Kurukshelra

Vol. XXXII
No.3

Electrification

December

1983
Re. I

and Rural Development

Rural electrification
Achievements
At tire time of Independence, only
about 1500 out ofa total of 5,76,126
villages

had

electricity

and

only

about 6430 pwnpsets were operating

with electric power. By March 1983,
the number of electrified villages
has risenio orer 3.21lakhs i.e. 55.7
percent of the total, which is
meGn

achievement.

As

110

result,

today, nearly 70 percellt of our rural

population has the benefit of e1ectrificai/oll.
'.
Electrification has given a fillip to spread ofinformntion

in remote fllral

Eledrificmion opens 'the door to a

areaoS.

better' standard

of living.

' ,;~.,k'<'hI. t
H uru 5 'I ra

Vol. XXXII
No.3

Agrahay~::-~~~~ ~~~

(India's Journal of rural development)

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CONTENTS

BEST BET

A.' K. Rajula Devi

ENSURING A BETTER LIFE TO TRIBALS

S. S. Shashi,

I.R:D. PROGRAMME

is STILL THE

HOWADEQUATE'ARE 'ouR HEALTH

CARE SERVICES ?
A SECOND LOOK AT I.R.D.P.
IMPLEMENTATION

FOOD STRATEGY FOR THE EIGHTIES

,13'

s.

Srinivasan
,

19

Yogananda Sastry
Chaturvedi '

THEY-SHOW THE WAY; ..

'

ManraI' and
22 'D.M. S.L. Rhatnagar
,

GOOD SANITATION IS NOT THAT COSTLY

AFTER ALL

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'Lauis Menezes'

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, Editor'

'Enquiries regarding'" SubscriptiOl.I;

" Allencies~etc: :

RatnaJtineja - ' .-

Business Manager, Publications" Divi,' ,

sion' Paliala House, New Delhi-llOgOI' "
"'Edi;orlal Office :' Krishi Bhavan, ,
, ~ew Delhi-ll 0001.
, Tele. 384888 & 382406

AsS/I, EdilO;'

'

, Sub-Editor',

.~,.MilUjula,

'Editor's Residence:6I5(}20 .
Note.-The,
views expressed by the
, ~utho;~d; n~i '~e~~ssa;iiy reflect the
views of the ,Government.

.. ,'"

N:' ,N: ,Sl;anUa' "

Cover

M, M. Pannar

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,.,-

I.R.D. programme 'is

still. the best bet
A.:K. RAJULA DEVI
Resea,rcb Associate, Nat19~1 Inst~tuteof R~al Develqpment, Hyderabad .
.

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"Though it would be wrong to infer that no progress

htu been made in the post-Independence era, what is.
important to know is that the problem of rural poverty
is very much with us' a"oo it
~t been possible: t~
salVi! <problems of unemplqyn;'e';,t' lind' under-eniplo
menf', says the author.
.

has

y-

She IiddJ: "Unless the field personnel and their

bwses above remember thai econoini~uplift is not a
O~t
affair but req~[;~s'carei~( nursing of the
target group tor a sustained period, the beneficiaries
may become frustrated and slide into a state akin to
~hool drop-outs. . Stress has
be laid
'inv~i';ing
local pt,ople in identifying target hOilSeholdsenlls'ting
the active pwticipation of financial institutions, reducing the time lag in the delivery of benefits and. creating
spec~ cells tor effective coordination and m;)nitoring';.

to

on

And SUtcest:i: ''There is an utnwst need to streamiine the credit flow into appropriate channels and for
tl$ the practice of security-oriented lending must be
changed to perfo.n'1!{nceand scheme-oriented lending."

This article If,!! c~m!"issioned specially tor Our

Annual Number but unfortunately it could not be
bu:luded. becliuse'of 'soi~e. unforeseen difficulties
We are including this. wticle in this issue for the
benefit of our esitien;ed readers.
,-EditOF
4

HE ULTIMATE GOAL of all the developmental planS

.
was to uplift the. rural Poor in all aspects-social
econoritic and political. Tonnes of money and millions of personnel were invested through various progrnmmes,' bOth"ienerai aiici~specialised, to combat
depnvation faced by he rufaI poor. But even after
three decades of independence; the avowed objective
of giving each one
of the poor a job to sustain,
food
> r.
,
to remain and a shelter to contain has been a'distant
dieam .... Despite quantitative progress on various
fronts the ranks of the poor have swollen. Who is
to blame for this hapless. situation? The planning process. as s)lch or the set-up charged with the execution
of "plans 1 could 'hug!,' inVestmen!s On benefit
planning beamed particularly on the rural poOr fail to
'hit the target? May be due to wrong priOrities; ,till
the total picture is not. that grim.
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The current strategy in our country pays special

attention to tho utilisation of one .of the most crucial
inputs in the prOductio,ll process, riamely the labour
foree. Today the labour force is around 285 million'.
Besides, the addition of labour force has been on the
increase. It was around four million a year during
the decade 1961-71, arid is aronndsix million per
year in the present decade. This wouIdimply that
about 3.0 l))i.lJj.o~J!:loreIJ!:rsons would enter the labour
force. Today the labour force' is arol!l1d 295 million'.
~f~ariou~ sectors. to ',l~s~b surpl~s i~h~;;';isextremely
limited. The distribution of. this labour force is Ilot
likely to spread to-various' sectors, if present production and employn1eni "ti:ei:idscontimie. Ag,im a shift
of. one per cent from one sector 'to anotJ1er would
imply .that employmep.t ill tll" growing sectors should
increase 'by about three million; . Such a goal can be
achieved if policies to promot" a' high growth rate in

telativefy labour-intensive
sustained manner.

sectors

at~ pursued in

li

on

various countri~s-<lev~lopiJlg, or develoPed-have

made condous efforts' to divert popuiation from
priIilafy sector to secohdary and tertiary secrorn. A
similar attempt has ,to be iriade in Inaia to reduce the
share of labour force engaged ili agriculture. Even
if the present ratio of 73 : 27 is to be maintained betl w~n a~cUltural a.ndnon-agricUlturlil worke~p'opu~, Ial1on, tIle non-agncultural
sector would have to
absbrb trine million additional workers. A sttUctural
change which is ildvOcated in the current thinldng
implies that the proPortiOn cif agricuItiual workers will
have to be reduced from 73 per Cent
60 Per cent
bY 2000 A.D. The, answer to thii teem.iiig unemployed
Ifiillicns lies in two specific direction:.....oneis to deCentralise development efforts ,to smaIler settlements
and cover those who~are bel~w the pOverty lliu;. The
second is to help tfuiet gi:ohps ofsDiall and inarginal
farmers, agricUltural laboiiieis and. rUral artisans so
that they could cross the JXl~ertyline.

to

has not lielped in

solving the problems of development of the sprawling tural poor, Though it Will be wrong to iiifer
from this that no progress has been made in the' postIndependence era, what is importa,nt to note is that'
the problem of rural poverty is still very much with us,
, and it has nol been possible ro solve the problems of
unemployment and undercemployment.
Since rllid1977, the decentralised sector of the economy hils begun to receive attenllon as never before ih the past.
It is a happy augury that a new rid d'Ynanuc approach'
is being adopted after an examination of tlie causes
which havc proved impediments to achievement of
desfre<i goals:'
'

HE

STRATEGY

ADOPTED

devclopd,

,Area

,_

cent

Many studies emphasise the grim fact that 70 per

cent 'of the small and marginal frimers, landless
labourers and rural' artisans f:ill within the poverty
groups, After the country attained frredOln, t1iere'
was no deaith of schemes for the upliftment of the
weaker sections, The Commullity Deveiopinent Programme started in 1952 culminating in the Panchayati
December, 1983

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o ENABLE MILLIONS OF RURAL FAMILIES to cross

" . the poverty llD.e"the new s\rategy iiith~:SiXth Plan
w.as.1he<liitegrntM Rural Developmeiii ~e
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(lRDP) , The Planning Commission drew SIJ!:Cialatteotion to this programme and Postulated tWit ,what bad
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to be achieved in this compreliensive protamme, was
the overall development of the area utilismg all the
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manpower, entrepreneurship .and potential Wlth swtable mfr"astroctural and illstitutio'nal support, while-me
more (Iisacrvantaged
to be given.
i1icentives
like su])siaies and, special cie<Iit to enalik them to
take full advantage of ,the programme.

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Provisi'oJiaI results of the economic cenSus coIiducted

on it pilot level (1977) confitriled that the unorgallired
non-agricultural sector aceounts rougw,y fot: 6ne-f<iiiIth
of the natioIial income and one-fifth of the cOUntry's
'lab"Ourforce. Fifty-fivepi!t cent of tlie establislimeuts'
are in rural areas and account for 40' per
6f tlie
total employmcnt. Efforts, therefore, hilve to lk rowe
to see that this group or 3\1isans receive idequate
attention, An' atlempt,has to be made to ensmeth'at
too utrits of existing artisans beccme viaole'and. add;,tional pop'uIatiOri from the priina'iy seeior is converted
into skilled artisans,

KURUKSHETRA

Raj structure In 15)55 was a major attempt (ara

country of Our size. In Spite of many filillDa8, lind
mlwy vicissitud6& thi5, was th~ ~
9fhiCh ~
Green Revolution was launched; The stnictUro 'of
the National Extension Service which was and still is,
tlie executing macliiii"eiyfor iural
illOIf
is a rillijor orgliJiiSiitii:iriat concept in deVclo~t
adininistianon.
Therespimse Of the fanners to the
Green Revolution lias been 's~ular.
In H10. th~
nation accepted ihe postUlati> of "GroWth WltIi SOEial
Justice" for iural deVelopinent.. }\sa msi steP .tQ..
wards this objective, nUlliy Area DevelbpDien:i .Pio, grahiriies were evolved like the Sillal1 Fanners Developilieiit Agency (SFDA) , , biought PiOlui
Development Progiamme" (DPAP), Maegiilai Fann.
ers' aild Agricultural Labourers Programme (MFJ'i,L)
aild th~ Riirill ArtiSans' Progi:amme (RAP). But
ilispite of all these programmes, a iiiiijcit i\Ortibn of
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the rural people still remain in !he: ,throes of poVl;tty.

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A beginning in this diIection has already been madc

witli Hie initiation of the niassive programme of
Integrate<! Rural Development Programme
(IRDP).
operatiiig
in
all
the
5,011
development
lil'CX:ks
iii the
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country, and expected to benefit 15 million poor fami.
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lies durmg the current plan penod itself. ' The total
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investmenl'eiiVisag1Xi for
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croreS-:rwo-lliirds of it by baDks, which means a sum

of RS. 3,60& for ';;:'ery beneficiary t;'-~jiy: That: five
million families are to be from ~he second'ary and
tertiary sectors of the economy is a recognition Of the
,litllitatioIis iii the capacity of the farm Sector i!SClfto
absorb more roMs.
AbOilt 32.4 per cent of tho
, SiXth Plan's imblit sector outlli'y is eaJniJifkedfOr
ruial development prb~!lmmes only..
.,
It is impOrtant here, lis iIi other areaS of iioclOecbnoibic development, thilt the nitri
by way.,of ih'b
, cn~atibn of petinaneIit assets and a opportunities (QI:
remunerative employnient are coinmensumIb With thb
ril6'iley spent Beneficilines are giveii identify c8r~
VikasPdtrika'-'in which tlie amounts cif suosidies lilill
other assistante as well as repayments are" to 'lie
entered, If the investment i~ tl) fetch II ratc of
,6

return high enough to sustain a beneficiary family at

.; a )~vel above the poverty line. quite a lot has to be
,dpI\e-for _ iostaI\ce. motivating . the target. group,
improving itS skills. tranSferring technology and above
. jill. providing marketing support.

"Q": . UITEOFTENthe official reports say that tho IRDP

. is ahead of the target iii many states. What needs
to be .made clear is what precisely the taigetb mean
ill terms of improvement . in welfare and living
. s~ndards as reflected ill increases in rural incomes
.. and' a reduction in un~mployriJ.ent. The money dis. borsed should not rn; the yardstick. M the IRDP is
:. ba5ically oriented to employment generation: its work
has to be adjudged on the basis of not merely the
additional man-days recorded but also what the addition means by way of a decrease in unemployment.
Thi; number of unemployed climbed from 5.3 million
iit the beginning of the Second Plan to 14.4 million
a( the commencement of the Sixth Plan. Thero are
. hO reliable figures about the annual. additions to the
labour force. but some estimates put it between 27.4
million and 29.5 million.
The volume of' rural
unemployment and' of dis~ed
unemployment has
. not sO far been computed accurately. The Govern"ment'i. response to the problem' consists in the creation
of'district rural development agencieli of which the MPs
and -MLAs of the' area, the Chairman of the Zila
Parisruid and representatives of the ,weaker sections as
..well as of rural women are the members. Th" treuble
with these agencies, as the authority for implementing
.-the' IRDPand overseeing its results, is the existence of
local power cliques-'-the politicisecl p,!,!chayat Or the
traditional money-lenders; they choose to tilt the
benefits of the pro!:amme towards their favourites.,
A' pnmaty le~on that emer~es from the workinl: of
the district credit plans that relate to agriculture and
. small industry in the villages is th~t the lead bank
~hich. as one among equals. h!!S no administrative
"control over the other banks" and aiding agencies in
the region is not able to collect even the performance
data. . It thus becomes very difficult to" asseSli the
quantum of benefit which the families have been able
'to seCure. ..
.
.
There are monitoring agencies from the Panchayat~_
to ilie apex bodies at the State lind the Central levels.
.'ACcording 'to- official computatio~. as on March. 25.
:1983.about 7.8 nurnon families have been benefited
-to the tune of Rs. 567.23 crores ~d i,Oll
million
man-days of employment have been generated? With
.heavy' investments there can be no doubt about the
eagerneSs of tlii: Government to make a - liuccesl of
:the'iRDPwhich
is intended' to COver three million
,f3iniJ.ies annually, each with an income of less .than
.RS. '3~500 'a ~year. The -SiXth PJ.an'document says
that. t1ie-'Sc'3Ieof
funding. under
tlie IRDP will be_ at
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,an
annual
rate
of
Rs.
8
lakhsper
block for the last.
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three yeats of the Plan. The IRDP ii complement

. by the National Rural Employment Programme' fo
which the Centre makes the State-wise allOCation
which are to be matched by the regional authorities
responsible for the district-wise !1llotments.
A number of workshops have been organised to
orlent the' administrative agencies to nieet the
chall6llgeli of rural development. But there is as yet
no clear picture of .the .dimensions in real terms of a
improvement in per capita incomes through increase
in the volume of steady and gaioful employmen~
Thete are deficienciei in the efforts made by the
States. the implementing authorities at the grass-roo
level. Only Kerala's Planning Board has made 3
pointed study of the results, showing that the increase
in net incOm6 has been small and that not more than
18.6 per .cent of the targe~ households in the state
have been able to cross the poverty line through the
IRDP'. In the other' states, the ~lf between hopes
and results is much wider. Poor utilisation of allocated funds is another pointer to the tardy pace of
rural development. Estimates indicate that till the
end of 1982, ouly around ~. 567.19 crores had been
utilised out of the Plan outlay of Rs. 1,500 crores .
Today however, inadequacy of existing funds has been
pinpointed as the major culprit for the suail's pace of
the programme. The Ministry "f Rural Development
has, since sometime. attempted to impress upon the
Planning ColllInision to raise the IRDP outlay from
Rs. 1,500 crores during the Sixth Plan to Rs. 4,500
crores. The magnitude of the task of rural modernisation necessarily demands a fair measure of expenditure. Inadequate utilisation of existing funds. however, provides Delhi with a legitimate excuse to refrain
from augmenting funds.

