Reproductive Behaviours

Sex and Hormones

Sexual reproduction between two individuals

increases variation in the gene pool.
Variation in the gene pool of a species enables quick
evolutionary adaptations to change in the
environment.
Also corrects genetic errors and disadvantageous
mutations.

Sex and Hormones

Widespread communication throughout the body is

accomplished through the release of hormones.
Two kinds of hormones include:
Steroid hormones
Sex hormones

Sex and Hormones

Steroid hormones are derived from cholesterol,

contain four carbon rings and exert their effects in
three ways.
1.

2.
3.

Binding to membrane receptors like

neurotransmitters.
Entering cells and activate certain kinds of proteins
in the cytoplasm.
Binding to chromosomes where they activate or
inactivate certain genes.

Three routes of action for

steroid hormones
Steroid hormones such as
oestrogen and androgens
bind to membrane receptors,
activate proteins in the
cytoplasm, and activate or
inactivate specific genes.

Sex and Hormones

The sex hormones are a special kind of steroids,

released mostly by the gonads and to a lesser
degree by the adrenal glands.
Affect the brain, genital and other organs

Two types of sex hormones include:

1.
2.

Androgens
Oestrogens

Both sexes have these categories in varying

quantities .

Sex and Hormones

Androgens are a groups of sex hormones that

include testosterone and others.
Generally referred to as male hormones because
men have higher levels than women.

Sex and Hormones

Oestrogens include oestradiol and others and are

referred to as female hormones because women
have higher levels.
Progesterone is a type of hormone that prepares the
uterus for the implantation of a fertilised ovum and
promotes the maintenance of pregnancy.

Sex and Hormones

Sex limited genes are those activated by androgens

or oestrogens and control most of the differences
between male and female.
Example: oestrogens activate the gene for breast
growth; androgens activate the gene for the growth of
facial hair in men.

Sex hormones increase or decrease the rate of

apoptosis in various regions of the brain.
Certain areas are slightly larger in males or females.

Sex and Hormones

Other mechanisms also account for some sex

differences
At least 3 genes on the Y chromosome are active in
specific brain areas, and at least one gene on the X
chromosome is active only in the female brain.
The Y chromosomes also has many sites that do not
code for proteins but alter the expression of genes on
other chromosomes.

Sex and Hormones

Sex hormones can have the following effects:

1. Organising effects - occur mostly at sensitive stages
of development (well before birth in humans).
Determine whether the brain and body will develop
male or female characteristics

2. Activating effects - occur at any time of life and

temporarily activate a particular response.
Last longer than the hormone remains in an organ but
not indefinitely.

Sex and Hormones

The distinction between the activating and

organising effects of hormone is not absolute.
Example: hormones early in life can exert temporary
effects; during puberty hormones can also induce
long-lasting structural changes as well as activating
effects.

Sex and Hormones

Obvious differences can exist between the

reproductive organs and the gonads of males and
female.
Sexual differentiation begins with the chromosomes.
Female mammal has two X chromosomes and a male
has an X and a Y.
During an early stage of prenatal development, both
male and female have a set of Mllerian ducts and a
set of Wolffian ducts as well as primitive gonads
(testis or ovary).

Sex and Hormones

Wolffian ducts are the precursors to other male

reproductive organs.
Develop into the vas deferens and seminal vesicles.

Mllerian ducts are precursors to the females

oviducts, uterus, and upper vagina.

Sex and Hormones

The male Y chromosome includes the SRY (sex

determining region on the Y chromosome) gene
which causes the primitive gonads to develop into
testes, the sperm-producing organ.
The developed testes produce the hormone
testosterone.
Testosterone induces the development of the penis
and scrotum.
A peptide hormone, Mllerian inhibiting hormone
(MIH), causes degeneration of the Mllerian ducts.

Sex and Hormones

Females are not exposed to high testosterone levels

and their gonads develop into ovaries, the eggproducing organs.
Wolffian ducts degenerate.

Differentiation of human genitals

The structure shown in blue for the fetus in the centre develops into either
the ovaries of the female or the testes of the male. The Mllerian ducts
develop into females uterus, oviducts, and the upper part of the vagina.
The Wolffian ducts develop into a males seminal vesicles (which store
semen) and vas deferens, a duct from the testis into the penis. The
Mllerian ducts degenerates in males, and the Wolffian ducts degenerate
in females.

