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Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to the Gujarat State Disaster Management Authority
(GSDMA),
Government of Gujarat, Gandhinagar (Gujarat, India), for readily agreeing to
support the
preparation of this book; the generous financial grant provided by GSDMA
towards this effort is
gratefully acknowledged. Ms. Alpa R. Sheth, Managing Director, Vakil Mehta
Sheth Consulting
Engineers Private Limited, Mumbai, and Seismic Advisor, GSDMA, Gandhinagar,
Gujarat, has
provided unstinted support to the project. Her technical inputs have been
invaluable at all stages of
the project - the proposal review, intermediate feedback during development and
technical review
at the end. The authors are indebted to her for this proactive role in the
development of the book,
and thank her sincerely for the same. The authors sincerely thank Mr. Birju Patel,
Deputy Director,
GSDMA, Gandhinagar, for timely action and administrative support from GSDMA
side.
The authors extend their appreciation to Dr. R. Bannerji, IAS, Chief Executive
Officer,
GSDMA, Dr. V. Thiruppugazh, IAS, Additional Chief Executive Officer, GSDMA and
Mr. S. I. Patel,
Additional Chief Executive Officer, GSDMA for their invaluable inputs and
guidance during the
course of preparing and finalizing this book.
Mr. Arvind Jaiswal, Chief Consulting Engineer, EON Designers and Architects
Limited,
Secunderabad, read in detail the manuscript of this book and offered critical
technical comments;
the authors offer him their most sincere gratitude for this special contribution
towards improving
the usefulness of this book. CSI India, New Delhi, provided the nonlinear
structural analysis tools,
e.g., SAP2000, ETABS and PERFORM 3D, to undertake numerical work for the
preparation of this
book; this contribution is sincerely acknowledged. Professors Devdas Menon and
A. Meher Prasad at
IIT Madras provided resources during the early days of the work and offered
continued
encouragement during the entire course of this work; the authors are indebted to
them for this
affection and support. M.Tech. (Civil Engineering) students at IIT Madras, Mr.
Deepan
Shanmugasundaram, Mr. Arun Mathews and Mr. K. Rajgopal, prepared the input
files for many
building analyses as part of their research assistantship; their contribution is
sincerely
acknowledged. The authors acknowledge with thanks the support offered by
various sections of
IIT Madras in administering this book writing project. In particular, the authors
gratefully
acknowledge support offered by Mrs. S. Kavita, Project Assistant, Department of
Civil Engineering,
and of Mrs. C. Sankari and Mr. Anand Raj of the Structural Engineering
Laboratory of the Institute.
The authors remain indebted to their parents and family members for the
unconditional
support and understanding throughout the development of the book This book
is dedicated to all
the people of India, who lost their lives in RC building collapses during past
earthquakes in the
country
vi
vii
Contents
page
Preface iii
Acknowledgments v
Contents vii
Symbols x
1 Earthquake-Resistant Buildings
page
page
4.3.3 Capacity Design of Buildings 222
(a) Displacement Loading 222
(b) Capacity Design Concept 224
4.3.4 Distribution of Damage in Buildings 227
(a) The Open Ground Storey Buildings 228
(b) Strong Column - Weak Beam Design 232
(c) Excessive ductility demands owing to Pounding from Adjacent Building /
Adjacent Part of same Building
237
4.4 Modeling of Buildings 238
Symbols
ag (t) Ground acceleration
fc Grade of concrete
fn nth Fundamental natural frequency of building
m Seismic mass
uu Ultimate plastic displacement of a frame member in tension/compression
uy Idealized yield displacement of a frame member in tension/compression
vu Ultimate plastic shear displacement
vy Idealised yield shear displacement
Ag Gross cross-sectional area of RC section
Ah Design horizontal base shear coefficient
As Area resisting shear
B Breadth of building
E Modulus of elasticity
Fw Lateral force
G Shear modulus
H Height of building
H Lateral base shear force of the building
Hmax Peak lateral strength
I Importance factor
Ib,eff Effective moment of inertia of beam
Ib,gross Gross moment of inertia of beam
Ib Moment of inertia of a beam
Ic Moment of inertia of a column
Ic,eff Effective moment of inertia of a cracked RC column
Ic,gross Gross moment of inertia of an un-cracked RC column
Ig Gross moment of Inertia of an RC section
K Initial lateral stiffness
L Length of building
D Depth of a frame member
L Length of a frame member
MbD Design flexural moment capacity of beam
Mb Overstrength flexural moment capacity of beam
McD Design flexural moment capacity of column
Mp Plastic moment capacity of a frame member
M Maximum overstrength-based plastic moment capacity of a frame member
P Axial load applied on of a frame member
Pcr Critical axial load of a frame member
Puz Design axial load capacity of column in pure axial compression
R Response Reduction Factor
R Strength Ratio
Sa/g Design acceleration spectrum value
T Fundamental translational natural period of the building
Chapter 1
Earthquake-Resistant Buildings
1.1 DYNAMIC ACTIONS ON BUILDINGS WIND versus
EARTHQUAKE
Dynamic actions are caused on buildings by both wind and earthquakes. But,
design for wind
forces and for earthquake effects are distinctly different. The intuitive philosophy
of structural
design uses force as the basis, which is consistent in wind design, wherein the
building is subjected
to a pressure on its exposed surface area; this is force-type loading. However, in
earthquake design,
the building is subjected to random motion of the ground at its base (Figure 1.1),
which induces
inertia forces in the building that in turn cause stresses; this is displacementtype loading. Another
way of expressing this difference is through the load-deformation curve of the
building the
demand on the building is force (i.e., vertical axis) in force-type loading imposed
by wind pressure,
and displacement (i.e., horizontal axis) in displacement-type loading imposed by
earthquake shaking.
