13MECH 31C

Final Examination
2014/ 2015
Module Title
Introduction to Electrical Materials
Module Leader
Prof. Abdel-Hamid A. Hussein
Equipment allowed
Non-programmable calculator

Semester
One

Instructions to Students
Answer SECTION B and any TWO QUESTIONS from SECTION A.
Answers to only two questions from SECTION A will be graded. If answers to
more than two questions are found, the first two answers will be graded and
the other answers will be ignored.
The exam paper is FIVE PAGES long, not including this page
The allocation of marks is shown in brackets next to each question.
All questions carry equal marks.
Write your answers in the answer book provided, not on the exam papers.
This examination is TWO hours long.

[Turn Over only when instructed to do so]

13MECH61C

Introduction to Electrical Materials

Final Exam - January 2015

Section A: Answer TWO Questions only

Q (1)
a) Copper has FCC crystal structure with a = 0.36147 nm. It has an equilibrium number of
vacancies of 1.2x1023/m3 at 500oC, Calculate the energy of formation of a vacancy in
pure copper.

[5 marks]

b) If the original light intensity is reduced 6.5% after being transmitted 300 m through an
optical fiber, what is the attenuation of the light in decibels per kilometer (dB/km) for
this type of optical fiber?

[4 Marks]

c) It is required to reach a concentration of 1017 atoms/cm3 of boron in Si by diffusion at

1100oC for 5 h. Calculate the depth below the surface to reach this concentration of
boron. The surface concentration was maintained at 1018 atoms/cm3 during the diffusion
process. Assume zero initial concentration of boron in Si. D=4.0x10-13 cm2/s for boron
diffusing in silicon at 1100o C.

[5 Marks]

d) Describe the flow of electrons and holes when an npn bipolar junction transistor
functions as a current amplifier.

[5 Marks]

e) Calculate the critical magnetic fields for lead at 5.0 K. For lead TC=7.19 K and
BC(0)=0.0803 tesla. To what temperature must lead be cooled in a magnetic field of
15,000 A/m for it to be superconductive?

[6 Marks]
[Total 25 marks]

Q (2)
a. 1. An x-ray diffractometer recorder chart for an element that has either the BCC or the FCC crystal
structure showed diffraction peaks at the following 2 angles:
41.069, 47.782, 69.879, and 84.396. (The wavelength of the incoming radiation was 0.15405 nm.)
(i) Determine the crystal structure of the element.
(ii) Determine the lattice constant of the element.
(iii) Identify the element.
The lattice parameter of some elements (nm):
Al (0.40496) Cu (0.36147) Fe (0.28664) Rhodium Rh (0.38044).

[5 marks]

13MECH61C

Introduction to Electrical Materials

Final Exam - January 2015

b. Phosphorus is diffused into a thick slice of silicon with no previous phosphorus in it at a

temperature of 1100C. If the surface concentration of the phosphorus is 1x1018 atoms/cm3 and its
concentration at 1 m is 1x1015 atoms/cm3, how long must the diffusion time be? D = 3.0x10-13 cm2/s
for P diffusing in Si at 1100C.
[5 marks]

c. An arsenic-doped silicon wafer has an electrical resistivity of 7.50x10-4 .cm at 27oC.

Assume intrinsic carrier mobilities and complete ionization
(i) What is the majority carrier concentration (carriers per cubic centimeter)?
(ii) What is the ratio of arsenic to silicon atoms in this material?
At.wt. of Si = 28.09 g/mol, density of Si = 2.33 g/cm3

[5 marks]

d. Calculate a theoretical value for the saturation magnetization and saturation induction for
nickel, assuming all unpaired 3d (2) electrons contribute to the magnetization. (Ni is FCC and
a = 0.352 nm).
[5 marks]
e) Describe the operation of the ruby laser.