N THE MIDSTOF IRDP, Rajasthan statted the

Antyodaya Programme in 1977 to pull five families per village every year l!bove the poverl,j' line.
Himachal.Pradesh. Orissa, Uttar Prades!:t. Bihar and
Manipur followed snit. The programme had helped
the beneficiary. hoUseholds in Raj<'i'than. Himachal
Pradesh and Orissa in shifting to Sultivation from
mere labour and other uneconomic occupations. The
coverage of the Antyodaya families was found to be
instrumental ill their adopting more remunerative
occupations like dairying, goat/she~p-rearing
cartdrawing rickshaw pulling and other small trades. The
- positive impact' on. the consumption pattern of
Antyodaya families includes: in Rajasthan, 93 per
cent of the beneficimie~ had repQrted improvement in
food, cloth and standard of living cllplpared to 52 per
cent in Himachal Pradesh, 81 per C!'.ntin Uttar Pradesh, 44 per cent in Bihar and six I1er'centin Orissa .
Although a large number of benefjd[lries had reported
increase in income; a Jew of them Wid been able to
acquire assets with the increased ipcome and this

:
KURUKSHETRA

December, 19&3

fact is mainly attributed to the short span of the

. programme., The PED evaluation report< highlights
that, a micro approach in identifying the poo~est of the
poor and delivering benefits at their doorsteps accor~ing to their choice, skill and geniyS had home fruit
For the fin;t time, probably, cash was kept away from
the beneficiaries and thereby the scope for its .misuttlisation was minimised. , A major: omission of ,the
-programme,
the report brings forth, was lhe 1ack of
follow up, that is the beneficiariesW~re found to have
~, been left at the mercy of the 'existiJlg departmental
~ functionaries who were mainly located at the block
headquarters.
'A sample study of the Programme Evaluation Organisation (PEO) brings home some of the lessons of
Antyodaya Project wherein it had pushed up the earnings of a fairly large 'segment of beneficiaries in a
couple of 'years. ,,' The jump was in !he, 40 to 100
plus per cent range in respect of 58 per cent Of the
families covered in the study. Nearly one-third of the
beneficiary hOlL'ieholdsin Uttar Pradesh--one of the
, five States that had adopted ,the Antyodaya concept
!aler-':"h!uftheIr income doubled at the time of appraisal. The trend was n6 different in thfee other States,
Himachal Pradesh, Orjssa and Bihar: !he lone exception was Manlpur, where the assistance (given as grant)
, was utilised mostly f~r "unprqdu~tivepurposes;' and
so ,1ef('little imPact on tbe income and employment
o{ beneficiaries".

statistically speaking, a cent

A per cent IMPRESSIVE,
rise in earItings did not mean much for
'LTHOUGH

most beneficiaries because they had started with virtual.ly no ,income. ,This is where the deficiencies brought
to light by the PEO's evaluation team come in, and
they are equally relevant to the ongoing countrywide
Integrated Rural Developlnent Programme (JRDP),
the strategy behind which is very little different from
tbat of Antyodaya. Stress has to be laid on involving.
local people in identifying target h6useholds, enlisting'
the aclive participation of financial institutions, reducing the time-lag in the delivery of benefits and creating special cells for effectivecoordination and monitoring.
A study<'conducted in five,selected districts by the
PEO observes that about 10 per c.ent of the identified
farItilies under Antyodaya had refused to accept loan
assistance in 'some districts in Rajasthan because of
the fear complex created by money-lenders. Some
families also thought th'!t by refusiJ1gloan assistance
they wotild be allotted, land by the j!Overnment. Unfortunately, the Antyodaya scheme lacked a team of
devoted, selfless workers who would take up !he task
with a missionary zeal and spirit so that illiterate people
under pressnre of heavy loans may be guided in the
right direclion. In most cases it was found that it is
KURUKSHETRA December, 1983

the village, money-lender who is benefiting most in

adjusting his justified arid unjustified l~:
. In one of
the SUI'Veys,
it was also found that the IamI1lesselected
under Antyadaya were spending 80 to. 90 per cent of
their entire income on food, alone.6
MAJORAREA
,of neglect highlighted in the PEO
ONEStudy'
relates to the provision of markenng snpport and,' in a programme that seeks to uplift .five
million families through non-agricultural occupations
(as the IRDP does) this wOlIIdbe a oig lacuna.
Equally important is the assured supply of. raw mate~
rials. The evaluation report has drawn pomted .attention to the inadequacy-the
total absence in some
areas-of aftercare services to the beneficiaries. Since
the coverage is phased out over five years-600 fami- ,
lies a year in each block-the' tendency for the programme adillinistrators, especially ,those in the field
would be to concenirate on the requirements of the
new target group leavinj; thy earlier ones to fend for
themselves. This has disturbing portents. Uuless the
field personnel and 'th"ir bosses above remember ~at
econorItic uplift is not a one-shoot affair but req~rres
careful nursing of the target groups over a sustamed
period, the beneficiaries may become frustrated and
slide into a siate akin to that of school dropouts.
A Working GroupS of the Reserve Bank of India
has recommended that, by March 1985, public sector
banks achieve a 25 per cent coverage of weaker sections in their advances to priority sectors. The overail target for priority sector advances being 40 per cent
of the toW bank credit, this recommendation would
mean a .ten per cent share for the small and marginal
farmers, landless' agricultural workers and such other
groups that live below the poverty lin~the segment
whose lot the Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP) aims at improving. Nearly two-thirds of
the total Investment (Rs. 4,500 crores) required und~r
the JRDP for the uplift of 15 million' families-over a
live,year period is to come from banks. The p,mels'
call for step-up in bank lending to this target group
is a reflection of the inadequate flow of credit in the'
last two years' and more the IRDP hJ!s tieen in operation on an all-India scale.' In Madhya Pradesh, for
'instance" it is reported that over 70 per, cent of the
families identified for, coverage under IRDP are yet to
aet the promised assistance from' banks. And this is
in spite of official documents laying claim to simplified
procedures and liberalised lending nOJ]Ils. The explanation, perhaps, is that the decisiotis taken at the
:top have not percolated to ,the field level.,

There are, however, other worrying aspects of the

question, some of whiCh wer~ brought into sharp
focus by' the failure,ofthe Somanglam (Tamilnadu)
experiment" in rural, reconstruction-a project akin
. to JRDP' and launched in 1976 lhat left a 'big chunk
7

of the 11,000 "beneficiary families" worse off, having..to face legal actIOn for default i)l loan repayment.
If there is one lesson that.Somangalam offers, it is this:
mcre doling out money, either as subsidy or grant
(unofficial estimates put the figure for Somangalam at
Rs. one crore) would not make for economic improvemcnt unless backed by a consortium-type. sustained
effort involving. different development agencies. The
need is all lhc gre?ter for the proper motivation of the
bellcficiary

and for the close monitoring

of results in

the case' of IRDP because of its slant in favour of self.

employment and an individualised approach as contrastec,1wilh the project emphasis o!, other types of
developmental assistance. . No doubt the programme
blueprint provides for, such coordinating and overs~~ing,
agencies at various levels. But the moot point

is whether they become really functional and, in cases

where they do, are able to achieve the levcl of competcnce expected of lhem.
These agencies have, particularly, a duty to
ensure that the assistance given is utilised properly by
the beneficiary and the loan paid back to lhe bank
promptly--:-an aspect that has, of late become a SOurce
of-"onsiderable worry to the financial institulions.
'consequences of the alien rule
,vas the gradual elimination of traditional crafts
and craftsmen in the villagcs lhrough unequal economic compctition. Expert studies claim that the number
of village artisan. have come down from 25 per cent
of the village population to just 2.4 per cent in the last
three decades. There were only 19 lakh artisan households in 1971 and 70 per cent of them arc living
below the poverty line with assets kss than Rs 2,500
per family. A .footwear manufacturer in Salem, an oil-

NE

OF<THE

~VIL

man in a Nagpur village, a potter in Krishnanagar in

West Bengal and a silver filigree'worker in Karimnagar

in Andhra Pradesh face the grim prospects of extinction not only through urban competition and lack of
market, but through a general neglect 'by pl,mners and
policy-makers who matter. What could be tlie set of
problem.s vexing th6 development of rural industries?
How could lbere be an adequate breakthrough in the
productivity of rural industries? How to make the
rural artisans self-reliant and pros~rous?
A number 'of programmes wer",-initi!!l!<dto remedy
this situation. They include the establishment of All
India Boards like the Kbadi and Village Industries
Commission (KVIC) , Handloom !loard, Handicrafts
Board and Coir Board. In the sixties, the Rural
.Industries Projects Programme (RIP) was started to
evolve effective techniques, methods_ and programmes
for pro~oting
intensive development of village and
small industries. This programme was reinforced
through a programme of Rural Artisans (RAP) during
1971-72 through which skills of artisans were attempt.
ed to be ul'graded through training. 85 projects-were
8

initiatcd and lill March 1976, 1.74 lakh units had

cropped up, involving an investment of Rs. 176 crores,
generating employment to 5.45.lakh artisans. One of
the glaring omissions of. the Rural Industries Project
Programme was that rural artisans, to whom the programme w.as addressed, did
training and marketing. In

receive adequate credit,

A field study (1981) 11

nOt

highlights that 64 per cent of the rural artisans fall

below thc poverty line. The basic economic and social
constraints of rural artisans are legion-lack of credit,
competition with uibim products, lack of availability
of ra\l,I materials,

\.vant of suitable

orgaQisalion,

lack

of training facilities, non-identification of least' cost

technology, the problem of tooling and designing and
fin'llly of marketing.
.

A'

BE<?INNIN_G

by linking

this directi~n has a~ready been made

the rural industries programme with

iI!

the mass;"e programme of IRDP. Olthe 600 poorest

families to be identified and helPed Uch year in each
block 100 families would be assisted through collage!
village indu.stries and another 100 families through
rural services activities.

The scheme of ,Training

of

Rural Youth for Self-employment (TRYSEM), initiated three years ago, has been buill into the IRDP. But
it is yet" to make headw-ay and, worse, is plagued by

the dropout problem. A major loophole of TRYSEMf

ISB (JQdustries, Services and Business) programme is
that it is run by lRD agencies whos~ expertise so far
has been in the field of agriculture and allied aCtivities.
Unless IRD agencies are thoroughly equipped from the
angle of industrial extension, a follow-up of TR YSEM!
ISB, may be difficult to achieve.
Industrial

establishments,

with their reservoir

of

ex-

pertise, could make . TR YSEM purposeful and ",Iso

provide the much l1eededpost-training guidance, managerial and technical assistance to th~trained
youth.
In fact, the dcgree of success of th~ JRDP, parlreu1ar~
Iy of its TRYSEM.and ISB component, Will depend
largely on the extent to which industry and trade are
motivated to join in this national endeavour.
The most sensational disc1osu~e made by a few
studies include: marginal a:nd weaker sections of the
rural artisans. borrow from nori-instilutional
sources

to the exlen( of 95 per cent' ~nd the rat~ of interest

ranges between .24 per cent and /10 per cent. The
result is that the artisans have no option but 10 sell
their products to the sources of-finan"" at exceplionalIy low prices. r n this regard a field. study" brings
forth some interesting results on rural finimcing-how

the agencies responsible for supply of credil failed miserably a few rural artisans just rejected loans because
bankers refused to advance wor~g capital loans.
There is utmost need to streamline the cre_ditflow inlo
appropriate CHannels and for this the practice of security-oriented lending musl be chan/!,ed to purpose and
scheme-oriented lending.
(contd. on p. 12)

KURUKSHETRA

December, 1983

Pt:" J uwaharlal Nehru' was 'a great friend' of the tribals

arid an ardent lover of th~ir nrt ' aI)d culture, .While
writing a foreword.

to 'DL"''Verrier Elwin's book HA

Philosophy for Nf':FA", he said :

"We, cannot allow matters to drift in the tribal
areas or just nol take interest in them, ,'In the
world of today that is not possible or desirable.
: At the same time "we' Shouldavoid ,over-adm. inistering these areas and i~particular, sending
t4.?0'many"outsioers i~lo tribal ~6ciety."
It is b~tween these two ex~reme positions
that we
have to function. Development is a relative concepl
which conceptually means progress of all communities
at the same time,though'this may not be always prac,
tical. .Hence, an ideal prQgranlme of the socia-economic developm~nt,.of the tribals would be the, one
be,tween the, ethnic, nodes and modern-day necessities.
Besides the tribal culture is hrghly complex and variegated, i1,i's difficuitlo 'prescribe.uniform 'standards for
classifying scbeduled tribes tbrouilJout the country,
There has been, no dO\lbt, social change among rural
and urbanised tribes tiut there are still a number of
these wbo follow a primitive way of life,

India has world's second largest concentration of

tribal population. According to 1971 Ccnsus, the total
popul,!!ion of the trihaIs in India, was estimated to be
7 per cent of its total population, with 80 per cent' .
of these tribals depending mainly on agriculture Jor
subsistence. The North Eastern Region and Cenlral
Inqian States have large concentrations of tribal population consisting of Bhil, Naga, Gond, Binghawar,
Bhuyia, Korku, Santhal, Uraon and_Mundas.

Ensuring a better life

to tribals

Each tribal group possesses its own strong socio-eco.nomic and cultural ethos. There are some tribal
groups which are al foOd-gathering ~tage while oiliers
Qractiseshifting or jhum cultivalion. Some tribal areas
are not easily accessible while in ~ome other areas
industrialisation has brought a change in their way of
life. The tribal population is the centre of efforts aimI'd at bringing in a better life for tIle country's poor
To check the exploitation of tribals by non-tribals has
been the halhnark of lhe tribal development program:
mes started 'after Independence; besides, a number of
agencies also joined this endeavour to stuoy and soh'e

lbe problems of tribals.

8.8. SHA8HI

Joint Director,

Publications Division,

New Delhi

Tbe studies so far have revealed that lhe major problems of the tribals are exploitation by middle men
and traders in, procurement of minor forest produce
and sale of essential commodities, land alienation,
money-lending at exorbitant Tat~s of interest, indebtedness, bondage etc. Adding to their miseries are Imv

KURUKSHETRA December, 198,3

level of infraslructure and social serVi~. The econe>mic activity in these areas is found to be low and
the potential of the resources availal1le is untapped to
a great extent.
Keeping in view all the above impediments in the
development of tribal population, the Government of
India I)!ls incorporated special clauses in the Conslitution for th~ creation of schei:luled ","cas in order to
have iQ.tensive development b'y providing tribes an
autonomous status for inlernal administration, special
representatives in the Parliament, legislative assemblies
and other local bodies besides sp""iaJ privileges in the
fonn of reservation.
It may be recalled lhat the trib!!ls faced lot of deprivation during the British rule i!)!be country. As a
result, there were several uprisings. such as that of
Malpaharia revolt in 1772, the struggle of Has of
Singhbhum in 1831, the Khond uprising in 1846 and
the Santhal rebellion of 1885. This. Jed to some constituti0rull changes. Government of India passed an
Act in 1874 to specify clribal areas into scheduled tracts
to prolect their interests, yet it tou~hed the problem
only on its fringes. It was only after Independence.
that tribal interests were safeguarde4 through variou~
constitutional and administrative meil:sures.