Wind force on the building has a non-zero mean component superposed with a
relatively
small oscillating component (Figure 1.2). Thus, under wind forces, the building
may experience
small fluctuations in the stress field, but reversal of stresses occurs only when
the direction of wind
reverses, which happens only over a large duration of time. On the other hand,
the motion of the
ground during the earthquake is cyclic about the neutral position of the
structure. Thus, the stresses
in the building due to seismic actions undergo many complete reversals and that
too over the small
duration of earthquake.
(a) (b)
Figure 1.1: Difference in the design effects on a building during natural actions
of (a) Earthquake
Ground Movement at base, and (b) Wind Pressure on exposed area
(a) (b)
Figure 1.2: Nature of temporal variations of design actions: (a) Earthquake
Ground Motion zero mean,
cyclic, and (b) Wind Pressure non-zero mean, oscillatory
roof
Fw
ag(t)
time time
2
(Figure 1.4), and thereby permitting damage (Figure 1.5). But, sufficient initial
stiffness is required
to be ensured to avoid structural damage under minor shaking. Thus, seismic
design balances
reduced cost and acceptable damage, to make the project viable. This careful
balance is arrived
based on extensive research and detailed post-earthquake damage assessment
studies. A wealth of
this information is translated into precise seismic design provisions. In contrast,
structural damage
is not acceptable under design wind forces. For this reason, design against
earthquake effects is
called as earthquake-resistant design and not earthquake-proof design.
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 1.3: Earthquake-Resistant Design Philosophy for buildings: (a) Minor
(Frequent) Shaking
No/Hardly any damage, (b) Moderate Shaking Minor structural damage, and
some non-structural
damage, and (c) Severe (Infrequent) Shaking Structural damage, but NO
collapse
Figure 1.4: Basic strategy of earthquake design: Calculate maximum elastic
forces and reduce by a
factor to obtain design forces.
Lateral Deflection roof
Actual Structure
Elastic Structure
0
H, roof
Maximum Force,
if the structure remains elastic
Minimum Design Force,
that codes require to be used
Reduction in Design Force
when some damage can be allowed
Lateral Force H
3
(a) (b)
Figure 1.5: Earthquake-Resistant and NOT Earthquake-Proof: Damage is
expected during an
earthquake in normal constructions (a) undamaged building, and (b) damaged
building.
The design for only a fraction of the elastic level of seismic forces is possible,
only if the
building can stably withstand large displacement demand through structural
damage without
collapse and undue loss of strength. This property is called ductility (Figure 1.6).
It is relatively
simple to design structures to possess certain lateral strength and initial stiffness
by appropriately
proportioning the size and material of the members. But, achieving sufficient
ductility is more
involved and requires extensive laboratory tests on full-scale specimen to
identify preferable
methods of detailing.
In summary, the loading imposed by earthquake shaking under the building is of
Strength
Deformability
Good Ductility
Medium Ductility
Poor
Ductility
H, roof
4
(a)
(b)
Figure 1.7: Displacement Loading versus Force Loading: Earthquake shaking
imposes displacement
loading on the building, while all other hazards impose force loading on it
Earthquake Demand
Displacement Loading
0
Wind Demand
Force Loading
roof
Fw
ag(t)
H
0 Earthquake Design
Wind Design
Earthquake Design
Option 1
Earthquake Design
Option 2
(a)
(b)
Figure 1.9: Basic forms of seismic structural configuration: Two geometries of
architectural forms (a)
convex, and (b) concave
???
Directions of earthquake shaking
Directions of earthquake shaking
Based on the above discussion, normally built buildings can be placed in two
categories,
namely simple and complex (Figure 1.10). Buildings with rectangular plans and
straight elevation
stand the best chance of doing well during an earthquake, because inertia forces
are transferred
without having to bend due to the geometry of the building (Figure 1.10a). But,
buildings with
setbacks and central openings offer geometric constraint to the flow of inertia
forces; these inertia
force paths have to bend before reaching the ground (Figure 1.10b, 10c)
(a)