[5 marks]
[Total 25 marks]

Q (3)
a. The diffusivity of copper atoms in aluminium lattice is 7.50x10-13 m2/s at 600oC and
2.5x10-15 m2/s at 400oC. Calculate the activation energy for this case in this temperature
range. [R=8.314 J/(mol.K].
[5 marks]
b. Calculate the electrical resistivity of germanium at 300 K. The number of conduction
electrons is 2.4x1019/m3, the electron and hole mobilities are 0.39 and 0.19 m2/V.s
respectively.
[5 marks]
c. Describe the origin of the three stages that appear in the plot of ln versus 1/T for an
extrinsic silicon semiconductor (going from low to high temperatures). Why does the
conductivity decrease just before the rapid increase due to intrinsic conductivity? [5 marks]
d. Describe the movement of majority carriers in a pn junction diode at equilibrium. What is
the depletion region of a pn junction? Describe the movement of the majority and minority
carriers in a pn junction diode under reverse bias.
[5 marks]
e. Why does the addition of 3 to 4 percent silicon to iron reduce transformer-core energy
losses?
What disadvantages are there to the addition of silicon to iron for transformer-core
materials?
Why does a laminated structure increase the electrical efficiency of a power transformer?[5 marks]

2

[Total 25 marks]

13MECH61C

Introduction to Electrical Materials

Final Exam - January 2015

Section (B) Answer the Following TWO Questions

Q (4)
a. Consider a hypothetical simple eutectic phase diagram with two terminal solid
solutions of and . The eutectic composition is 36 wt%A-64 wt%B; and the
composition of the phase at the eutectic temperature is 88 wt%A-12 wt%B.
Determine the composition of an alloy that will yield primary and total mass
fractions of 0.367 and 0.768 respectively.

[5 marks]

b. Using the data in the following table, predict the relative degree of solid solubility of
the elements, copper, magnesium and zinc in aluminium

[5 marks]

Element Atom radius nm

Crystal structure Electronegativity Valence
Al
0.143
FCC
1.5
+3
Cu
0.128
FCC
1.8
+2
Mg
0.160
HCP
1.3
+2
Zn
0.133
HCP
1.7
+2
c. Confirm that there are 1.72 Bohr magnetons associated with each cobalt atom, given
that the saturation magnetization is 1.45x106 A/m, that cobalt has an HCP crystal
structure with an atomic radius of 0.1253 nm and a c/a ratio of 1.623.

[5 marks]

d. One integrated circuit design calls for diffusion of boron into high purity silicon at an
elevated temperature. It is necessary that at a distance 0.2 m from the surface of the Si
wafer, the room temperature electrical conductivity be 1000 (m)-1. The concentration
of B at the surface of the Si is maintained at a constant level of 1.0x1025

m-3

furthermore, it is assumed that the concentration of B in the original Si material is

negligible, and that at room temperature the boron atoms are saturated. Specify the
temperature at which this diffusion heat treatment is to take place if the treatment time
is to be 1 hr. the diffusion coefficient of B in Si is given by
= 2.410!!

!"!!"/!"#
!"

and

the

hole

mobility

is ! =0.024

D(m2/s)
m2/V.s.

[10 marks]
[Total 25 marks]
Q (5)
a. Calculate the drift velocity of electrons in silicon at room temperature and when the
magnitude of the electric field is 500 V/m. Under these circumstances how long does it
take an electron to traverse a 25 mm length of crystal? The room temperature mobility
of electrons is 0.14 m2/V.s.
3

[ 5 marks]

13MECH61C

Introduction to Electrical Materials

Final Exam - January 2015

b. Calculate the number of electrons per cubic meter for silver, assuming that there are 1.3 free
electrons per silver atom. The electrical conductivity and density for silver are 6.8x107 (m)-1
and 10.5 g/cm3 respectively. Compute the electron mobility for silver. The atomic weight of Ag

[5 marks]

is 107.87.

c. At room temperature the electrical conductivity of PbS is 25 (m)

-1

, whereas the

electron and hole mobilities are 0.06 and 0.02 m2/V.s. respectively. Compute the
intrinsic carrier concentration for PbS at room temperature.