The Governmenl has further crCl\ted specinl office

of the Commissioner for Schednled Castes and Scheduled tribes in order to safeguard their interests. The
tribes are at par with the rest of the ~dian population.
The welfare projects initiated by the Government in. elude:
(a) a number of multipurpose blocks for th."
tribals for their intensive development;
(b) training-cum-production centres and subsidies for lhe development of cottage and
village industries in tribal areas fhus creating employment;

,)

(c) settling the tribes who are practising shifting cultivation, improved methods of cultivation to provide more yield;
(d) educational facilities;
(e) .tribal cultural i!Jstitutes constituted for study-

ing cultural problems affecting the tribal life;

(f) reservation of posts;
(g) formulation of acts to counteract exorbitant
rates of interest of money-lenders; ,and

(h) Office of the Commissioner for Scheduled

Castes and Scheduled Tribes for the enforcemeni of safeguWds provided for the tribals
in the Conslitution.

A group" .of.
Gujjar Camping
under the shed
of a tree.

.J

10

KURUKSHETRA

December,

j %3

I
Besides the above welfare programmes, 'the' concept
of tribal sub-plan was promoted as a part. of the Fifth
Five Year Plan to meet the specific needs of the tribal
population. The thIust of sub-plan is fourfold: (i)
integration of the services 'at the delivery point 10 the
beneficiary thus de~eloping,a SpiTitof self-reliance;' (ii)
deve\opment of the services from the botlom upwards;
(iii) development of skills to diversify occupation;'and
(iv) mtroduction of the latest leChnology based on the
use ,01 local materials ad local ski]ls. Such a strategy ,
narrows do~n the gap ~ween the level of development of tribal and non-tribal', areas, improves the
quality of. tribal communities and makes the~ conscious' of attaining their due. share in th)' benefits, of
growth.
An expenditur~ of Rs. 91] crores was incurred on
the tribal sub-plan including special central assistance
of Rs. 68 crores during the Fifth Plan period. In the
case of tribal sub-plans the coverage of scheduled fribe
population is expected to go up from 65_per ,cent. at
the end of Fifth Plan tei 75 per ce!1t by the end of
jiixth Plan. The 1I0w,to the tribal sub-plans from' the
state plan programme is estimated to be over'Rs.
2,000 crores.

stock Production Programme (SLPP) whien includes'

projects for calf rearing, poultry, piggery and sheep
rearing, the Drought Prone Areas Programme (DPAP)
and Desert Development Programme (DDP) have also
been la;nched. Agricultural Marketing Scheme envisages development of primary rural markets in backward'tribal areas. A, total outlay of Rs. 38:00. crores
for the Sixth Plan period has, been agreed by way,
of grant for the' development of these niarkets. ,Ten
per cent of tIiis outlay is expected 10 be spent for the
development of markets in tribal areas, . TIie'Niitional
Rural EmpJoyment Programme-(NREP)
formerly
known as Food for Work Programme, ainis at: strengthening rurat'infrastructure.
Under this 'programnie
most of the' direct beneficiaries belong to the scheduled
castes and scheduled tribes. ,For the Sixth Plan (198085), an outlay of Rs. 30 crores has been agreed to
in the ceutral sector for this scheine. It is 'estimated
that funds amounting to at least Rs. 15 crores ; will
go foi the scheduled castes, and scheduled'tribes.TIie Government has reviewed; the, existing administrative machinery in the Tribal Sub-Plan ,Areas ;'Of,

Special programmes are yet to be taken up for the

primitive tribes for which '100 pe.! cent assistance is
to be provided by the Centre to the State Governments
for pr."vidiIig basic facililies likehousing~ health and
child care services, development of tribal crafts etc.
The welfare programmes acce1erat,d the pace of tribal
development during the Fifth Plan. Six pilot projects
for lribal development have been established at Srikakulam, Singhbhum, Bastar, i:>antewar~ and Kota taluks
and Koraput districts with an outlay of Rs. 2 crotes
for each of the projects.
Integrated Rural Development Programme, initiated
by the Ministry of Rural Development in 1978C 79,
now extended to all the 5011 development blocks in
tl!e country is a major poverty alJeviation programme
in lhe Sixth Plan, the objectiv,! being to provide assist~nce to families below the poverty line'to enable them
to improve their income level, cross the poverty line
and stay the,re too, Since scheduled c,!sles and scheduled tribes constitute a significant proportion of the
population below the 'poverty-line in the 'rural ..areas,
i! has b"en laid down that at least 30 per cent of the
families aSSIsted through IRDP should be drawn from
schedUled caste/schedufed , tribe, categories.
Besides
this it is ~tressed that at least 30 'per cent of the re-,
sourc"s in terms of subsidies"and'loans 'invested infhis
p'rograril:m~ ~Jiould also go '(0 SC/SToeneficiaries.
Besides the IRDP, the Ministry of Rural-Development has started another programme th~ Special Live-

Author with a gaddi family in migration.

the ,state, as well as procedure followed by different

departments with regard to formulation and execution
of ' tribal welfare and, develcpment
activities. The
different departments of Government which executed
schemes in the tribal areas are made accountable to
officers appointed specifically, for tribal ;development
projects. It is hoped that in the long run the various
welfare programmes and other development projects
under the guidance of Tribal Development CoIIlJllissioner would give a new lease to life to the tribals.

I would' suggest community development type of

development programme for hilly and tribal areas.
I I think it is necessary to introduce thedevelopmenW

i-1'

schemes among the tribals 'in such a way as to pro- .

, mote their' growth by their own effortS, aided by rural
develoPnient and other perrom;el, keeping in mind
(i) the totality. of the community life of the tribals;
(ii) .nie integrated life of the 'individuals with the

!.R.D. programme .
(Contd. from p. 8)

One of the main drawbacks is that the institutional

finance is seldom adequate; also it is nol well suppo~ed by consumption loans: Adequate and timely in'stitutional loans should be provided to the needy arti.
sansand the' 'procedure should he simplified. Reasonable lerm consumption loans should be given iii viUage
. artisans to check ihe diversion 'of a large part of the
credit from production purposes.. Institutional loans
should be 'adequate to enable lhe rural artisans to be
free from the clutches of village moneylenders and
tr,aders.

REFERENCES

.1. Draft [Sixth Five Year Plan,

'Planning Commission.

1978-83,

Gov!. of India,

2. "The IRDP", The Hindu, March 9, 1983;

3. Ibid.
4. Bailur, G.t., "Rejoinder from Krishi Bhav~n". Kiifukshetra,
1979, Vol. 27, No. 17, pp. 9-12.
5. Da/~ India, No. 46, 1979, p. 542 ....

6. Roy, Bunker, "Village Realities", Kurukshetra,

27, No. 17, pp. 24-30. .
,

1979, Vol.

7. "Reaching out to the Weak", The Hindu, January 10,

1983.

8. Ibid.
9. Ihid.

A Gaddi worn:m from H:imachal

community; and, (iii) tfueculture and tradition of the

tribals, their ability and !he tempo of change they, can
absorb. - One has to begin with. the standard .of their
life. as it is today and introduce the changes gradually,
through stages. Any kind of hu~tIing may do more
harm than good. The' approach should also inclu(!e
identification with the tribal life, understanding' their
institutions and organisations, appreciating the motivating factors leading to' ,development programines,
avoiding. stereotyped approach, - suggesting change"
a~eptable
them in termS their value' system after
studying their culture and the unique personality of
the individuals involved.. .Slow and steady' 'pace of
de"eIopment will definitely go ,deep and produce

to

abiding rosultS.

10. Evaluation of Rural Industries-Projects, Planning Commis- sian,. Govt. of In'dia, M~r.,19'16.

Pradesh.

of

11: A ?\~1icro-level Study of Rura" Industrialisatio'n in a Decentralised sector - Humriabad block of Bidar district,
Karnataka, NIRD, 1982.
12. Ibid.

, .
I

SMALL

FAMILY

IS A HAPPY FAMILY
.

"
\

KURUKSHETRA DFcember,'.1%3

..

-.~

~.
I

CARE IS one of the most 'important of all

human endeavours to improve the quality of life
.of the people. It implies the provision of conditions
for normal, physical and rr,ental development ano
fw.<ctioningof the human-being, individually and in
the group.. It provides a wide spectrum of . services
,ncluding 'primary h'ealth care, integration of preventive and curative services, health education, the. protection of mothers aild children.. family welfare and
the control of environmental hazards and' communicable diseases.
Prinlary Health Care is essential henlth care for
all citizens easily accessible and at a cost tim (he .
citizens and the community can afford. The org~nisation. of primary health cnre takes care of family
welfate, nutrition, communicable diseases :lnd many
other _problems in a continuous manner. The state
has accepted health as its responsibility. This has
changed the focus of westem medicine from treatment-oriented hospital-bnsed curntive medicine to
community-1?ased curative and pr'eventive .m('dic~ne..
This shift hns necessitated the knowledg~ . about the .
community way of living.
The Primary Health Centre complex constitutes
the core of the Rural Health Service programme in
India. Pri'mary Health Centres "re the princ'ip,l
institutions providing integrated health services to the
rural populations, They are the focal points for
delivery of health and mcdical care services in rural
areas. It is clooe to the people and offers adequate
medical care services to meet the basic health needs
of the rural people. The Block or Panchaynt union
in Tan;Ii1Nadu is taken as the base of the pyramid'
of the Primary Health Care where the Primary
Health Centre is located. .There are 374 Panchayat
Unions or Community Development Blocks in the
State of Tamil Nadu. A total of 383 Primary
Health Centres (PHCs) and 2880 sub-centres are
functioning in the state' covering an estimated rural
population of about 38 million..
EALTH

How
adequate
are our
health care
services? .
S. SRlNIV ASAN

----

1. Tamil Nadu State Administration Report (from 1-4-1978

to~1-3-1979),Government of Tamil Nadu, Madras, 1981C~.~pterP{-Puplic health and Medicine, pp 135-58.

KL"RUKSHETRA December, 1983

13

,
OrganisingheaHh care services
HE
HEALTH CARE SYSTEM is intended to deliver',
, the health care services. ' In. other words, it
coni;titutes the management..sector and involves orga- f'
, nisational matters. The Health Care System may be
defined 'as the industry which provides health services'
(Health activities) so as to meet the health .needs
and demands of individ'uals, the family and the community? The;;; are three' components in Hea\th
Care delivery, system:

(i) Consumers of Health Care.'-They are, the

people to 'whom the services are intended. The extent and depth of services depend upon the demands '
and health needs of, the consumer. The factors
which determine the health needs are the number of
people in the 'community, age-sex composition;'
stlind'ard of living; educational status; health' consciousness; morbidity and mortality pattern; customS;_
"traditions alid culture-patterns of the people.
(li) ,Providers of Health Care.-This is' the profeS"
sional component (health manpower), ",hich depends'
upon the number and categories of trained personnel
available, their attituges, service conditlons, medical
technology and prevailing pattern 'of practice.
.'
(iii) The Delivery System.-The delivery system depends upon the interaction of the' above two COInPonents mentioned. The system of health care financing mid delivery are different i'n different countries
depending upon the political system, economic re, sources,' cultural and demographic background.
\

The Health Care System operates in the context

of the socio-economic and political system of the
country. In India, the delivery, system of ,health,
care Js mainly through the complex of state owned'
.PHCs and hospitals in rural areas. The PHC oCCU'
pies a key position iii nation's' health care system.
.J,t is peripheral, yet mest vital outpost aiound
which rural health care services are being built. ,

Health care in Tamil Nadu

of health care delivery
A, exists in the State of Tamil
Nadu,.i.e., provision of
THREE-TIER

SYSTEM,

1Y.lslccurative, preventive, promotional and rehabilitative services to the rural areas of the State througJt
and upto primary Health Centre level, the referral
complex upto the taluk and district level and"specialisi service through medical .colleges, teaching
hospitals and other speciaIised institutions. Thus,
comprehensive health care consists of health care
'delivery at the primary, secondary and tertiary
levels,
. 2. Park, J.E. and Park, K. 1977; Textbook of Preventive and
Social Medicine (A Treatise.on Community- Healt~), Ba::
nars~das Bhanot. publishers. J3nalprir .

The Health organisation in the state of Tamil'

Nadu is divided into five broad Cl\tegories, namely,"
the Directorate of Medical Services and Family Welfare (DMS & FW); The Directorate of Medical Education (DME); The Directorate of Public Health
and' Preventive Medicine, (DPH & PM); The Directorate of Primary Health Centres (DPHC); and the
Directorate of Indigenous System of Medicine
(DISM).
The Director of Medical Services and Family Welfare is the direct' state-level administrator of "Ii.
hospitals, dispensaries and faJDilywelfare centres run
by the Government. He is assisted by four Deputy
Directors one each for medical services, fumily welfare, ESI hospitals and dispensades, and leprosy; one
state tuberculosis officer. These officers are in turn
assisted by' the. technical ,officers in the, railk 'ofAss;stant Directors. The District Family Welfare Medical Officer maintains the special family _welfare,
maternIty and child health centres, in the' district
and supervises the family welfare, maternity and
child-health activities of the Primary Health Centres.
These officers are al1ministrativeiy indepenl1ent, thel!
have io' co-ordinate their activities in~ the ' family.
welfare programmes. The Dire<:tor of Medical' Edu-.
cation is the overall head of all. government ,me<Jici~
colleges and teaching hospitals attached to' them:

.l

The Slate Public Health Service is under the control of the Director of Public Health ',and preventive
Medicine. The Public Health 'nepartment 'was d
integrated with the I'epartment oJ',-Medical Servfcesin .the year 1966. and named as the Department of
Health Services and FanJily Planning.. In the year
1976, the set-up was again reorganised te)" foJ'IJI'two
separate departments namely, Depattment "of' Pllbl1c'
Health' and Preventive Medicine and the Department of Medical Services and Family Welfare. Under
this set-up, the public .Health '''Department"cOnsisted
of several technical units for, Pnmary Health Centres,
maternity and child welfare, malaria' eradication,
smalljpox eradication, filaria control, epidemic control,
industrialhygiene,~ nutrition rese:rrch;!health' education, health and vital statistiCs, analysis ,of fo:od and
water saJDples.
For, effective and purposeful implementation of
various health schemes and to. derive the" desired,
objectives, the Government of Tamil .Naou 'havd
deCided to reorgan'ise,the Public Health' departwents.'
According to the reorganised pattern, there are seven
regions. Each region is in charge of a Rei.iona!
Assistant Director of Public Health with the jurisdiction of 2 or 3 Revenue Districts.' At present, there
are 29 Health Unil districts in the State of Tamil
. Nadu. Each Health Unit District is in-charge of a
District Health Officer with jilrisdiction of Q
maximum.of 16.P.H:Cs.
The R~gJ."onal Assistant,

J{ljRUKSlIETRA
il1eciimbOr" 19.83
.

-..

