88

WELL DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

or fluctuation of the water table of the surface

waterbody (river, lake, etc.) connected to the
aquifer.
Unconfined alluvial aquifers located along
riverbanks are commonly used
for
freshwater
supplies. Confined or semiconfined aquifers yield
the most suitable source of water for brackish
water desalination systems (1). Aquifers that favor
the construction of wells are coarse- grained,
porous, and highly permeable geologic formations
(i.e., sand, gravel, and limestone) connected to a
riverbed (for freshwater intakes) or the ocean floor
(for seawater
intakes) whose specific yield
(transmissivity) exceeds 1,500 m3 /day/m and
whose water carrying zone is at least 6 meters (20
feet) deep (2). The higher the aquifer permeability,
transmissivity, and thickness, the larger the well
yield the aquifer can support.
WELL SITE SELECTION
Once an aquifer of suitable yield has been
identified, the location of the actual field is to be
selected. Whenever possible, the well field should
be located perpendicularly to the main direction of
groundwater flow (i.e., along the banks of a nearby
river). The most suitable location for collecting a
large amount of river water is on a river island or
within a meander. If significant clogging of the
riverbed is expected, then the wells should be
located closer to the riverbanks.
In addition, a potable water well field has to be
sited
away
and
uphill
from
potential
contamination sources such as septic tanks,
landfills, industrial plants, and underground fuel
storage tanks. Most states regulate the location of
private potable water wells and require locating
wells at least 15 to 30 meters (50 to 100 feet) away
from septic systems.
INTAKE WELL TYPES AND KEY DESIGN CRITERIA
Intake wells are typically vertical or horizontal
water collectors drilled into the source water
aquifer. Vertical intake wells are usually less costly
than horizontal wells, but their yield is relatively
small, typically, 0.004 to
0.044 m3 /s (0.1 to 1.0 MGD). Therefore, vertical
wells are typically used for supplying relatively small
quantities of water usually less than 20,000 m3/day
(5 MGD).
Vertical Intake Wells
Vertical intake wells consist of the following key
elements: a casing, well screen, filter pack, well
seal, and surface seal. Many wells have submersible
or vertical turbine pumps installed inside the well
casing (Fig. 1). A well casing is a steel or
nonmetallic (typically, fiberglass) pipe which lines
the well borehole to protect the well from caving in.
Most state standards require steel casings for
freshwater supply wells and specify the thickness of
the casing. The diameter of the casing has to house
the well intake pump and provide ample room for
pump service. The diameter of the well casing is

determined mainly by the well screen size and yield,

but the well borehole diameter has to be at least
0.1 meters (4 in.) larger than the well casing to
accommodate the installation of the well seal.
Usually, the well casing diameter is between 200 and
1200 mm (8

and 48 in.), and the well depth is typically less

than 75 meters (250 feet).
The well screen is the intake portion of the
well and is a sieve-like structure that has slotted
or perforated openings. The well screen is located
at a depth corresponding to the water carrying
zone of the aquifer. Screen depth, size of
openings, diameter, and length are key well
performance
design
criteria.
These
well
parameters are selected to maximize a wells
safe yield; control well entrance velocity; and to
avoid excessive entrance of sand and other
particulates, which have a negative impact on
well useful life and water quality. The performance
of the well screen is enhanced by a gravel (filter)
pack, which consists of clean, uniform, and well
rounded gravel and sand placed between the
borehole wall and the well screen to prefilter the
groundwater entering the well. Typically, the gravel
pack depth extends at least 1 meter (3 feet) above
the well screen. A well seal is installed above the
filter pack to prevent soil and contaminants from
entering the well screen area. The well seal is a
cylindrical layer of cement, bentonite, or clay
placed in the annulus of the well between the
well casting and the borehole. Typically, the well
seal extends at least 0.6 meters (2 feet) above the
top of the gravel pack and usually through the
elevation of the soil frost zone. The aboveground
portion of the well is finished with a concrete
surface seal. The surface and well seals protect the
well from surface runof contamination and support
the casing.
A detailed methodology for sizing well screen
diameter, length, openings and capacity, and for

selecting the grain size of the material for the gravel

pack is presented elsewhere (3). This source also
provides information on determining the thickness
of the gravel pack around the well screen, the
permissible approach velocity of the water stream
converging to the well, and ultimately the design
capacity of a new well or the maximum capacity
of an existing well.
Once constructed, vertical well performance has
to be monitored frequently to secure long-term
performance and identify early signs of potential
malfunction and failure. The most common causes
of well failure are borehole collapse, corrosion of
the casing, improper or defective construction
techniques, growth of organisms within the well
borehole, and formation of mineral concentrations
or crusts in the open-hole or screened section of
the well borehole.
Horizontal Collector Wells
Horizontal (Ranney) collector wells consist of a
caisson that extends below the ground surface
and has water well collector screens (laterals)
projected horizontally from inside the caisson into
the surrounding aquifer (Fig. 2). The well screens in
the collector wells are placed horizontally, but a
higher rate of source water collection is possible
than that of vertical wells, which allows, collecting
the same intake water quantity with fewer wells.
Individual horizontal intake wells are typically
designed to collect from 0.0044 to 1.75 m3/s (0.1
to 40.0 MGD) of source water per well. The
largest 1.75 m3/s (40 MGD) horizontal collector
wells in the United States were installed on the
banks of the Platte River in 1990