For a circles and ellipses:
Circle

Parametric

x = r cos
r

Area
3.

x2

y = r sin

y2

=1
a2 b2
x = a cos y = b sin
ab

The reciprocals of trigonometric functions are represented as:

sec =

4.

Ellipse

x2 + y2 = r 2

Cartesian

1
cos

cosec =

1
sin

cot =

1
tan

The following trigonometric identities are true, for any value of :

cos 2 + sin 2 = 1
1 + tan 2 = sec 2
1 + cot 2 = cosec 2

5.
6.
7.

Parametric equations can be converted into cartesian equations by expressing both equations equal
to the same thing, and then substituting.
dy dy dx
Parametric equations can be differentiated using the chain rule, whereby
=

.
dx dt dt
x&
x
If a moving particle has position vector r = then its velocity vector v = . The gradient of
y&
y
the velocity vector will be given by

dy y&
= .
dx x&

Product Rule
1. For general functions u and v, then the product rule gives:
d
dv
du
(uv ) = u
+v
dx
dx
dx
2.

For general functions u and v, then the quotient rule gives:

d u
=
dx v
3.

du
dv
u
dx
dx
v2

For implicit differentiation, differentiate each term independently, then rearrange to give

dy
:
dx

d
( f ( y ))= d ( f ( y )) dy .
dx
dy
dx

a.

For a term f ( y ) , then with the chain rule

b.

For a term, f ( y ) f ( x) , then use the product rule, with u = f ( y ) and v = f (x ) .

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A-Level Revision Notes

Volume
1.

If A(h) is the cross-sectional area of a solid at height h, the volume is given by V =

2.

For volumes of revolution of y = f (x) between two points:

a.
b.

3.

4.

About the x-axis, V =

About the y-axis, V =

A(h) dh .

y 2 dx .

x 2 dy .

Integration by inspection can be used to integrate, by differentiating the main part of the function
to begin with. Compare this to what you are trying to integrate, and modify your answer
accordingly.
To integrate trigonometric functions, the sum and difference trigonometric identities can be used:
2 cos A cos B = cos( A + B ) + cos( A B )
2 sin A sin B = cos( A + B ) + cos( A B )
2 sin A cos B = sin( A + B ) + sin( A B )

Integration Techniques
1. For integrating some products of functions (where one is x or x2), integration by parts can be used:

u dx dx = uv v dx dx
dv

2.

3.
4.

du

For integrating some functions of functions, integration by substitution can be used. This means
dx
changing a function f (x ) to u, and changing the integral by replacing dx with
du .
du
b f ' ( x)
b
dx = ln f ( x ) a .
If the graph of f (x ) is continuous between a and b then
a f ( x)
For more complex fractions, they can be separated into simpler fractions using the technique of
partial fractions:
A
B
+
a. For
, first cross-multiply, then eliminate A and B in turn to find the other.
f ( x) g ( x)

b.

For A +

B
, separate the numerator to give a fraction that can be evaluated to give A.
f (x )

Polynomial Approximations And First Principles

1. Taylors first approximation gives a linear approximation to a graph at a specific point, by finding
the equation of the tangent to the graph at that point.
2. For small x: sin x x , cos x 1 and tan x x .
3. The Newton-Raphson method gives a sequence of numbers that converges to a zero of f (x) :
x n +1 = x n
4.
5.

The notation f

( n)

f (xn )
f ' (xn )

( x) means that f (x) is differentiated n times, i.e. it is

dny

.
dx n
Maclaurins series gives a polynomial approximation to a function close to x = 0:
f ( x ) = f (0) + f ' (0) x +

f ' ' (0) x 2

f
+K+
2!

(n)

(0) x n
n!

6.

The notation lim ( f ( x)) = a is used to say that f (x) tends towards a when x tends towards 0.

7.

For any function, first principles states that f ' ( x ) = lim

x 0

x 0

f ( x + x ) f ( x )
.
x