,~

,
Director who is\n charg" of' a 'rellion, 'has to ClJo'rdi-.
nate the work of the different Healih Unit DiStricts,
and to guide and .supervise the implementation ,at
various health .progIeammes and' to couduct reviews
about'the progIeessof the;programme at .aivisioual
level. He ,Is responsible for the micro-level p1e.nuing
for the effective implementation: of the State He,ltn
Policy and 'health programmes, 'He ,has adrriiriistrative and technical control over the 'District Hearth
Officer and Municipaf'Health Officers in 'the region
and is responsible for the ,proper implementation "of
the .public health ,progiammes and proper fundloning
of the Primary Health Centres;
- ','

The District' Health Officer (DNO) 'who 'is, tin

, charge of the Health Unit District, is .responsible for
the implementation of the pulilic health .programmes
in their respective jurisdiction, The admiriistraiion
of 'P'HCs and 'lhe l"iblic health fun'dions are carried
out by the DR0, The District 'Health . Offirer
(DHO), is empowered to supervise 'the pHC 'personnel 'inCluding'ihedoctors,
'He is' assisted 'by the!
technical gazetted perSonal assistant (P~) in, hnplementing the 'health progIearnmes and 'techme,l
,
matters,

The state o'fpriniary,-llealih care

HIE. OB.rECTrvEOF impr~ving the package
WITH
of services ',a.vailable'a1 'Ine PHCs and to
'strengtben thecuI:'ati-l,e,services -offered at :the ,,pRes, ,
the Government ,of Tamil Nadu have created .a,~epll'"
rate Direc\:orate for .PRCs, with.a ,fulHime.indepen-,
dent .director. ,F.Iowever,.the ,preventive'semires -offered
,at ,the PHCs .are .be"ng,.controlled ,and >supervised,l:!Y'
the Director of Publie Health and ,Preventive.Medicine.
The ,Primar'y Health Centre' complex is compOsed
of ,three wings : (i~ Public Health Unit was 'created
under ,the oriQinai Primary Health Centres ,pattern,
(ii) a Rural Family Welfare Centre 'Was.addad .under
family welfare 'PTogIe3mme:
.and (m) Mobile-Hea1th
SerMices-Scheme was intrmluced in the,
19:1,8.
The 'Primary Health Centres ,are pr<>Videdwith' <there
mediCal officers assisted by,a number 'of pa<a-medica1
personnel. One ,of ,the senior ,docto<s.;s designated
as the Medical Officer, in-d,ar.ge.'"f .the" .PHC, the
other is called Medical Officer, Familv Welfare ,,,lid
the third mediCllI,officer, Mobile Health Service.
Under Public F.Icalth side, ,there '[s a Health Visitor
(HV) . 'an AuxiIiary-Nurse-Midwife (Al%1),. .a
health ,inspe~tor (HI), Basic Health Workers (BHWs~
a' ,Pharamaeist ,and a driver, The Family Welfare
'side ..bas a Block Extension 'Educator (BEE)" four
Health Inspectors, two Jady health vjSitOTS,an ANM.
a eompulor, a 'Store-keeper'and,a 'dmver. InMobile
Health ServiCe Scheme. there is a phannadst and ,.a
driver. This staff pattern is mOre or less uniform in

~=

"

KURUKSHETRA December, 1983

all ,the ,Primary Mealth Centres in Tamil Nadu, ',but

there ,maybe v.anations .as <:gards,the 'variety , and
number qf :personnel .involved ,in .a ,healtheentre. ,
~"~""'.-'~:-"";~

.:~-

,~:_~';:
.. __
'..

"""

~~,'

I~-=,'"

Primar,' Health Centte;; ':rnil "slIb-~eifttes 'aTe "de-.

signed,to, make pr-imary health care available .thr0.ugh"ut' the rural areas of the slate, There is one ,Pri'mar,y Health, Gentre, for ever.y one lakh ,of ,people.
It is ,.very.iilficult for ,oue health centre to attend.to
Ihe ~edical needs of one lakh population effecti-velY.
With ,.extremely inooequate ~mads and' communication in "mages of Tamil Nadu, ,and ,with .most of .the
rural people being very poor, the rural population
face considerable hoardship to tra,vel many miles, to
re'a:ch'the"hea1/hteritre 10rl!1ementaty meiiieal 'eare.
The'1Jtealth co'titre"andils SUO"Cet1tfcs
'lfave 100 'large
an 'atea to c~ter 'to 'be adequ~te anil' with thegtowth,
d('pdpul~tiori dunnQ the years', their e'ffecti;fene\l~
had deteriorated. It is found that the people living
very ",lose''10 'the .health 'centm ,"" 'sn1J..cetltreuse 'the\
sei'i<:.es,to .t\1'e.malfimum extent than. 'the pell!Jle
Ii,ring aw.ay 1from.it
.M&ilical"fucmties'lI.!ller Siddlla:' cAyuri'eda' and
Utmni Svstems.of ,-medid"" thave .been 'Pl'ovided ill
t!:te,.lS~beddad Arignnr ArrnaGoverilment Hospital
Gf...[.ndian,Medicin",.at Madr .s. There 4s '8 Siddh-a
, Hosaital with .2@8".beds;attached .to,the ,Qovemm'ent
Co1Iege.of ;mdmn Systems clMedicine ",t P-alayatneot~i; ..Tlr.uneh,e1i-disttret.3 Siddlm ,medical wings
are lm,etioning '';H .250 ,pr.imary..health ,centres ,in -the,
state.
,.'

R~ilthpro!tJ"am'l11eS iri

,rU'ra

Tamil I'ladu
I, Maternal ..and Child Health
Maternal and 'child 'hcalth services 'is otte 'of the
'maior lJ!<O!!'rammesenvisaQedin l'he package "syStein'
of :the 'health care dtliverv. Maternal ll'ndc1iilll
health' proQrammes in rural areas of Tamil NJl~\l
are catered' 1'0 the womeR

."f.}:JT.(.)lH!-hmater.g.itr

..Gentres"

estabUshed bv the Panchavat Unions, It is the responsibility of ,the PanChayat UniOn 'Council tb open
and 'mai1ftain matefljai and child weifare eentm lit ..
the rate of one maternal and child welfare ce1ltre
(M &0 ;CWC) 'fot every 1'0.000 population. ''l'l\egei
maternal and 'child welfa;-e centres are alsO caned 1tS
',ob",ell'tr'es, The Medical Ollicer iGetreral or
F3m;!v We1fnte) 'in the PRC forms the tenm leader
to''-r,moer'maternal ll'fld child 'he'alth seiVi~es thl'oui!h
thel1l1ciJ]aryst1l1I of health visltoj's atll'l Auj(lli~TVNurse-M'i~Wives (ANMs) .tJnsted 'to
and M,b-centres,. Tile Sllb-een.tr~sofPRCs are nOw under

me

3. ".Tahin,

t.4rdMJ, .'July'

198( Govt ....-onrlimi1 'N-adu; 1'P~.42~46.

6S.75.16.

l~

the administrative control of Panchayat union commissioners or Block Development Officers. Techni.
cal Control is vested with the Director of Primary
I;Iealth Centres, Government of Tamil Nadn.

n.

School Health Programme

School Health Programme (SHP) , which. is one

of 'the components of total comprehensive maternal
and chUd health pfogramme, is being snpervised,
guided and evaluated by the School Health Officer
. (SHO) at State. level who 'undertakes frequent tOlln;
and offers necessary guidance, and instructions in the
matter' to the district public health nurse and staff
of P.H.C.
.
The Special Scheme of Schcol Medical
Programme was first sanctioned in 1965
mentation. in selected health centres in
Now' the Scheme has been extended to
centres.

Insoection
for implethe State.
.63 health

.munisation. Now, the scheme is implemented as a

part of package services under family welfare schemes.
The Government of Tamil Nadu have sanctioned for
'implementation of the SpeCial DPT programme in
110 PHes during the years 1974-75 to 1978-79.
The .total number of children immunised in .rural
area~ under this programme during 1977-78 is
2,51,445.' Polio-myelitis immunisation has been introduced in a .phased mll!1ner afti'r ~nsuring prop~r
storage and transport of vaccine at optimum tempe- ,
rature: Initially, the programme was introduced in .
Coimbatore and Periyar districts both in urban and
areas. Subsequently,'it has been extended to
the Nilgiris, Madurai Co~ration,
North Arcot and
part of Chinglepul.

rural

IV. Nutrition Piogramme

The' programme which aims at the supply of nutntional supplements to pre-school children upto 6 years
and pr~gnant and lactating mothers belonging to the
As per the programme, the. medi'cal officers at
economically weaker sections of the community is
PHes should carry out medical inspection in respect
being implemented from ,1970-71 by the Department
of 2000 school children per annum in the age-Q1"Out> of Social Welfare, Government' of Tamil Nadu. The
of 6-11 years. In' order to assist the 'medical offiCARE, Tamil Nadu -are supplying 80 grams and 7
cers in this work: one extra Realth Visitor 'is posted
. grams' of Balahar and Salad oil per beneficiary per
to each PHC. The students showing signs of ill-.
day respectively with the help of which cooked food
health after medical check-up have been treated with
like uppuma, khichdi, pongal are' prepared and dis. diet supplement etc. from the health centres. 'Some
tributed to the beneficiaries. .
.. .
patients who require specialised treatment are referred to the nearby 'hospitals for such, specialised tr~iltIntegrated nutrition p~oJect.
ment 'as may be necessary. The number of .children
HE
MAIN OBJECTNES
of. the Integrated Nutrition
examined under special School Health Progriimme
Proj~ct that is . being run. with World Bank
(SSHP) during 1978-79 is 1.29,516. 'During 1980Organisations are:' (i) the present rate of rural in81. the, Scheme was extended to 20 PHCs.
During
fant mortality 125 per thousand live-births is to be'
1981-82, this was' further extended; to another' 50
reduced by 25. per cent through' immunisation covePHes.
.
rage for all children; (li) provision of protein-caloric
supplementary diet; (iii) improving .the nutritional
Apart from special school health progriimme,
and' hearth status of expectant and nursing motherS.
routine school health programmes are' also carried
out. in all the primary schools by all other PHC mediSix districts in Tamil Nadu; namely Chingleput,
cal offic~rs and atleast 1,000 children per year are
North-Arcot, Madurai, Tirunelveli, Ramanathapuram
expected to be examined by each. PRC. medical
and Pudukoltai selected on the basis of their relatively
officer.
more backward nutritional status will be covered
,'under a phased programme by the Rs, 60 crore
m. Immunisation Progr.amme
Wor(d Bank aided integrated nutrition project. 11 is
The objective of the .programme is to rednce tj)e,.
expected that 2.2 million children aged 6-36 months
morbidity and mortality from the following diseases: .
will benefit when the .project has been extended to all
(i) Diphtheria, (ii) Tetanus, (iii) Pertusis (whoopthe 175 Blocks in these six districts of Tamil Nadu,
ing cough), by immu'lising the maximum number of
which stand greater nutritional risk, during a five
children below 2 years of age;. A scheme for the
year period from 198{}-81. The project will also imDPT immunisation of children 'in rural areas was
prove the focus, quality and reach of nutrition related
launched ,'in the state of Tamil N~du during 1964
services'for other groups at high nutritional risk, preg'
through the agency of health centres and sub-centres.
nant and nursing women and older pre-school c!lildChildren get immunisation in the PHCs, in the schools
'ren,' During' the first year, the project was impleand also in their own houses by ANMS and HVs
mented in one pilot ,block, namely, Kottampatti,
under the .supervision by the medical .officers of
Madurai dislrict" based on the result of which the
PHCs in rural areas. A. target of 1,000 children
project will be tested and its contents refined as necesannually for every PHC has been' fixed for' DPT imsary.
~,

16

KURUKSHETRA December, 19d3

Under the scheme, community nutrition centres

will function in each and every revenue village and
children and mo!her, will receive specially prepared
food there every morning. In respect of health cove'
rage, also envisaged under the programme, besides
general immunisation against DPT for all children
below 5 years, 'special '!leasures wi)! be taken to prevent anaemia aIid Iiight blindness.

64: and entered the consolidation phase in' 1966-67

'and it is a continuing project. The principal strategy
in the consolidation phase consists in a cent per cent'
. primary 'vaccination of all newbo~ns. This has however, caused a slackening in the important revaccination ~Iement in the progQlmmes. Inadequacy of existing staff is the ,main cause for not able to achieve the
targets of coverage now fixed afresh by the Govern. menl.'

V. Control of Communicable Diseases

The Vaccinator of NationaI Smallpox Eradication programme attached to the health centre, visits
the villages under his jurisdiction according to a set
.programme, He notes down' cases of eruptive fever,
!fany, and unvaccinated children. His duties include
not only' routine vaccination (Primary vaccination)
of the children but also;>the maintenance of a very
.effective surveillance mechanism. The very fact that
the villagers cooperate with the health' authorities in
having their chilgren vaccin;tted for smallpox is an
achievement from the point of view of public health.

Communicable diseases are those which are cominunicated. from one per~n to' another.
(l ) Malaria.-About 35 years ago, malaria was by
far the most important health problem of the coun- .
try. The Malaria Control Programme' was initiated
in .1952 to control the incidence of malaria in' endemic areas. As resistance to' DDT devel9ped among
mosquitoes, the modified and more interu;ive,National
Malaria EradiCfltion Programme (NMEP)
was
launched in 1958. As a'result of the NMEP, the
incidence of malaria has been brought down to a very .
low level, This has been !>r"ught out .by 'extensively
spraying houses with DDT. As a result of t~ it
has been possible to' kill most. of themoaJariacarrving mOSQnit~.
Tamil NOOuis divided into 29 healIn Unit districts and work In each Health Unit district is supervised by a Di~trict Health Officer (DHO). He con"
troIs two or four units, each' uitit covering a population of one million people. Basic Health Workers
(BHW) are posted in each Block at the rate of One
.each for ten thousand population. The BHWs of the
National MalariaSurvei1lance Progra~e
(NMSP)
. attached to each PHC visit the villages under their
jurisdiction and list down the cases of fever includ. ing malaria, eruptive fevers and diarrhoea. The duties
include treatment of on-the-spot fever cases presumed
to be malaria and _collection of reports of births and
deaths and reporting of eruptive fdvers.and diarrhoea.
Tamil Nadu' occupies the second. place in 'the
country, next. to Kerala in the implementation of the
Malaria Eradication PrograIDme. The ,incidence of
~alaria in the State' has fallen from 1,03,931 cases
in 1976 to 72,60Q in .1980. It was showing a definite declining trend. .
,
2. Small Pox.-The National Smallpox Eradication Progranrme (~SEP) has been launched to' deal
with this problem. This includes not'- only routine
vaccination of tll children but a!~o a' very effective
surveillance mechanism. Whenever there is am'outbreak of a ",!se, proper pJ:Cventivemeasures are taken
to ensure tha~.it does not spread.
.
The National Smallpox Eradication Programme
(NSEP) was launched throughout the State in 1963.KURUKSHETRA December, .1983

3: Tuberculosis.-It is an important communicable disease. . About 2 per cent of tlre total population' .snffer from positive tuben;ulosls of the .lungs.
When the. nationwide BCG vaccination programme
was started, the. initial survey r,,'Cealedthe incidence
of the disease among 2.5 millions in the country.
The BCG progriunme has yielded good results ihough
,precise figures are not available and it is being continued.. Due . to vigorous anti-TB work being done .
since the' advent of planning, there exists now one
T.B. Centre in each district headquarters ,hospital. In
addition to' TB clinics attached to teaching institutions; there exist TB sanatoria run by the State
Government and a few by private and voluntary'
agencies. Now the emphasis foC TB treatment has
been on doD)iciliarytreatment. .
4, Leprosy.-It is one:of the most important pub. lie health' problems in the southern states of India.
The incidence of leprosy, which is a contagiOus
disease, endemic to Ta!Pi1 Nadu varie~ from 2 to 5
per cent of \Jle' State population.
Anti-leprosy
measures are carried out in a few seleeledinstitutions
in Tamil Nadu, such as Lepr~sy Treatment a;'d Study
Centre,. Tll"JIkoilur,South Arcot district. The present
trend is to integillte leprosy control with medical relief. work at every relief centre in the field and reinforce curative work with a <jomlciliaryapproach.
5. Fiiaria.,--It is also a communicable disease. During .the year 1968-72, four national filaria control
units functioned in the districts of Chingleput, North.
Arcot, South Arcot and Thanjavur of Tamil Nadu
each unit covering a population of
Iakhs, Duriri~
the F'?urth Plan peljod, the Government of Indiil
providect for the reorganisation of National Filaria
Control Programme on a regional basis by setting up

3.5

17

one headquariers unit, 8 cQ.ntrai uni~ and augmentatUm 'Of t1ie fOUr exiSting' uni~: 1'1ic' eight new
unlis' were to De located' aC Vil1upuram; Cudtlalare;
Kanehijlliratlb TJianjavur; Na:gapatinam; Pbdukottai;
Sriratlgam' amI' Madhl:s city: About' 13 milliOn of
thc' pnpullltion are at. pres<cnt exposed' to the'risk 'Of
filariasis iii, TamIl' Nadu' and'. tiie" 'Oojecr 'Of the pro"
grammc'is ta pr'Ovide'tliem 'with' proteCti'On'against. tlie
disease:
.