[4 marks]

d. The following electrical characteristics have been determined for both intrinsic and ptype extrinsic gallium antimonide (GaSb) at room temperature:
(m)-1
Intrinsic

nn m-3

npm-3

8.9x1024 8.7x1023 8.7x1023

Extrinsic (p-type) 2.3x105

7.6x1022 1.0x1025

Calculate the electron and hole mobilities.

[6 marks]

e. Compute the saturation magnetization and the saturation flux density for iron, which
has a net magnetic moment per atom of 2.2 Bohr magnetons and a density of 7.87
g/cm3. Atomic weight of iron=55.85.

[5 marks]

13MECH61C

Introduction to Electrical Materials

Table of the error function

z
0
0.025
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.35

erfz
0
0.0282
0.0564
0.1125
0.1680
0.2227
0.2763
0.3286
0.3794

z
0.40
0.45
0.50
0.55
0.60
0.65
0.70
0.75
0.80

erfz
0.4284
0.4755
0.5205
0.5633
0.6039
0.6420
0.6778
0.7112
0.7421

z
0.85
0.90
0.95
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5

erfz
0.7707
0.7970
0.8209
0.8427
0.8802
0.9103
0.9340
0.9523
0.9661

z
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
2.0
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8

Some physical constants

Avogadro's number No = 6.023 x 1023 mol-1
Electronic charge e = 1.602 x 10-19 C
Planck's constant h = 6.626 x 10-34 J.s
Velocity of light c = 3.0 x 108 m/s
Gas constant R = 1.987 (cal/mol.K); 8.314 J/(mol.K)
Boltzmann constant k = 8.62 x 10-5 eV/K
Permeability constant o = 4 x 10-7 T.m/A
Bohr magneton B = 9.247 x 10-24 A.

erfz
0.9763
0.9838
0.9891
0.9928
0.9953
0.9981
0.9993
0.9998
0.9999

Final Exam - January 2015

Introduction to Electrical Materials 13 MECH61C

January 2015 Model Answers

Q (1)
a) No. of atoms per m3 = 4/(0.36147x10-9)3 = 8.47x1028 atoms/m3
Concentration of vacancies = (1.2x1023)/(8.47x1028) = 1.4x10-5
Ev ev
n/N = exp[
] = 1.4x10-5
5
(8.62 x10 ev / K )(773)
Ev = 0.90 eV
b)

Attenuation (dB/km) =

(1 0.065) I o
10
log
0.300
Io

10
I
=
log
l
Io

= 33.33 log (0.935)

= 0.97 dB/km
c) Cs = 1018 atoms/cm3
t = 5.0 h = 1.8 x 104 s

Cx = 1017 atoms/cm3

Co = 0.0

D1100 C = 4.0 x 10-13 cm2/s

C s C x 1018 1017
x

=
=
erf
C s Co
1018 0
2 (4.0 x10 13 )(1.80 x10 4 )
x

0.90 = erf
4
1.697 x10

from table:

x
= 1.166
1.697 x10 4

x = 1.98 x 10-4 cm

d) When an npn bipolar junction transistor functions as a current amplifier, the large majority
of electrons, 95 to 99 percent, flow from the emitter through the base and into the collector.
The remaining electrons recombine with the holes that flow from the collector to the base.
Very few holes flow into the emitter.
e) ! 0 =

!! (!)
!!

! = ! 0

!.!"!#

= !.!"#!!"!! = 6.3910! /
1

!
!!

! 2.5 = 6.3910! 1

2.5!
= 5.610! /
7.19!