Sex and Hormones

Sensitive periods are early periods when hormones

have long-lasting effects.
Sexual differentiation depends mostly on the level of
testosterone during a sensitive period.
The human sensitive period for genital formation is
about the third and fourth month of pregnancy.

Sex and Hormones

Female rats exposed to testosterone shortly before or

after birth are partly masculinised in anatomy and
behaviour.
Clitoris grows larger than normal
At maturity, pituitary and ovaries produce steady
levels of hormones instead of cycles
Parts of the hypothalamus appear more male
Sexual behaviour becomes masculinised

Sex and Hormones

Extra oestradiol does not determine whether the

individual looks female or male.
Oestradiol and other oestrogens do modify various
aspects of the development of the brain and the
internal sexual organs.
The absence of sex hormones generally leads to
female-looking external genitalia.
If a male rat lacks androgen receptors or is castrated,
it develops female-like anatomy and behaviour.

Sex and Hormones

Sex hormones early in life bind to receptors in

specific areas of the hypothalamus, amygdala, and
other brain areas and produce anatomical and
physiological differences.
The sexually dimorphic nucleus is an area in the
anterior hypothalamus that is larger in the male and
contributes to control of male sexual behavior.
Parts of the female hypothalamus generate a cyclical
pattern of hormone release; the hypothalamus of a
male cannot.

Sex and Hormones

During early development in rodents, testosterone is

converted within certain brain cells to oestradiol,
which masculinises development.
(In humans, testosterone produces organising effects
on the hypothalamus by itself.)
Alpha-fetoprotein is found in the blood during early
sensitive periods and binds to oestrogen and
prevents it from entering developing cells.
Testosterone does not bind to alpha-fetoprotein and
freely enters the cell.

Sex and Hormones

In adulthood, sex hormones exert activating effects

to temporarily modify behaviour.
Behaviour can also influence hormone secretion.
Courtship Dance of the Mourning Doves.flv

Hormones do not cause behaviour but rather alter

the activity in various brain areas to change the way
the brain responds to certain stimuli.
Hormones also change sensitivity in the penis,
vagina and cervix.

Sex and Hormones

Sex hormones facilitate sexual behaviour.

Arousal also depends on previous sexual experience.
Previous experience sensitises response to future
stimuli.

Sex hormones activate sexual behaviour by

enhancing sensations.
Oestrogens increase the sensitivity of the pudendal
nerve, which transmits tactile stimulation from the
pubic area to the brain.

Sex and Hormones

Sex hormones also increase responses of certain areas

of the hypothalamus.
The ventromedial nucleus, the medial preoptic area
(MPOA), and the anterior hypothalamus.

Stimulation of an area known as the sexually

dimorphic nucleus (SDN) found in the anterior
hypothalamus is larger in males and increases sexual
behaviour in males of many species.
However, lesion produce only mild deficits.

Sex and Hormones

Testosterone and oestradiol trigger the release of

dopamine by the MPOA and other areas.
Dopamine stimulation of D1 and D5 receptors is
associated with sexual arousal.
Facilitates erection of the penis and sexually receptive
postures in females

Higher concentrations of dopamine stimulate D2

receptors and lead to orgasm.
Serotonin activity decreases sexual activity by
blocking dopamine release.

Sex and Hormones

Humans are less dependent on current sex hormones

than other species but changes can increase or
decrease sexual arousal.
For males, levels of testosterone correlate positively
with sexual arousal and the drive to seek out
partners.

Sex and Hormones

For humans, sex hormones are also related to

nonsexual related function
Testosterone decreases pain and anxiety
Decrease in sex hormones (e.g., in men treated for
prostate cancer) lead to memory impairment
Oestrogen stimulates growth of dendritic spines in the
hippocampus and increased production of dopamine
type D2 receptors and serotonin type 5-HT2A
receptors in the nucleus accumbens, the prefrontal
cortex and the olfactory cortex

Sex and Hormones

Decreases in testosterone levels generally decrease

male sexual activity and interest.
Example: castration

Impotence is the inability to maintain an erection.