VIi. Mabile Heaith Services

Tohe objective 'Of the" scheme is, to deliver. cam pre- .

hensive' health. Gale services ta' the. rural populatiou\
Th", Government. 'Of Tamil Nadu' introduced' a, new
scheme in the 'year' 1977-78, the first of its' kind in
the cO'uutry, in the shape of mobile health teams
ra-diating fram 24 PRCs ta th~ rematest villages in
thase areas. The scheme. was exlended, ta 100 mare
PHCs in 1978-79 and another 100 PHCs in 197980. Thus mabile Iieal\h teams havebe"g establi'shed
in 224 EHes. During the year 198'1-82, mabile
health teams were established in 25 mare PHCs':

6. Cholera.-It is ea!Jlll1uqieated from an~ persan

to' anotlier thraugh, drinking' af impure water:. scarcity of good' drinking wallor is. more a'entl:: di1ring
summer manth;;; in most of- the: distr<cll; of< TamiJI,
Nadu: 'NIe Cholera (!;ontro1, Programme (-CCP') is'
VlD. Mini-Healih Centres (MOCs)
now being implemented:
the faw; districts, of South
Areo~, North. Areot~ Coimfiatoreo and' Tiroehirapalli.
.'NIey are organised with the 'Objective 'Of en.
These districts' are' endemic' far. chalera. sa. far half.
cauraging voluntary agencies to deliver camprchen-.
the number of, blocks in' the' fuur endemic dis1ticts'
sive health" ",,-re services. to' the population On a cahas been. 'covered a_udthe GOverhmenf. of Indla' had'
operati!ve basis. A Mini-HealtlL Centre (MHC) i~ a
since decided' to,extend- the'sclrem1l' tn' tile. remaining '. multipurpose unit organised,by a voluptary agency. in
50 per cent' 'Of the' bfuck)i. Trhere' is a. cholcw cnmcall11boratian wit!] the S\ate,' Gavernment for delivery
bat team functioning in Tll'anjavur district.. Haw'Ofcurative: preventive, and promotive. health serylces
-ever; since cholera' is one of the water-borne diseases',_
ta' rural< paPulation: 'Jihe' voluntill)" agency invalved.
progress in' tlie containment 'Oftliis epideD)!i:'is,haund'
. is tOaJ;gl1nise the deli"ery. of camprehensi~e health
up' wiih tile provision 'Of safe waleNupply and' the ..
services far a, populatian 'Of,5,000 ar'l,QOO families,
improvement generally 'Of euViraruuentaI saniiatian.
with a tatal recurring expenditure of. Rs:. 1:8,000 per.'
mini health centre per year and it is shared by the
Vl,. Family. Welfare
valUntary agency" and the stlite. gavel'Jl!l1enl. . One
Ii) is. actually a belief in' planned' f"!I'~nthood' ,!nd it
parHlrne: medica:!' officer; 'One'full time male health
is' 'a c&nscrous procesS' ta liinii one's family' or' slJa'ce'
worner, 'One female healthcwarker and 3' lady firstthe cbildren: ,In' other' words, faWly welfare m~'
aiders are emplbyed' in' a mini-health centre (MIlC:)
hav.iug eliildren by choice' oand'nllt by- cnance. It is
viewed a~ a. prerequisite. far" the good' health of t1ie
.Hie Mini-Health' Centre Scheme, adOpted by the
family: Pi family we)fare pra@imme' has ~.
TamiI'Nadu'Gbvernment and'approved by the central.
launched to contral- th!" rate' 'Of papulatian- growtIl:
G(wcrnment, -wliich provid~ for a part-time doctor
EJigitile' couples. are' encouraged' to practlse different'
at the' level' of 5000 papulation, ta' act as llie leader
methndi; of t\1rth-ean!i'o.L Maternity' and" post-Ulitlrt'
'Ofthe liealth. team; is it practical compromise bet- .
. care centres are beginning t\)' lie' used' for caun~elling
ween a' full"time' doctar and' no doctar at all At
on the planned family, Anolherelement in.the"famiiy
present; tlie mjhi~health centre sclieme. of the Taniil
welfare programme, whieh thus has been,. as imWr .
Nadu Government seems ta' be only practical salutant .as the supplies, the. stafE . and ' the operntious'
tian.to primary healili 'care'.
There ~re 21'4 minithemsel".es is educatian and. publicity effected through
health centres functioning, .at pre,sent in the stale of
mass media suc.h as radia, leleyisian, ne~pa~,
. Tainil Nadu.
film, hoardings,. poster~, leallets and. wall;minting!h.
Tlie Block Extensian. Educatar
(BEE)
and,!be
Family Welfare I;t:ealth Assistants. "(FWItIAS), are.fe..
quired ta motivate the male population in. the PllIC
area and tne. Loady Health Visitors (UilVs) and. the
ANMs ta mativa!<, the female population.
Taniil Nadu has always been in the farefront in
the' implementati'On 'Of famHy .welfare programme.
Cantrol' Df populaJlon by adb'ptian 'Of.faniily welfare
metqjoos by persuasian and motlvatian wiillaut resort.
ing !t'l. coercion has heen' rue hallnJark in the matter
of implementatiDn of family welfare programme in
Tamil' Nadu. The present trend'. in family welfare
programme is increasingly. row~rds tub"etgmy.

m:

18

KURUKSHETRA" December, 1983,

'.

A .second look at IKDP.

implementation
l\OGANMID;SAS'FRY
A'sst:. Director' (psyclioIOgy),

the. reeeptiA. .vity an'd reaction to IRDP oftothe~ssess,

beneficiaries by
TTEMPTS

HAVE BEEN

MADE

Muthayya;'et. al and was. found' tlial! the. beneficiaries

did, not' have adequate:understmiding' Of the' . different
schemes. of IRDP-: As part of tliis .st:udYI views' of
officials implementing the progr,amme 'were also' eIicit~ ..
ed and. analysed\
,'Fhepresent pape. deals with' the perceptlbns~Of offi'-.
..cials involved injJl~nning', implementation'. arid' other'
aSpellts, of the most .iml''Ortant of, the' progr-ammes of.'
rural, d~veIopment'" he, the. Int\lgratedl Rllrel~Elilvelilp'-'
ment Progromme .. ,

@IA'FUREDI,
NIRD,

Hydemd3d:

be' lWpv confililmtiali. Itanli- discus.ion' was possible:

Among tlio' topics. soletted' for: discussion; emphasis' was
on (~) identification and selection'of' beneficiaries; (b)'
political interference (c) corruption at different levelS;
(d) limited' scope for participation;. (e)woblems
of
proj~cr offiCials ih selection, pmcess; (f) madeq"acy
"f'personnel;
(g)' ihformation. gaps;, (h~ scope for.
peopill's' partiCipation; (i) need .tor educational component. and'
alternative strategies .

or

Ffndl'ngsof'the study

.1. Identification, and s(!lection' of' beneficiaries.-TIie'.

criteria. provided: by tli", Government' of' .IiJdia' with
. regard., to' the' selection of bendiciaries. stipulated. that'.
the. annual, income aD the.'family sliould' be less. tIian'
MethodQlogy
Rs-.. 3,5llO, However i(has;been' teg:lorted:thaVih'some
~tates-,eren. the, daily; wage-earner. is, paid Rs .. 20. and:.
.lnUN<;, THE. PROOESS, of initiating' researth, projects:
the, situation' makes, it. dilIicult, to,fihd suitable persons-. undert"ken by the Faculty of Psychology,
withih the pres-mjbed'iiJcome:limits .. It: Wag,felt that a'
National Institute of Rural Development, HyderaunifOIDJ]pattern, of, ihcome limit: can' De' waived' or
bad" in different States of tlie. country,' infor.
,
suitahl)'
modified, takihg into account' tlie. local' eondi .
mal' discussions dealing with the different facers
tions, existing: wage' 'pattern- .and, other such factors.
of rural' development, were Iieidwitli
the offiCials
.The. officialll obEerved;thal'.selection, of' beneficiaries for:
mainly' from the Department' of Rural' ~Devethoso.programmes,is ta1;ing'place,in'a. nebulous. way in'
10pment:TIie sample consisted of'DevelOpment Cbmsome.,of, the places" In,.this' proce-ss; people from. the
mis'sioners, :Secretaries-RUral Development DepartC
higjter
income' groups<have also been: getting these.
ment, Deputy .Secretaries at the State level;- District
..
:
benefits;
One, ofrthe: methOds' explafued: was, influenC"
Collectbrs/De,puty Commissioners and' Project. 6ffieers
ing;
the'
project,
offiCials;'ih.'.
getting' their. own' Henclimenof DR'OA:s ih adtlition- to the otliet categories" orfiI'ncfor
these.-schemes:
and
proxying
the benefits for. themtionaries like APOs of different wihgs.. Views of tlie
selves.The
best
example.'
quoted"
was; provision' of.'
block development. officers' and. the. various, extension
milch
cattle
to
the.
people
below'
tb<!'poverty.
Iihe:which
functionaries were also obtained, The. stUdy was, con- ,
infirct
was'
done
to
.tlie
Oenefit
ofthe
rich
people.
in..a
ducted in the 'States. of PunWb,. Kamataka, Kem1a,:
numberofcases ..
Maharashtra, Uttar. Pradesh ~nd.Andhra.I1radeSh .Sihce.
the discussions held, were quite mfOIDlal.in nature. and,
2. Political, inter.fare"ce,~Some' of tlie. top" H,vel
. with the assurance to the; officials.timt the id.entity' will,
officials. ventilated) thd. unhappiness. over the intet-.

K{JRUKSlIETRA

December.,..1983i


ference of the political elements in the implementation
of IRDP. The officials admitted their inability to go
against the wishes of the politicians mainly due to possible personal inconvenience resulting from former's
annoyance. . Political pressure is brought upon. the

. causing disappointment to the people and wasting time

of the officials in' addition to. losing theiI credibility
in. the public. It was found that the procedure of
identiiication shoUld be made more clear to avoid this
type of lapses.

officials at different ,levels and it ])lay be from the

5. Inadequacy of perspnnel.-,-One of the problems
Process of identification of beneficiaries, right up to-ilie
faced in the implementation of rural development prolocation of ~ommunity irrigation weI! and the drinking
granunes in general and special progrI=es in parti-.
waler facilities. Due to these reasons, the officials
cular is availability of ample funds, creation of posts
felt the benefits do not percolate to thy really needy
on paper that would .never materialise resulting in ibe
.groups. And one more dimensio!! of this 2spect has.
forced situation for the block persounel who will be
. been observed by the officials, it is said that some
burdened wiib a new programnie also in addition to the
politicians give misleading assnra.ilcesto the P<OPle
in
already existing numerous progranunes. So much so'
the villages that ibe Government will write off ibe' \. that the block persounel are unable to put their heart
loans due from the weaker sections, which in effect
in any of these. The officialssuggested that each prodemotivates even those who are willing to repay. The
granune planned for implement~tion should 'not only
officials expressect.concern over tJWresponsibility restbring the finances but also the reqnisite personnel elifing solely with the banks for recovery of the loans and
marked specially for programmes drawn up ambitiousfelt that it could be the joint respo~bility of .bank
ly. Dual control of officials at the: block level has also
and DRDi\, the officials opined that this would be
been mentioned as a ~tumbling"block. Since ibese
possible in view of the fact that in. most .of the states
personnel are .nnder administrative control of some
eilher the additional collectors or the additional deputy
and functional control of somebody else.
commissioners hold. the office of DRDA also: Thi'
is the added advantage that can'be encashed.
. 6. Intormauon gaps.-Some .of the officials at ibe
block level expressed their unhappiness over the present
3.. Corruption at different levels.-The officials .ex.system which does no! provide .informa,tion to ibe
presed the viewthat ibe. roolcause of corruption relat. block set-up after the identific'!:tionprocess is coming to IRDP. is the subsidy component. Neither the
pleted. This results .in inconveni~nce to ibe prospecofficials nOr the beneficiaries feel the pinch of parting
tive beneficiaries who frequently visit the block office
with.a portion of amount just because it is considered
for information. Due to non-availability of ibe infor-.
free and loan component needs to be repaid. Neither
.matien at ibe block level, . these people .are made to .
the officials attempted to educate ibe pro.spectivebenevisit the 'DRDA and the lead bank.. It is desired ibat.
ficiary nor is the benefiCiaryhimself interested in know.some system should be evolved that provides informaing as to what the subsidy compon.l,nt il; meant .for.
tion at ibeblock level which results .in minimising ibe
The idea behind this is to provide some bargaining
visits the DRDA and lelld bank which saves time and
power to ibe poor to motivate arid enable them' to
energy of the identified persons who .can seek informahelp themselves. On the contrary the beneficiaries
tion from ibe village level worke,r or from the block
have been briefed that without any.of their efforts ibey
office. If the information is made available at ibe
are getting this amount and. that officials.at different
doorstep of tire beneficiaries, this would motivateibem
levels tr,Y h'!l"d to procure' thiji amoy.nt for them and
beUer.
.'
.~~.:::;),"B~~-;ir.~~:>
' ,,$4."
hence it. is reasonable to part with l! p.Qrtionas con7. 'Scope jar people's participation.-The officials
. sideration for .their efforts., Some of the possible and
felt ibat ll,5things stand there is little scope for pe0inevitable categories ot" persons that need to be pleasple's participation in IRDP. It is desired that creaed by the beneficiari~shave
been identified as the
, tion of opportunitJes for participation can be thought of
(a) Village officials; (b) Gram Sevak (village deveand they suggested that in aspects like identification of.
lopment officersin some states); (c) Block personnelbeneficiaries, selection of schemes
and
formation of.
specificaUy the ct>-operative and anim"l h~sbandrY
.
..
I
peO[Jle'sunions'ibat can ensure repayment of loans by
.extension officers; (d) DRDA officials willI specific
motivating the beneficiaries. People's
participation,
.reference to subject, maHer specialists like APO of
the officials observed, is the kingpin in rural developAnimal Husbandry and cooperation; (e) Bank officials
ment outfit.
in the loans section; and (f) The officia1sibat arrange.
the lJurchases of milch cattle. .
"8. Need for educational componertt.-'-The officials
4. Problems of project officials.- The project offiat" different levels felt the need for ibe creation of
cials held the view thai after incurring some expendithe post of an Education OffiCerwho should look after
ture and spending lot of tinie and creating some hopes
the '~xtension aspect of project operations for example
in th.e prospective beneficiaries in the process.,of scruthe educator can periodically visit the viThigesto extinising the applications, some of them are rejected
plain the' people aboui ibe aims and objeciives of
I