 = ! 1

!
! 0

= 7.19

15,000
= 6.29
63,900

Q (2)
a.
2
41.069
47.782

comparing sin2 for the first two angles:

20.535
23.891

Sin
0.35077
0.40499

Sin2
0.12304
0.16402

sin 2 1 0.12304
=
= 0.75 FCC
sin 2 2 0.16402

(3 marks)

The lattice constant:

a=

h2 + k 2 + l 2
0.15405 1 + 1 + 1
=
= 0.38034 (2 marks)
2
2
2
0.12304
sin 1

the element whose a is closest to 0.38034 nm is rhodium Rh. (1 mark)

b. Given : Cs = 1 x 1018 atoms/cm3 , Cx = 1015 atoms/cm3 , Co=0.0

D = 3.0 x 10-13 cm2 /s at 1100oC , x = 1 m = 10-4 cm

C s C x 1018 1015
10 4

=
=
erf
C s Co
1018 0
2 (3.0 x10 13 ) xt

91.287
0.999 = erf
(3 marks)
t

91.287
From table:
= 2.35
t

91.287
t =
= 1508 s = 25.1 min (2 marks)
2.35
c)
2

c)
(i) nn =

1
1
=
= 6.17 x1018 electrons / cm 3
4
19
4
q n (7.5 x10 )(1.60 x10 )(0.1350) x10

(ii) No. of Si atoms/cm3 =

N o
at .wt.

2.38 x(6.02 x10 23 )

= 4.99 x10 22
28.09

As atoms 6.17 x1018

=
= 1.24 x10 4
22
Si atoms 4.99 x10
d.
Magnetic moment of a Ni atom = 2 Bohr magnetons
Ms = (atomic density) N B
=

4 atoms/unit cell
(2)(9.27 x10 4 ) = 1.70 x10 6 A/m
10 3
(3.52 x10 )

Bs o M s = (4x10 7 )(1.7 x10 6 ) = 2.14 T

e) The ruby laser contains a single crystal of aluminum oxide (Al2O3) that has Cr+3 ions
occupying the substitutional lattice sites. These ions are responsible for the pink color and act
as fluorescent centers when excited by a Xenon flash lamp encircling the crystal. Upon
returning to the ground state or a metastable state, the ions emit photons at specific
wavelengths which are reflected by a mirror, at the rear of the crystal, and partially
transmitted by a second mirror, located in front of the crystal. The radiation which passes
through the front mirror is a coherent laser beam.

Q (3)

Q 1 1
D(600o C )

a.
=
exp

D(400o C )
R T2 T1

T1 = 400+273=673 K, T2 =600+273=873 K

Q 1
7.5 x10 13
1
= exp

15
2.5 x10
R 873 673
300 = exp [(4.09x10-5)Q]

ln 300 = [(4.09x10-5)Q]

Q= 139,320 J/mol = 139.3 kJ/mol.

(5 marks)

b.

1
ni q( n + q )

= 0.45 .m

1
(2.4 x1019 )(1.60 x10 19 )(0.39 + 0.19)

(5 marks)

c. In the first stage of the plot, the intrinsic range, high temperatures impart sufficient energy

for the electrons to hurdle the semiconductor gap, Eg . Consequently, intrinsic conduction
dominates and the natural log of the conductivity varies inversely with 1/T as -Eg / 2k. The
second stage is respectively called the exhaustion range and the saturation range for n-type
and p-type semiconductors. Within this moderate temperature range, n-type donor atoms or ptype acceptor atoms become completely ionized. As a result, the electrical conduction
decreases as the intrinsic range is approached. In the third stage, the extrinsic rage, low
temperatures are sufficient to excite a donor electron into the conduction band of extrinsic
semiconductor. The slope of the curve in this region, is (Ec-Ed)/k and (Ea-Ev)/k for n-type
and p-type extrinsic semiconductors, respectively.
d. A pn junction diode can function as a current rectifier when an AC signal is applied such that the p
region has a positive voltage applied and the n region is subjected to a negative voltage. The resulting
positive half- wave rectification produced can be smoothed by other electronic devices and circuits
such that the final output is a steady DC signal.
(4 marks)
e. The addition of 3 to 4 percent silicon to iron reduces transformer-core energy losses by: increasing
electrical resistivity and thus decreasing eddy-current losses; decreasing magnetoanisotropy energy
and thus increasing magnetic permeability; decreasing magnetostriction within the iron core.
Disadvantages of adding silicon to iron transformer-core materials are the resulting reductions of
saturation induction, the iron Curie temperature, and the iron ductility.
A laminated structure increases the electrical efficiency of a power transformer by reducing eddycurrent losses; insulating layers between the sheets reduce the eddy-current path by preventing flow
between sheets, and thereby decrease the induced emf responsible for energy losses. (5 marks)