Usually caused by impaired blood circulation, not low
testosterone.

Erection partially depends on testosterone increasing

the release of nitric oxide.
Facilitates the hypothalamic neurons and increases
blood flow to the penis.

Sex and Hormones

Hormone levels do not completely explain the

behaviours.
Most sex offenders have normal testosterone levels.
Elevated levels among child molesters.
Many men with high levels of testosterone do not
engage in sexually offensive behaviours.

Testosterone reduction has been tried as a means of

controlling sex offenders as it reduces sexual
activities.
Results favourable for those who continue taking
medication, but dropout rate is high.

Sex and Hormones

In women, the hypothalamus and pituitary interact

with the ovaries to produce the menstrual cycle.
The menstrual cycle is the periodic variation in
hormones and fertility over the course of about 28
days.

Sex and Hormones

After the end of a menstrual period:

The anterior pituitary releases follicle-stimulating
hormone (FSH)
FSH promotes the growth of a follicle in the ovary.
The follicle nurtures the ovum and produces
oestrogen.

Towards the middle of the menstrual cycle, the

follicle builds up receptors to FSH (but actual
concentration of FSH in the blood is decreasing).
As a result, the follicle produces increasing amounts
of oestradiol, a type of estrogen.

Sex and Hormones

Increased oestradiol causes the anterior pituitary to

increase release of FSH and luteinising hormone
(LH).
FSH and LH cause the follicle to release an ovum.
The remnants of the follicle (i.e., the corpus luteum)
release the hormone progesterone.
Prepares the uterus for implantation of a fertilised
ovum
Inhibits the further release of LH

Interactions between the pituitary and the ovary

FSH from the pituitary stimulates a follicle of the ovary to develop and
produce oestradiol, triggering a release of a burst of FSH and LH from
the pituitary. Those hormones cause the follicle to release its ovum and
become a corpus luteum. The corpus luteum releases progesterone
while the ovary releases oestradiol.

Sex and Hormones

If the ovum is not fertilised, the lining of the uterus is

cast off and menstruation occurs.
If the ovum is fertilised, the levels of oestradiol and
progesterone increase gradually throughout
pregnancy.
One consequence of high oestradiol and progesterone
is fluctuating activity at the serotonin 3 (5HT3)
receptor, which is responsible for nausea.

Blood levels of four

hormones during the
human menstrual cycle
Oestrogen and progesterone
are both at high levels during
the midluteal phase but
drops sharply after
menstruation.

The Menstrual Cycle.flv

Sex and Hormones

Birth control pills prevent pregnancy by interfering

with the usual feedback cycle between the ovaries
and pituitary.
The combination-pill contains both oestrogen and
progesterone and prevents the surge of FSH and LH
that would release an ovum.
Also thickens the mucus of the cervix making it harder
for the sperm to reach the egg.

Sex and Hormones

The periovulatory period is the time of maximum

fertility and high oestrogen levels when ovulation
occurs.
Studies suggest that women become more sexually
responsive during this time when oestrogen levels
are high.
Show increased attention to sex-related stimuli.
Show increased mate preference towards men who act
and look more masculine.

Sex and Hormones

Oxytocin is a pituitary hormone also important for

reproductive behaviour.
Stimulates contraction of the uterus during delivery
of a baby.
Stimulates the mammary gland to release milk.
Released during orgasm and triggers a state of
complete relaxation.
Facilitates formation of pair bonds between mating
partners and mother and infant.

Sex and Hormones

Hormones released around the time of giving birth

facilitate maternal behaviour in females.
Late in pregnancy, the female secretes large amounts
of oestradiol, prolactin, and oxytocin.
Prolactin is necessary for milk production.
Oxytocin is associated with maternal behaviour and
social attachment.
Women who had the highest oxytocin levels during pregnancy
spent most time gazing at, vocalising to, touching and pleasurably
interacting with their infants after delivery.

Sex and Hormones

Females also change patterns of hormone receptors.

Late in pregnancy, the brain increases its sensitivity
to oestradiol in areas responsible for maternal
behaviour, but not for sexual behaviour.
The hormonal changes increase the attention of the
mother to the young after birth.
Hormones also increase activity in the medial
preoptic area and the anterior hypothalamus areas
necessary for maternal behaviour.