'co;

20

KURUKSHETRA December, 1983

..
IRDP, type schemes that are available, the procedures
iRvolved and the like. Concentration should be mainly
on the remote' and inaccessible places, With emphasis
on the weaker sections of population who have no
means of exposure to information.
9. Alternative strategy.-In one of the states the
officials gave an altogether new dimension to the present process which needs a change. To quote them "A
. rethinking appears to be necessary before'we get caught'
too deep in.the IRDP trap". The'officials were rather'
, pessimistic' abont IRDP as they felt' that at the end of .
the present plan period we will come out with some
lacunae in the planning and impleIiIentation of IRDP
as has been done during the I'ast plan periods regarding IADP, DPAP, SFDA, -ITDP and'a host of other
programmes planned with great enthusiasm and implemented ha.lf-heartedly.
.'
The officials said th~t instead of the present IRDP
. which envisages at taking 600 households above pOverty
line per' year meaning 3000 per block and in the 5,011
blocks during the plan pedod, We may succeed in
bringing as many as 15 million people ahove poverty
line. Only granting that these people that have been
brou!;ht ahove poverty line manage to stay' there, it
would take 20 to 30 years to cover the entire rural
population below the poverty line, going by the present figures.
.
, And hence the officials suggested that it would be
_ more rewarding to attack rural poverty directly and '
that the only solution is industrialisation. Almost every
C.D. block in the country is in the jnrisdiction of one
nationalised' bank, and roping in the ronks to particic .
pate in the development programmeS has 'already been
done. Each district is also equipped with district industries centre. It was emphasised that two agencies
namely DRDA and DIC should coordinate their activities and establish one industry in each block after carefully studying the details of ra.w material availability
and the type of industry that can flourish. The officials desired that the possibilities of agro-based industries should be thoroughly' explored.. .The officials
added that under TRYSEM, a number of training programmes are being organised and based on the' feasibility of the type. of industry to be set up. training programmes have to be tailored.to suit the local needs.

Commenting on the finances for the industrialisation

process the officialsobserved that as such we are spend.
.ing Rs: 35 lakhs per block in a phased manner, investing the same amount and roping in the banks to provide their sbare for the establishment of the industry
will fetch the. following amounts :
.
Govf. of

Year,

India contri-

Lead Bank
contribl;tion

Total.

bution
First year

Rs. 5 takhs

Rs. 501akhs

Rs.55

lakhs

Second year

Rs. 6 takhs

Rs.60.takhs

Rs.66

lakhs

. Third ye.ar

Rs. 8 takhs

ItS. 80 la:khs

Rs.88

lakhs

. Fourth year

RS.81akhs

Rs. 80 takhs

Rs.88

lakhs

Fifth year.

Rs. 8 takhs

. Rs. 80 lakhs

Rs. 88 lakhs

At the end of
5ycars

Rs. 35 lakhs~

Rs. 350 lakhs

Rs. 3.85
crores-

It waS further argued that an investment of Rs. 3.85 .

crores per block in a matter of five years would not
only benefit the area bnt also enable us to provide
gainful employment by at least 10 times, the estimated
figures through implementation of the IRDP. As for'
the development of infrastructure under IRDP huge
amount~ have been promised. These a1I)ountsalso can
be properly utilised.
IMBALANCES,
political interference and
lastly the blame that. the fruits of the development
have not reached the needy groups and innumerable
types of malpractices polluting the sanctity of the programme, at the end of 5 years finding only the figures
spent but not the facts of gain, aU these problems' can
be solved. Through this the officials hoped reversal in
the course of migration from rural to urban. Lastly,
'it has. been added that history reveah that the country
has experimented with several programmes spending
huge amounts of money, and it is not going to be
poor, by taking tip this experiment too. Alternatively,
the officials desired that it can be tried on pilot basis
in three or four industrially backward blocks in each
state and it can be spread to the entire country, if
the resujts there vouch .their observations.

EGIONAL

NATIONAL RURAL EMPLOYMENT PROGRAMME

PROVIDES JOB OPPORTUNITIES
IN AND NEAR. YOUR VILLAGE~

KURUKSHETRA December,.1983

21 .

Food ~strategyfor
the eiglltJes
'M.L. MANRAI and n's, BHt\TNAGAR

doomsday prophets
Ilike. the, Paddock brothers'belied
by reaching the thr~hNOlAN

AGRICULTURE

HAS

old of food selfcsufficiencyeven in the context of an

annual population growth of over 2,2 per. cent
The problems which need attention .now are the need .
for ,mitigating to the extent feasible the wide range of
production and consumption growth rates as. between
diffcrent regions of the country as also the diversion
'siime"art of production for eXport. A Illok on
food consu~ptkJn patterns becomes inescapable .in
examining these..problems.

of

Success on Praduetion Front : India entered'ihe'era

of planned' economic development 'from 1'951. As'a'
result of ,planned,efforts, foodgrains 'production. in
the country has been movingcom;istentlyulPwards except during the, joears'marked 'by.acute .weather aberrations. 1'I1e"process of agriculturel' 'growth gained
further momentum with. the introduction in 1966-67 of
.the new strategy of agricultural devel"pment "based'on
the' higli yielding' a~d f~li=
responsive vaneties of
cereals' andu8e' of .mddern inputs. Between 1967-68
alld 1981-82, the produCtion,of foodgniins increased
at a compound .growth' rate of 2'.47.per' cent annually,
keeping itself ahead of the 'population growth, the
aBnnal 'gr"wth in population. being 2<26per cent
during 1971-81. Thep'rodilction.of foodgrainsreached a record level of 133 million.tonD:es in. 19.9J~82
against 89 million tonnes in' 1964-65, and 51' million
tonnes: .in 1950-51. However, during 1982-83 the
country ,witnessed,a .,series,of :natural calamities.:whicli
have adversely affected the production prospects,'
.

'Better

MalJagement of

.*.

FaadgrailTS EcolTomy:

Alongwith the' success "n

food i"ont,'
capacity . to manage food' .Supplies 'has
(1) William and Paul Paddock. Famine _
by weidenfeld ~Tld Nicolson, London.

1975,

the
also

published

improVed, The progress made by the country In this sphere can bemeasure.:J ihrough' a
co1l!parison of the management of food' .economy
'during the three drought years of 1966, 1979 and
i982. While the 1966 drought threw the economy of
the country completely out of gear. and Thefood prices
rose 'by 30 per cent despite a massive import ,of IU
million tonnes,' in 1979-80;' a similar situation was
-managed with .indigenous ,stocks:,.and,the price rise -was
limited.to 16.7 ,per .cent despite ..a production loss of,
over 22 .million ;tonnes. In 1982natnral :calamities
coming.,close on 'the heels of '1'979 drought, affec~d
OlIt>-IDurth
o 'cropped ,area; 'higherthan'ihat in 1'919,
but 1he J'EO<!uction.Ioss", restricted to 'only 'five .per
cent -However, since ,the :-Governmentstocks were
drawn down sharply after the -t979 draught, . the
GoveFnment had 10 ,resort to imports of cereals .to replellish .its stocks,

L,

ET ,.US NOW CONSIDER the impact of ,growth ,in

.'
food production on the consumption trends, ..Not
all .foodgrains produced by .the farmers . are .vailable
for human consumption, A part <0fit is used .by.the
farmers fo~ seed .purposes, some part is.utilisedfor
livestock feed and yet auother !part..is lost for consumption purposes because of wastage,., jndustri,li
uses, etc. It is estimated that only about 7/8th of
"ioocigrains produced, are used for human consumption" The quantity available for human use is also
affected by the scale of Government operations in ,purdhases/a'stributinn of foodgrains 'and neteJ<poFtslimports.. The estimates, "thus ..derived, provide an
approximation of the apparent consumption level.'

AlTIlexnre:l gives the production of foodgraius, intermediate uses, year-end s'tocks of cereals with
Centre/State Governments, net exportS/imports and
,per <capita:availability ill foodgraiiIs during 1961 to

22
KURUKSHETRA De'cemher, 1983

1981. It will he apparent that despite good harvests,

and a relatively comfortable price situation, the apparent level of per capita consumption over the last
two decades has not shown any signific~nt trend.
The, following table reflects the decerinial shifts in
consumption pattern.
TABLE-I,
,Per capita 1evet of apparent coasumptioaof

foodgraias

Totaf"
.

1951-53-

397'

-1961-63

458'

'1971-73

452"

, ,1977,79

_u

%age change in1977-79 aver 1951,53,

458_

(+lI5.4

, -1980'

, .. 411

1981'

454

1982

Ovef the thirty years ending 1979, there has been

some improvement in lbe per capita consumption
levels although a 15 per cent growth over a period of
three decades cannot by any standard be, conSidered
significant, particularly when there, ,was, a . set-back
after the drought of 1979,.

S'-

ECONDLY, BE9AUSE OF, A high proportion of foodgrains produced being. utilised. for human consUmption, the'recent trends in productiOll-lJfdifferent
grains have bronght 'about a radical change- in components of food conS'Umptionover the three decades
as indicated below :

TABLE-2
(gms.{day)

Year

Rice

Wheat

Coarse

Pulses

1951.53

161

62

113

61

1961-63

197

81

116

64

1971-73

187

116

103

46

1977-79

189

124

101

44

While' the consumption of wheat has more Or less

,doubled over time, ihatof coarse grains and more importantly, of pulses has declined; Thus, despite, small
improvement,in the per capita consumption of cereals,
the intake of vegetable protein from, foodgrains has
,.deelined.
Inter-state differentials, in consumption levels: The
_foodgrains . produced in a state constitute the major

p~t of ,availability 'for consumption. The shortages

in foodgrains production in different states ,are sought
to be made good and surplnses procured, by the
Central Goverument lhrough operation of foodgrain
stocks by the' Central Government. Yet, the fact
that the production gains have not spread e"en1y over
different states, has led to considerable ,divergeIice iIi
.the.level of ,per capita. consumption of foodgrains in
'different states. .A preliminary exercise, taking 'into
acco~nt lbe supplies from Central stocks.,'contribt)ti9n
by' states for" Central Pool and changes ~in closing
stocks., beside~ the actual level of foodgrainsproductiOn in the state, suggests the existence 'of. wide .diffe:rence .in the level' of per capita apparent consumption
pf cereals, in different States; For example; the 'apparent ronsumption of cere~lsin Punjab and Haryana
is almost twice the level of consumption' in some of
the'Stites like Gujanit and Bihar. Obviously, a lo~
level of a"vlii1abilitycoupied with lower purchasing
capacity of' the ,people contributed' towards the : low
level of consumption 6f.foodgrainsin ,some' States. 'An '
important. element .of food policy has, therefore,logically, to' JX, to' intensify the drive for increasing fOod
production and. consumi>tio~ in .:relativeiy backward
areas:' "Reductio~'of' lnt<i:state' disparities i;;' agiicUI"
tural growth'is; in 'fact, one of the basic'objectives of
the Sixth Pia".:"
.

Export pos~ibili.ties

IS YET ANOTHER dimension of the

food.
grains policy. In recent years, the .import hill
of the country has been going' up mainly on. aCcount
of increase ill import of petroleum and petroleum. products' and increased requirements of some of. lbe
essential co=oditi~s like edible' oils, etc. The Sixth
Plan'has estimated that in spite of lbe substantial ex-'
port growth, the trade deficit at the end of the Sixth
Plan would grow fromRs. 2370 crores in 1979-80 to
RS.3972.crores by 1984~85 (at constant prices). Th?
growing bal;mce of -trade deficit and the consequent
pressure on balance of payments is likely to be 0I1e
~f ,the :critical problems iu the corning years. An
aggressive export drive is therefory an important component of the strategy to face this challenge. Sixlb
Five Year Plan, 1980-85 calls for a 9 per,cent growlh
in our exports, in real terms. India's share'. in
world exports of agricultural commodities is, ouly
abOut I per cent. There is thus a considerable scoPe
. ,for expansion of exports of agricultural co=odities
in. the years to come.
HERE

Notwithstanding the fact th'at some imports of'

wheat have recently been made to replenish the. buffer
stocks., Indian agriculture h~ doubtlessly reached a
stage where cereals constitute a potential co=mlity
sector to be tapped in the' export promotion 'drive.
Should India .be in a,position, to offer a sizeable sur-

.KURUJCSHETl~A December, 1983

/

plus of cteal~, there will be no dearth of rONdyiliteriug pulses production need to be' maiRtained _on a
national markets for it. Many people in the world
long term ba;;is.
believe
for global food
snpply in the
~ that the outlook
-.
.
next twenty, years is grim. (') According to some
,
American{e~rts,
USSR, China and countries' of
, Food arid' development ,
.,....
. '.'
,~~
South Asiawill have growing deficits after i985. The,Jntemational Food Policy Research Institute has PreERELY ACIDEVING IDGH LEVEL
of food output
dicted that if pasttrends'in food pro~uction a~d con~.
'does not elJl'ure ifs equiiable distribution. A
sumption, continue, the, developIng,marker economy " large ti~mber of peopleinay not have' enoiIgh "pur.
.-'
~ "
countries
will face -a deficit of -145
. .
. million tonnes in
chasing power to augnlent their' consUmption level of
staple food' crops by 1990. (2) With approximately ,
{oodgrams. ;It is also possibl~, thou~ it looks pant-,
.. twO'third of the projected deficit falling in the low in~
doxica!; , that even in a good ye,ar, wide-spread
come ..I.countries~ eveh the .minimum.
reqUir~
malnutritio!J might exist in certain areas. The soluc
.,.
..
-.' .
,(
ments recommended by the FAO would no.t be met at
tion requires a raising of incomes to enable the po(jr
thig le"e!. According to recent FAO Study, if the past
to consume more and better foods. Thus, the chal<'trend~,
~ontinue, ,90d~veloping ~untries 'which account'
lenge of equitable distribution has to, be fil<:edside by
for. 70 p~r cent' ~f population' of alLdeveloping counside with that of production technology., The prolJ...
',tri~s Will-have
net-deficit 0("72' million' tonnes, iIi
, lems of "1amllesslabour, small and marginal- farrilers"
' 1990.(~{ thi~might'illcr ;e!'! 132 milliontonnes iiI
.. dry and drought pron~ areas, backward communi2.000 An. Even ~nd~~'th; nio~t plau;ible assuniptions
ties as also of rural unemployment and under'employ~f gr~wih, th~'.defi~it wili be . ~1i~ut57,millio~ to~e~
ment hav,e-to
be tackled
simultaneously
.;.,.".
..~
~ with increased
in' 1990 and '64 million tonnes. in 2000 AD. ' The
prodlIcction.,
.
emerging demand-sUpply' situation in the world mar~
, 1 ....
,
kets woUld,
ther~fore,
off~~good
scope
for'
absorption
"'.
-,
. ,.
.. ~
of country surpllJl'es.
, Sillce 1969-70, p~ogrammes for' weaker sectionS
,

'..,.

cmorie

'-'.

t..

.r

. .....

(.

'

.'

.',.'

..