Q (4)
! !!

! !!"

a) Total : W = !! !!! = !! !!" = 0.768

!

! !!

! !!"

Primary : ! = !! !!! = !! !!" = 0.367

!

Solving for Co and C gives Co = 75 wt% B

b) Inspection of the difference of atomic diameters, crystal structure, valence and
electronegativities,
Difference in atomic diameters:

Al-Cu Al-Mg Al-Zn

-10.5% +11.9%
-7%
Al-Cu large difference in electronegativities
Al-Mg small difference in electronegativities
Al-Zn small difference in electronegativities
All solute elements have less than 15% difference with Al in atomic diameters
Al Cu (low)
Al Mg (moderate)
Al Zn (high)
c)
! =
!

!
!

N= number of atoms per cubic meter= !"#$%& !" !!! !"#$ !"##

! !

Volume of the unit cell=area x c = 3 = 3 ! =

= 2 = 20.1253 = 0.2506
Volume of the unit cell=

! !.!"#$!
!
!

!! ! !
!

1.623 0.2506 = 0.06636 !

Number of atoms per m3 = !.!""#" 10!" = 9.0410!"

!.!"!!"!

Number of Bohr magnetons per atom=!.!"!!"!" !!.!"!!"!!" = 1.73

d) It is first necessary for us to compute the hole concentration (since B is an acceptor in
Si) at this 0.2 m location.

1000
! =
=
= 0.024 ! /.
! ! (1.610!!" )
! = 2.610!" !!

From Table:
5

!
! !"

! !

= erf
! !
2
!"
1.010 2.610!"

=
!"
1.010 0
2

= 0.974
2
!!!"! !
= 1.58 = ! !"##!"

 = 1.1110!!" ! /
= 1.1110!!" = 2.410!!
T= 1265K = 992oC

347,000
8.31()

Q (5)
a.
! = ! . = 0.14500 = 70 /
The time required to traverse a length of 25 mm:
=

1
2510!!
=
= 3.610!!
!
70

b.
= 1.3 = 1.3

. !
1.36.0210!"
=
= 7.6210!! !! = 7.6210!" !!
!"
107.87

6.810!
=
= 5.57 ! /
. 7.6210!" 1.610!!"

c.
! =

25
=
= 1.9510!" !!
. (! + ! ) 1.610!!" (0.06 + 0.02)

d.
= nn|e|n+ pp|e|p
For the intrinsic material
8.9x104 = 8.7x1023(1.6x10-19) n + 8.7x1023(1.6x10-19) p
This reduces to
0.639 = n + p
Whereas, for the extrinsic GaSb
2.3x105= 7.6x1022(1.6x10-19) n + 1.0x1025(1.6x10-19) p
This is simplified to
0.1436 = 7.6x10-3 n + n
Thus, we have two independent expressions with two unknown mobilities. Upon solving
these equations simultaneously,

n = 0.50 m2/V.s and p= 0.14 m2/V.s

e.
! = 2.2!
!
7.8710! (6.0210!" )
=
=
= 8.4910!" /!
!"
55.85
! = 2.2 9.2710!!" 8.4910!" = 1.7310! /
! = ! ! = 1.25710!! 1.7310! = 2.18