Brain development and maternal behaviour in mice

The mouse on the left shows normal maternal behaviour. The
one on the right has a genetic mutation that impairs the
development of the preoptic area and anterior hypothalamus.

Sex and Hormones

Vasopressin is a hormone synthesised by the

hypothalamus and secreted by the posterior
pituitary gland.
Associated with establishing long-term bonds in some
species.

Mothers are also stimulated by the odours of their

babies.
Infant rats release chemicals that stimulate the
mothers vomeronasal organ.

Effects of
vasopressin on
social and mating
behaviour
(a) Praire voles
form long-term pair
bonds. Staining of
their brain shows
much expression
of the hormone
vasopressin in the
hypothalamus.

(b) A closely
related species,
meadow voles,
mate but then
separate and show
no social
attachments. Their
brains have much
lower vasopressin
levels, as indicated
by less staining in
the hypothalamus.

Sex and Hormones

Mammals have two mechanisms for stimulating

maternal behaviour:
1.
2.

Hormones in the early phase compensate for the lack

of familiarity with the young.
Later experience maintains the maternal behaviour
as hormones decline.

Although hormonal changes are necessary to nurse

a baby, they are not necessary to elicit care for a
baby by humans.

Pigeons

Cardinals

Phalaropes

Variations in Sexual Behaviour

A wide degree of variation exists between people in

terms of frequency of sexual behaviour, preferred
types of sexual activity, and sexual orientation.
Evolutionary explanations are controversial in
explaining mating behavior.

Variations in Sexual Behaviour

Buss (2000) argues that gender differences reflect

past evolutionary pressures.
Men are interested in brief sexual relationships with
multiple partners because such a strategy increases
the likelihood of his genes being passed along to the
next generation.

Variations in Sexual Behaviour

Research has also suggested that women can gain

from having multiple sexual partners as well.
Multiple mates increases resources available to her
child and herself.
No direct evidence suggests that specific genes
influence whether people prefer single or multiple
mates.

Variations in Sexual Behaviour

Gender differences in sexual behaviour include the

following:
Men are more likely to seek multiple sex partners,
especially for short-term encounters.
Women are more likely to be concerned about a mates
earning potential: men are more likely to be concerned
about a mates youth.
Men usually show greater jealousy at indications of
sexual infidelity.

Variations in Sexual Behaviour

Evolutionary explanations of gender differences in

jealousy suggest that men need to be sure that the
children he supports are his own.
Unfaithful wives threaten this certainty.

Women are always sure that the child is their own.

Although cultures vary in attitudes towards
infidelity, no culture exists where infidelity is more
acceptable for women.

Variations in Sexual Behaviour

Both men and women prefer a mate that is healthy,

intelligent, honest, and physically attractive.
In almost all cultures, women prefer mates who are
likely to be good providers.
Evolutionary explanations suggest that choosing a
father who is likely to be a good provider aids the
women while she is pregnant or caring for a small
child.

Variations in Sexual Behaviour

A woman is more likely to reject a man because of

his smell .
Body odour relates to some of the same genes that
control the immune system, known as the major
histocompatibility complex.
A woman tends to be less sexually responsive to a
man whose immune genes, and therefore body
odour, are too similar to her own (Garver-Apgar et
al., 2006).

Variations in Sexual Behaviour

Men tend to prefer a young partner.

Evolutionary explanations suggest that this
preference exists because younger women are more
likely to be fertile than older women.
Men remain fertile well into old age so preference for
a young mate for women is not as pronounced.

Variations in Sexual Behaviour

Which would upset you more: if your partner had a

brief sexual affair with someone else, or if he or she
became emotionally close to someone?

Variations in Sexual Behaviour

Although mating habits of people can be explained

in terms of increasing the probability of passing on
ones genes, we can not assume a genetic basis.
Behaviours and preferences may be a product of
learning.

More data, especially about the effects of particular

genes, is needed to draw conclusions.

Variations in Sexual Behaviour

Gender identity refers to how we identify sexually

and what we call ourselves.
Biological differences are generally referred to as
sex differences.
Differences that result from peoples thoughts about
themselves as male or female are referred to as
gender differences.