"a

"

;~

High~r priority for increasing 'Joodgrains production: It 'emerges from the foregoing discussion that_
io~' strategy, for' the eightieg, should" while seeking
to provide for the, rising consumption requirements
of the people commensurate with their rising incomes
and' attaining' desirable nutrition' standards ~so aiin ,
at rediJcirig the inter-regional disparities in food consumption and provide' fo; a margin for exports. This
Win call f~r implementation of' a, concerted progi-ainme, adequately backed by, investnients and
technological suppert particularly in,rainfed area, for
improve~ent in foodgrains production. It is gratifYing to' noie that increasing production of pulses is
an impOrtant,item of 20-peiiIt programme of the
&'vemment. , The tempo of programmes for improv-,
(1) 'Bhatia. B.M., Case for. Pushing Farm Expo~s. Times of
India, dated 23'2-1980. ' '
,

-J2;'~J;pit~.:.i~d

N~dsof ~~vel.opin~Co~ntries: grojections

., of Production .and ConsumptloD to ~99Q.Research Report
No. ~.

,(3)"FAO,AKricultur.:
24"

Towards '2000.'

..

'

..
_!.

,.,

and handicapped areas hav~ 'been 'an integral part of

'IQ.dia's developntent p,qgrammes. They have aimed ~
at, f~~ntaI as;';ult on poverty 'instead of depending on
" spread effect of theover~ll dev~lopment process. The
important programmes currently being implemented
are Integrated Rural, Developm~nt ',Prowamme,
National Rural Employment Pr~ghimme, Traiiting of
Rural Youth in Self-Employment,'etc..

Fooo supply and plan out-lays

T~ii .i~po~nce of -~oOfJand~

a~- .
culture sector III the ~ountry s economy, the' m~
vestment in agriculture .has gone up, from Plan ..to
Plan. The public sector outlay "in the, Sixth' 'Plan
(1980-85) is of tlie magnitude <ifRs,12,539 ,crores,
'compared to Rs. 357 crores during llie' FiM Plan
(1951-56): The corresPonding step-up inth~, o~tlay',
for irrigation and flood control, ' is from Rs. 401
croies fo' Rs: 12,160 croreS. 'However,' the share of
outlay
agricultuie-"and llri~tion sectorS to'ioii,j
N' KEEPIN? ~T~

~n'

Plan outlay was the highest in the First Plan : being

of the order of 32 per cent. In the subsequent Plan,s, it

has ranged between 22 and 25 per cent only .. The.

relevant ngures are given below:

Pro~ess of Public S~ctorOutlays o~ Agriculture and Allied sectors und~ Five ~ ~ar Plans
..

Percentage of Plan Ou~lay

Percentage

.1.

increase in

outlay over previous

Plan

Plan Perio.d ..

Irriga:tion &:
Flood
Control
(includ-

Agriculture '"
Allied'

Sectors

. Total
Azricu/.
lure"&:
irriza-

Agrlcullure &.
irrizalion

'For 01/
Sectors

lion

ing .
minor
irriga-

tion)
2

15.2

First Plan.
(1951-56)
Second Ptan
(1956-61)

Third Plan

.17 .0

11.8

/0.1

103 .7

11.9

11'0

56'2

/0.8

11-1

14.6

/0.3

112-0

/0.7

11.3

147'3

12.8

12'5

. 148.0

. .(1961-66) .
Annual Plans
.. (1966'68) ...
Fourth Plan
(1969-74)
Fifth Plan
(197+79)
Sxith Plan
(1980-85)

.'

~..,=~'------

The' Si~th Plan provides for a welcome shift'in favour

of 'agriculture, both in respect of its share in toml plan
outlay as well as in increase over the previous Plan
outlays.

.E

FiVE YEAR PLAN

indicates the estimated
production of foodgrains likely to. be realised at
the end of the Plan from the stipulated investments.
The normal assumption is that this' would suffice. to
meet the consumption requirements of the. growing
.population after' allowing for the combined effect of
rise' in per capita incomes and. any possible shift in
the pattern of.income.distribution. The stress bas been
on attaining self-sufficiency in foodgrains. However,
for the first time, the Sixth Five Year' Plan aim$ at .
achieving a production level higher than the dom~stic
~equirements.
VERY

Even though Indran agriculture has witnessed .a

technological breakthrough particularly in. the' case. 01
whea,!, the technologically realisable yield potential
levels are much higher than those actually obtained
so far. . Besides technological promises liidn many
other directions, 'e.g. multipie cropping 'and illter-cropping' systems for different regions, biologiC'a! fixation
of semi,arid areas etc. In the context of .this growth
potential side by side with an emerging situation of .
KURUKSHETRA
'.'..
'''".
. .December, 1983,

~..

.<' ~'""-4'r.Aw_

demand, both in the internal and internationaL ill;lrke!5~

The objective of 'agricultural !levelopment should shift.
from the goal qf self-sufficie)lcy to that of ensuring
minimum level of food consumption based on nutrition norms even in the 'years of lean production in the
agriculture production cycle. Additionally production
of crops of varieties in demand in export. markets
needs to be carefully planned' and developed. so that
we can wrest our due share in ihternational foodgrains trade. It is. important that a medium term :.
target for export is set so that suitable. development'al' .
measures
are devised towards achieving
sucb a goal: .
.
~
-'

To sum up, th~ objective of attainingself-sufliciency

in food production by intensive de~elopment of areas
with potential for immediate increase :in production
is no longer relevant in today's context. 'The objective
needs to be. re-define~ as' one '.of . reduction 'ininterregional disparities through a three-pronged strategy
for:
'.;

1
Implementation of an ambitious programme, adequately backed. by investments and technological
support, for improvement of foodgrains production
particularly in areas where growth thus far have
been relalively slower;
25

."

"

Theinfiasitucture'

Improving the consumption level through lrt~tdsing the, purchasing power of the rural and urban
poor by implementation of special welfare and
income generating programmes; and

a 8tra"

necessary 'to suPport such.

tegy has been built up and the Sixth Plan also piO:
.

r...

"

'vides for improving food consumptionpattems;'

parti-

cularly of the poor sections of society in order to

secure an overali increase hi per capita consumption

)~rOduci.ion eafma~ked for export to attain a me.dium term' target which needs to be' fixed.

of fdodgrains, by 11 per cent by 1985,

ANNEXURE
Key Indicators of Food Situation

Year

~Totdl.

. Intermediaje
uses

production
o//ood(mil/ion
to,:nes)

~~.
-. ~

~.
-.

1961
1962
~,.

t~.(.,-~

..

1963L
1964

~."

'

Notes:

.2-6 . ' '

,'0-",

487

10-0

2.3
2.6 .

461
444

10'1
11"2

1'0
2 .1

452
480

2,'2
'2:0

408
401

4.0

460
455
467

9.2
,11,9

94.0

11 :7

99,'5

12.4

100,0

4.5
5,6
8.1

108 ,4 '

13 .5

97,2

13.2
12.1

1974

97.0
104,7

'i01'4
'102'6
108.5

" 1975

99.8

,.

1976,

.
0'"

1979
.1980
, 1981

.-

J
.

.- ;

, 1982

13'1'
12.5

445

466

3.1

472

,2:7
' 8.3

406

87:2

19.0

452

451

90.2

.17.J

432

126 '4'

13.9
15.g

93.7

17:2

468

'131 :9
109.7

16.5
13,7'

80-7
83,.6

17.5

474

11.7

411

129.6

16.2

11.5

454

133'1

16'7

84.9
85,6

12.7

.454

1. The index nunibers of wholesale pric~ 'offoodgrnins &ave :been d~ted

all commodities, to derive the relative index numbers .
.2. Production offoodgrains

3 :4

.106.4

,i5.j

121 .0
111.2

1977
,1978

,,

,105.2

,.

1973 J

.. Per capita
availabi/l1yo/
, foodgrains~;.
(gmjday)

,,1971
: 1972 " '

Year~nd
stf?cks M;ith
CentrejState
(Jovts.
(million
(ann?)

9.0

74:2
95.1 '

'.

,1969
)

10<3
10,3,

72,3
'

,;

82,3'

8~'~

': __':"-,~-:"1967 '.

,
"
'1968,
1970 >

80"3 '
80.7

1965"

82'4

- .~--._- ,.~~
,

gr~i~~

. ---.

Relative
index nO.
a/wholesale
prices

in 1960-61 has'been shown'against'.1961,

and

bY'the

index num~s

of

wholesale prices of

SOOD.

"

kuRtJKSHETRA ~mber,'-l983 .'

I,

Good sanitation is not that costly after all !

LOUIS MENEZES
Joint SecrettJry.

Union Ministry of Works. and HOllsing

settlements of our cities there is

no phenomenon more pervasive and over-powering
as the. stench of undisposed human waste and uncollected garbage. The sight of men, women and children
squatting on their haunches on every available square
inch of O\Penspace is, alas, only too familiar. .We
close our eyes and we hold our noses. This is .true
even of our premier cities. Roughly 30 per cent to
, 35 per cent of the people of Delhi, Bombay, Madras
and Cal,?utta use public spaces, road margins,. water
courses, ponds and railway,lines for their daily ablutions.
N THE

SQUATTER

There is an ,allied phenomenon which in many ways

is equally disturbing. Close to 40 per cent of house'holds in urban India have dry latrines. Over half a
million people earn their livelihood cleaning' these
latrines manually and carrying the night-soil to distant places for disposal. No doubt, there are certain
problems which are part of the general problem of
poverty and social justice. No administration can
pretend that it can bouse, feed and transport all its
citizens ideally. The problem is particularly acute
during a period of transition from a rural economy to
increasing urbanisation, from the predominance
of
agriculture to expanding modern industry, from the
simplicity of informal organisation and traditional living to the complexity of formal structures. Public
.policy is, therefore, in favour of basic service~ for
hrge n~mbers at least ';"st. This is the underlying
principle in Government programmes of slum improvement, sites and services, small 'town development, rural water. supply and so on.
Unfortunately, even basic services are extremely
expensive these days, particularly in urban areas. The

curretjt costs of sewerage are a phenomenal Rs. 600

to Rs. 700 per capita. Our Corporations and Muni"
cipalities are today faced with some formidable problems. The most challenging is that of an indeterminate population to be serviced. Local bodies find it
extremely difficnlt to raise the large sums of money
required for waler supply and sewerage schemes.
This is partly due to tlJ.ecommitment of avaihble resources to higher primity sectors: It is also due . to
the decreasing ability of these bodies to service their
loans. For example, the Second Bombay Water Supply
and Sewerage Project assisted by' the World Bank was
estimated -to coSt Rs. 354 crores in 1979. The revised
cost of the project is Rs. 640 crores. Such massive
investments are just beyond the capacity of .most
municipal bodies in the country. A large number of
. local bodies' are not able to cover even their maintenance costs.
Comprehensive water supply and sewerage is noW
beyond the means of' most local authorities in the
developing world unless there is a sizable injection
of cheap capital and a certain amount of subsidy. But
there are o!her seriousproblerns.
Maintenance of
these systems requires a high .level of expertise and
managerial competence. While we have some of the
best managers and technicians in any given field, it
would be too much to claim that our public utilities
and services are second to none, particularly, in the
poorer' areas of our cities, clogged sewers and blocked
.. drains are a perennial problem. This. is due to misuse,
social habits, 'civic indifference imd. bad maintenance.
But there are also technical problems. For example,
sewers get blocked when the flow of water is insufficient. Most of our water supply systems have an
.27

KURUKSHETRA December, 1983

interntilt@nt supply only. In a number of towns,

households do not connect up with the sewer system
both for reasons of economy as well as social habits.
This is not only a loss to the municipality; it also
affects the functioning of the system. Treatment of
sewage is also a very expensive and sophisticated

extensively misused. Sulabh International of Patna

have constructed and maintained "Pay and Use"
public baths and toilets in a number of towns. This
public service is an excellent examplc of simple
technology,

financial viability

and 50und manage-

ment.

process.- -'Treatment of, sewage in' most' of Our cities is

far from satisfactory. Consequently, the large potential of sewage for gas and fertilizer is often lost,
although there are excellent examples of feasibility at
a few places.
CCORDING
1981 Census, India had 3,245
. A urban agglomerations with a population of 156
TO THE

million people. Only 217 urban agglomerations havc

water-borne sewerage. The households serviced by
.these sewerage systems are stated to be 15% of the
::total number of households in these cities.'
Only
20% of the total urban population in this country
nas access to safe"sanltation: The gilld of the Intei':
national Water Supply and Sanitation Decade in
India is 10 achieve 80% .eoverage of the urban populati(lIiwith saf" 'sanitation' oy 1991: Ho,V can this
be achieved?
I:'o~ some ',time. pa~f a simple low' cost soIuti~n to
sanitatioR has been propagated,
mainly by voluntary agenei~s like Harijan Sewak Sangh, Ahmeda-.
b~d, and Sulabh International, Patna. It consists of
a water-sealed pan with a twin leach pit. It is easy
10 instal. It needs little water to flush. It is odourless and safe. Its greatest merit is that it needs little
Or ~o maintenance and is affordable by low income
famiiies. The pit does not have to be opened for
three years. When it is full, the connecting pipe' is
shifted to the adjacent pit. After a few months the
first pit yields entirely safe and good quality manure.
This .arrangement is popularly known as. a .'pour flush
latrine'. Its current cost is approximately Rs. 800.
H can be instaIIed in all kinds of conditions and in
Iinrited space. This simple system has been propa'
gated quite successfully by voluntary agencies in a
number of States, particularly, Bihar and Gujarat.
It has benefited over 3,00,000 households so far. A
number of State Governments are supporting the
programme. There is a pattern of loan and grant
assistance adopted by' various municipal bodies.
Actual construction. of the latrines is either done by
the individual or a licensed contractor. At some
piaces the Muulcipality or Sanitation Board does the
construction. . Considerable work has also been don"
in this field by Public Health Institutes in Madras
and Calcutta and 'the NEERI in' Nagpur. Pour flush'
latrines have als~ 'been successfuily . tried in public
'toilets. In the cOnventional system, public toilets
are .the ,""orst sufferers in the' matter of clogged
sewers ."and'inadeqii;ltewater supply. .They are also

Since 1979, the UNDP have taken up a project for

preparing feasibility reports for ,low

cost sanitation

in 110 towns in 7 states. They havc recently extend,ed the proje~l. to cover another 100 towns. The
UNDP project is basically feasibility study al]d documentation . needed for '.institutional

financing: ~Their

project for 15 towns in Gujarat has recently been

included in the World Bank assisted Water Supply and
Sanitaliow Project for 'that Slate. The Govcrnment
of India have been lending full support to the low
cost sanitation programme that is picking up rapidly
in the various States. Several important confere~ces

,.have been held on the subject.. A number. of international agencies are also participating in the effort.
Th",se include the UNICEF and the WHO, besides
World Bank and UNDP. The Housing and Urban
Development Corporation, a Government of India
Undertaking, has recently taken a decision to finance
low ,cost sanitation schemes at Jow interest rates and

has receiv~d a number of applIcations from State

Governments and municipalities. ,The Ministry of
Work~ 'a'nd. Housing ,has 'also proposcd financing of
kJW~cost-sanitation schemes in -rhe small towns pro:'
ject under which 230 towns are being supportcd for
integrated urban development. The Home Ministry ,
is' also implementing a projoct for making 18 towns
in 9 States "scavenger free" at a cost of Rs. 500
la"khs. This involves conversion of dry latrines into
pour flush latrines and the rehabilitation of scavengers.