Variations in Sexual Behaviour

Most people have a gender identity that matches their

external appearance.
Some people have a gender identity that is opposite their
biological sex.
Psychologists and researchers once believed that gender
identity was learned and more a product of rearing and
experience.
Current evidence strongly suggests that biological factors,
especially prenatal hormones, play a large role in gender
identity.
Super Model Andrej Pejic.flv

Variations in Sexual Behaviour

Intersexes are people that have anatomies

intermediate between male or female.
Poorly developed or ambiguous genitalia can be
caused by:
XY males have a mutation of the SRY gene.
Born with an XX chromosome pattern but an SRY
gene translocates from the fathers Y chromosome
onto another chromosome.
An atypical hormone pattern occurs or a mutation
of testosterone receptors occurs before birth.

Variations in Sexual Behaviour

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) is an

overdevelopment of the adrenal glands from birth.
Most common cause of the intersex condition.
Caused by a genetic defect in which limited cortisol
production leads to overstimulation of the adrenal
gland.
Overstimulation of the adrenal gland leads to extra
testosterone production.
The female foetus becomes partly masculinised.

External genitalia of
a genetic female, age
3 months
Masculinised by
excess androgens
from the adrenal gland
before birth, the infant
shows the effects of
the adrenogenital
syndrome. Structure
appears intermediate
betwwen clitoris and
penis and swellings
appear intermediate
between labia and
scrotum.

Variations in Sexual Behaviour

Hermaphrodites are individuals whose genitals do

not match the usual development for their genetic
sex.
An estimated 1 out of 100 children is born with some
degree of genital ambiguity.
1 in 2000 has enough genital ambiguity to make the
sex uncertain.

Variations in Sexual Behaviour

The brains of genetic females with CAH are exposed

to higher than normal levels of testosterone during
prenatal and early postnatal life.
Research indicates that CAH girls show a greater
preference for boy-typical toys than do other girls.
During adolescence and early adulthood, they also
show partly masculinised interests.
Sexual interest and activity also differs for CAH girls
as well.

Toy preferences by CAH

girls, unaffected girls, and
unaffected boys
CAH girls were intermediate
between unaffected girls and
boys. These data show results
when the children played alone.
Results changed slightly when
the mother or father was
present, but in each case, the
CAH girls were intermediate
between the other groups.

Variations in Sexual Behaviour

Androgen insensitivity or testicular feminisation is a

condition in which individuals with an XY
chromosome pattern have the genital appearance of
a female.
Production of androgens remains normal but they
lack the androgen receptor that enables it to activate
genes in a cells nucleus.
Condition occurs in various degrees from a smaller
than average penis to genitals that develop a female
appearance.

Variations in Sexual Behaviour

Physicians have traditionally recommended that

intersex people be reared as girls.
Surgery was often conducted to make them look more
feminine.
Assumed that children consistently raised as female
would accept that identity.

Many intersex people protest against such surgery

and suggest that an informed consent would have
been preferred.

Variations in Sexual Behaviour

Some genetic males fail to produce an enzyme (5reductase 2) that converts testosterone to
dihydrotestosterone.
Most look female at birth but a penis develops
during adolescence and puberty.
Most then accept a male gender identity.
Brain is exposed to testosterone during early
development.

Variations in Sexual Behaviour

Many genetic males born without a penis or who

had the penis accidentally removed and who were
raised as a girl ask to be reassigned as males.
Many who remain female feel discontent or conflict
with being female.
Such cases indicate that although hormones do not
determine gender identity, they do play an
important role.

Variations in Sexual Behaviour

Research has identified several predisposing factors in

genetics and prenatal environment for male
homosexuality.
Genetic and biological predisposition appears weaker
for women.
Gender-typed behaviours in childhood are a stronger
predictor of sexuality for men than compared to
women.
Higher percentage of women acknowledge physical
attraction to both sexes and switch between sexual
orientations.

Variations in Sexual Behaviour

Subtle average behavioural and anatomical differences

between heterosexual and homosexual include:
Length of bones in the arms, legs and hands (longer in
heterosexual men and homosexual women)
Size of right hemisphere (larger in heterosexual men and
equal in heterosexual females and homosexual men)
Connections of amygdala (more widespread in right for
heterosexual men and in left for heterosexual females and
homosexual men)
Percentage of hair whorl direction
Use of landmarks versus distances to give directions

Variations in Sexual Behaviour

Implies sexual orientation is an integral part of the

individual.
But shifting of behaviour to the opposite sex does not
equally apply to both sexes.
Homosexual men do not differ significantly from
heterosexual man, but homosexual women are slightly
shifted in to male direction in prepulse inhibition

Homosexual people are not all alike any more than

heterosexual people are.

Variations in Sexual Behaviour

Studies of twins suggest sexual orientation is

influenced by genetic factors.
Probability of homosexuality is highest in
monozygotic twins and lower in dizygotic twins,
and even lower in siblings and adopted brothers or
sisters.
No single particular gene has been identified.
Each of several genes may have an influence.

Variations in Sexual Behaviour

Studies also suggest a higher incidence of

homosexuality among the maternal relatives of
homosexual men.
These results suggest a gene on the X chromosome
that a man receives from his mother may play a role.
Other studies have not replicated this result and thus
the findings are inconclusive.

Variations in Sexual Behaviour

Evolutionary explanations for homosexuality

suggest:
Genes are maintained by kin selection.
Genes that produce homosexuality increase
probability of female relatives reproducing.
Several genes produce advantages for reproduction,
but certain combinations lead to homosexuality.
Homosexuality relates to activation or inactivation of
genes.

Variations in Sexual Behaviour

Sexual orientation is not related to adult hormone

levels, but may be influenced by testosterone levels
during sensitive periods of brain development.
Studies of male animals deprived of testosterone
early in life show sexual interest in other males as
adults.
Studies of female animals exposed to testosterone
during early development show an increased
likelihood of mounting behaviour.

Variations in Sexual Behaviour

The probability of homosexual orientation is also

higher among men with older brothers (higher
probably for right-handed younger brothers but not
left handed).
Number of previous sisters has no effect nor do these
effects apply to females.
Results suggest that a mothers immune system may
react against a protein in a son and attacks
subsequent sons to alter development.

Variations in Sexual Behaviour

Prenatal exposure to stress and alcohol may also play

a role.
Stress releases endorphins
antagonises the effects of testosterone on the
hypothalamus.

Stress elevates adrenal hormone corticosterone

decreases testosterone release.

Both result in changes in the structure of the nervous

system.
makes the male anatomy closer to female.

Variations in Sexual Behaviour

Laboratory research with animals has also shown

that prenatal stress can alter sexual development.
Male rats subjected to either prenatal stress or
alcohol developed male sexual behaviour in addition
to female sexual behaviours.
Male rats exposed to both stress and alcohol during
prenatal development had decreased male sexual
behaviour.
Relevance to humans uncertain.

Variations in Sexual Behaviour

Research also suggests that certain brain structures

differ in size between heterosexual and homosexual
men and women.
On average, the homosexual brain is shifted towards
the opposite sex in some (but not all) ways.
Studies emphasise the role of testosterone at certain
times of development as certain areas of the brain
have altered sensitivities to testosterone.

Variations in Sexual Behaviour

On average, differences in brain anatomy exist

between heterosexual and homosexuals.
Homosexual men tend to have:
Larger anterior commissure and suprachiasmatic
nucleus
Smaller neurons in the third interstitial nucleus of the
anterior hypothalamus (INAH-3)

Difficult to decipher why differences exist.

Typical sizes of interstitial nucleus 3 of anterior hypothalamus

On the average, the volume of this structure was more than twice as large in
a sample of heterosexual men (left) than in a sample of homosexual men
(right), for whom it was about the same size as that in women. Animal
studies have implicated this structure as important for male sexual activities.

Volumes of the interstitial

nucleus 3 of the anterior
hypothalamus (INAH-3)
Samples are females (F),
heterosexual males (M), and
homosexual males (HM).
Each filled circle represents
a person who died of AIDS,
and each triangle represents
a person who died from other
causes. The one open circle
represents a bisexual man
who dies of AIDS.

Another comparison of INAH-3

In this study, the mean volume for homosexual men
was larger than that of women but smaller than that of
men.