It is estimated that there are over half a million

scavengers in the country employed in the removal
of night-soil from. dry. latrines. Wherever sewerage
or low .cost sanitation is introduced these scavengers
are being \lb~orbed in other municipal services. Some
States iike Gujarat, Bihar, Kerala and Maharashtra
have announced time-bound programme to abolish
manual scavenging. There, is' no doubt that within
a decade .or two, with economic development, edu~
cation and increased urbanisation this practice will
decrease sharply. But like many other evils. in our
society, the problem has to be. understood in its
social- as wel~ as. economic,. connotations.,
Hence it
.is. all the more .necessary that it.should be aHacked
On, vaiious fronts. A massive programme qf sanitation, .particularly. pour flush latrines,. would eliminate the need for. manual. scavenging .and would
create the need and urgency to find alternate employment for a whole cIa'S of people who have been
:(Contd.' on' p;33)

28

'KORUKSHETRA

December, 1983

They show, the-way

;'''':'.,':

.- ,-

....

"

\..

".

~ ".'.

.". ".,.
J;his .J~alure
'spheres of rural
duals.
There. is
put in hard work

(s based. o'n success stories viz. ~chievements gained' in varioM3

development
by farmers, institutions, experimenters and i,!diyihardly an argument over the fact that dedication and' 'zeal to
can _f:lchin'e (Juything. And . .ol1eaclt.ieyement.J,~spires;al1,1 sh0w.s

the way 19 others!

readers

We hope our ~stee';'ed

will send us tlieir own' experienc.es in the'
field so that .athers . can benefit by them to .usher ill a better
life for our rural
pea pie.

(EDITOR)

69 PEOPLESELLING 20,000 eggs a day,

. birds are big business in Bedi Fillia, a hamlet
of 300 tribal families. But earlier, bootlegging was
their big biz. All the 300 families of the small hamlet belong to the weaker sections of society and
moonshining was 'only thing they knew and. did, to
earn their livdihood. Mistrust and misery composed
the spirit of the village. The little village was a
standing witness to the frolic of desolation.. It seem.ed that they were all beyond hope, all beyond redemption.
Three years ago, Lallubhai, a vendor of illicit
liquor was returning from his bootlegging rounds. It
was a bad day and his sales were low. He consumed most of what was left and fell into. a gulrer, un-.
conscious. Shri Manchubhai: Chowdhari, a social
worker, happened to pass by; But for him, Lallubhai
would have been drowned by Bacchus i!, the gutter.
iTH

..

,
~.:)

Lending a helping hand

'"J

-'.'

Manchubhai was horrified. He .wanted to-. do

something for the:.moonshine village. The Bank 'o[
Baroda, the lead bank of G.ujarat, agreed to :liClp
him., Cl>"wclhari Saheb managed to organi~e.. the
people i"to a Milk Producers' Cooperative Society..
It bcgan with' 62 members. .Each member. got .. 2
she-buffaloes with calves... The bank advanced the
costs. The nearby Sumul .Dairy. arranged to collect
the milk. [rom the village. As regular incomes reduced the uncertainities of life, 'more .. and more
members 'joined the Society.
.Within two -.years' its
ranks swelled to 189..
ED! FALlAHAD 12 "Aud" families livil'g in it.
They are .. considered to. be. .the poorest
o[ the poor in India.
The bank gave.. them.
loans to purchase donkeys to be used as. pacK-

animals'~to' carry bricks and-cement

.to

cp~structio~

sites.. Son':e 46 landless villages .were .given finance

to buy nylon fishing nets to catch fish in ;the nearby
rivulets and water hodies. Another 13 people ,,{ere'
helped to. open small .shops.
).
....
Success' awaited. Bedi F~lians beyond .their wihlest
dreams in the development cif .poiJltry.:Tg!lay wiih
the bank's help 60 people own ,34,500 birds, . .J.roducing 20,000 eggs a day. The banIs advanced. Rs.
2.8 lakhs' for. this purp.o"'.
The so-called Weakecsections may be weak. finan~
cially but their honesty is unassailable.' Of all tlie
229 persons who received loans from the bank, not.
a sirigl~ 'one' 'defai.dted on repayment. Being fully
satisfied with the performance of the villagers, the
bank is willing to shell out more money for their
upliftmeiit.

Th~peopie

Th'e ~iracle- of 'Dedi: F~lia :

o'r"th~'village .
have. taken.to poultry in a big way -20,000 eggs a day.

KURUKSHETRA December, 1983

Under the 2O-Point Programme,. a gobar' ~as plant,.

housing for the village, drinking waler.
primary

29

sChool and a health centre are slowly coming up

Bedi Falia is different now. As sun began to shine
on its once miserable life, moonshine beat a hasty
retreat. Nobody drinks in Bedi Falia today.

integrating them into

Cochin.

OCHINPORT IS ONE of the oldest in the

world. The Dhabi Community of Cochin is
equally old. The sailors who came from the east and
the west met in Cochin.
As Cochin was a busy port, washerfolk's services
were in very great demand. They used to ply their
tra<Ie in a settlement on the Veli grounds in fort
Cochin. They washed clothes in little ponds that
abound in the area. They dried the clothes in the
open, on the s<,nd and ironed them with traditional,
charcoal burning irons. They removed dirt and
stains from other people's clothes, but their own
lives could not have been more dirty or in greater
squalor.

life

in

Achievements of NREP
in Goa

An ideal dhobi ghat

C.

th~ mainstream .of

OA HASTAKENUP 46 projects u)1der the Nalional

Rural Employment Programme JNREP) between
April and July this year, thereby ge@rating 2.41 lakh
mandays of employment for the rural poor.

. This achievement is against a target of generating

3.2 lakb mandays aj a cost of Rs. 3!l.1llak1\s. During
1982-83, the number of projects undertaken was 55,
at a cost of Rs. 21.1 lakbs, generating 1.56 lakh
manda}'S.

Even after Independence, their conditions did not

change . much.
But when the Greater Cochin
Development
Authority
(GCDA)
came
into
being, Cochin began to ch,ange. Along with it, the
dhobis also changed.
As a first step, the GeDA reclaimed the ponds
and acquired a three acre plot. Five buildings were
constructed in this area to provide all modem working facilities to the dhobis. Arid then the entire organisation was ha!Jded over to The Vannar Sangham,
a registered, society of the Cochiti dhobis.
HE MAIN BUILDINGhouses 40 sheltered washrooms where 40 dhobis can Wil.Shclothes at a.
time.' Each' room has a wash stone, a 500 litre water
tank and a water pipe. Underground water pumped
from a well to an overhead tank is made available
for washing. Boilers have been provided to steam
unwashed cloth, and a 'Hydro' machine squeezes out
water from wasted clothes. A number of clothes
lines kept outside the .buildings dry up the clothes in
open air. Dried clothes are. pressed in a large hall
where dhobis use traditional irons and electric irons.
There are 32 lockable rooms in another building to
store clothes. Ducts carry dirty water to the sewage
system. One,hundred and odd dhabi families' make
use of these facilities.
.

Embankme.nt construction work under NREP in

progress at Perne. Goa.

The programme introduced in the Union Territory

On 2 October, 1982 is now schedwed to cover' the
. whole of Goa.
Hankbaile-Ibrampur Road, eight irrigation wens,
some wells for Harijan bastis and rebuilding of flooddamaged houses in Vagurme and Valvoi were achieved
under NREP.
Construction of embankmentl;; protection to paddy
fields, desilting of irrigation tanks and nullas, roadbuilding, construction and renovation of drinking
water and irrigation wells, afforesla!ion etc. are the
activities taken up in the Territory IlI1der NREP.

Good shepherds of Telanginhatti

~D SHEPHERDSof village. Telanginbatti of

dlStnct Belgaum, Kamataka !lever bad it. so
good. Bul there was nothing good about the quality
of Iheir life a few years ago. Som_eof them were
bonded labourers, some were marginal farmers who
had nothing to do most of the year, some were landless workers, some belonged to the Scheduled Castes
and Scheduled Tribes. But one category encompassed
HE

A dhabi gets Rs. 15 to Rs. 20 a day. Ladies and

grown' up children of dhobi fanrilies also come to the
centre for work and eam. A family of five gets Rs. 60
daily on an j!veragi:.
Most of.these dhobis are mil(fllnts from the southern
districts of Tamil Nadu.. GCDA has succeeded in
3Q

KURUKSHETRA

December, 1983

them all. They were all poor, extremely poor. n

was the Special LivestOCk'Production' PrograriJJne initiate<!in 1975-76 that lifted them b.eyond~barriers of
.abysmal poverty.
.
Pujari was one among t.b.em.. Luckily - for lhe
villagers, he had leaderohip qualities' in. him. . Wheu
various rural development pianS'were initiated iJi 1976,
the dormant leader in him surfaced. ,As' there were'
many sheep owners. in the vmage, Pujari wanteQ 10
. organIse a sheep deveiopment society. . He' .'canvassed
suppo;t among his reluctant neigbhnurs and at last
succeeded in registering a'society. '.
.
,"j

'

But forming the society was ju~t the first hurdle.

The Poor people's aspirations crasl!,ed when the big
Co=ercial
Banks refused to come to' their aid.
. Without finances, their schemes seemea dOom~.'
By that time, the "Malaprabha Grameena Bank", a
:.regional. Rural Bank' operating :in' Belgaum and. Dhar-.
. wad districts opened a branch in' Hubli, neat. the
village. Its affer 'af sheep 'loans to.theSoCiety came
as a. manna to lhe aspiring'shepherds:'"
N THE' VERY FIRST ye.ar'itseJC30 men;~rs
were
fina'!lced.to the .tune .of 'Rs. 90.,0.0.0. by the..bank.
E~ch one got a ram and twenty sheep. Finding the
area ideal far sheep reariIig; the ballk Wa~willing to
go~ll out 10' hdp the villagets. 'In't!ie)ecand';m:d
third year .ji6 more members' receivea.:sheep laans.
Between 1978 and 1981 tlie liank gave 20.4 sheep
. lo)!ns worth Rs, 7,0.0.,0.0.0. 'to the 'menibers . of the
Society in Telanginhatti and six adjoining villages.

. :rhe villagers of Te1anginhatti. have. became. .very

;"gooo shepherds indeed. May their flocks'increase.
'I

". -

A. changing village

. T'

HE FaRWARDLOOKING
farmers. af. Bahadurpur
'. . village, in district A1war, Rajasthan, have let
<.modernisation enter theft .houses, ~.Qmliving room to
kitchen, like' a family frieud.
.
.

,',

-'".

",..

Jahar Khan, aged 33, owOs abant 80. bigbas af

agricultural land and a number of caws and buffaloes.
. 'He used to 'spend every year mare than Rs. 4,0.0.0. an
purchase o{fertiJizers. It was strain on his budget.
. The Gram Sevak advised him about installation of a
. GaDar Gas'Plantwith the help af .a,bank.

.'

'. Punjab, Natianal Bank is the lead. bank in the area

and it has. adopted Bahadurpnr. fpr . developmental
fuiancing. Johar Khan did not find it difficult to get
a hank loan of Rs. 4,175 and a sub~idyaf Rs. 1,0.00.
from' the state Governnient fo~ instal:lallan of a Gobar
. Gas Plant, -- . ',',..
,'L'

This' planihas proved to. be a panacea fo~ all the

'aihnents of Johar Khan's farm ecanamy. The manure
out. af the plant has 'more nutrient value for his fields.
]'hus farm yield has. trebled and the sanitary condi.tioru>of his h\JUsehave improved. He has gat rid af
'niosquita menace and gone. are the' days af drudgery
'for ihe'~womenfolk af the house, They make dung
cakes no. mare. Thanks. to the plaut,' their
kitChen.!las a ga~ burner "OW and the whole house
is well lit.

Among them were 60. benefiCiaries, who..; were

bonded labourers. People belonging to Scheduled
Cas'te; a;;d Tribes also benefitted: Gasti, once' a
bonded labourer tended his sheep so well that within
{me ,Yearhis flock swelled to 3D. Throu,gh the Intensive Rural Development Progra=e, lower 'rates of
interegb",,~me possible for .the sheep loans.
Membership of. the Society'is swelling, They are
getting. more and more benefits under the Sheep
Development p'rogramme'ofthe .Go.verument. Wool
is processed and blankets are 'woven under the supervision of the Society.. A Small Scq)e Industrial unit
operate~ for it.
The Society now has its own office building.
It
has a paid secretary. It has purchaSed a 20.0.' X
lSD' site to canstructan Industrial Shed to. oet up It
Handloom Centre to. weave Wool Carpets.
Six wamen and 12: men have 'undergone training
under ''T~aining af Rural YOuthi'ar Self Emplayment"
scheme (TRYSEM) in Wool Carpet Weaving. Four
1aams have been already setup
with subsidy and
assistance
under
various
scheriJ.es~.
.
,
-._"
.'

He along with two others af the village were

awarded a certificate, silver meclal and cash incentive
of Rs. 50.' for being the first ones in'village to. instal
. the gab,;t gas plant by the Block D"Ye1ppment.Officer
af Kishangarh,Ba~ Panchayat Samiti. Ram Lal with
only 32 'bighaS of land, 2 buffaloes and a caw finds
the planCiulfilling his requirements <ifgas supply and
lighting;'/.
There are now 39 gabar gas plants in the village
and they are giving fault-free service, In Rajasthan,
Bahadurj,ur has taken the credit of, installing maximum number of gas plants. The contributian of 'this
village is noteworthy as due to' installatian af biagas
plants, felling af trees for fuel have al,o been reduced
cansiderably.

.A model Girijan colony

ALAPPURAM A
baCkward area in Kerala,
MWith
the formation of a separa~ dislrict for the'
IS

VERY

averall develapment af this hilly. tract a co-Operative

saciety was formed for the tribals emancipated from
bond'ed l~b'ciur. n is now a madel colony with colle.:-

KURUKSHETRA December, 1983

,",

'

?:

.'~

,31
;,U

.J;:'

~~

._-_.

"'-l

---------

, 1:1:
3'1.

----------~--

KURUKSHETRA December,

1983

R ural electrification

Prospects
For large scale energisatioT1
financed

by the Rural

Agriculture

Refinance

of pumpsets,

Electrification

a special progrwnme:
Corporation,

lIIlil Development

initiated. The t!tree states-Kerola,

Corporation

The

Sixth

villages and energisation

banks

and

has

been

(A RDC)

Haryana and Punjab and .the Union

Territories of Chandigarh, Delhi and Pondicherry

electrification.

which is jointly

commercial

Plan emisages

have aelIiel'ed

electrification

of 25 lakh pumpsets. in lite country.

cent percent

of aM titer one lakll

Subject

to aI'ail-

ability of fliJ1.ds and necessary equipment, it is proposed to prol'ide all the .villages
tlte henefits of electrification

h); 1990 .

. Biggest emphasis in matter of rural e-1eetrification is on <:.ugmenting the' irrigation facilities.

[Licensed under U(DN)-54 to post without prepayment

at Civil Lines Post Office, pelhi] ,
jL.- i . I, l l
'1

.\

'

Regd.

,,"0. U(D:\)/39
RN 7(1)/57

"

Proper Irrigation-More

Production

r-~ .
.

Power operated Pump-set in the rural

PUBLISHED

BY THB

AND PRINTED
BUSINESS

DIRECTOR.

BY THB

MANAGER:

PUBLICATIONS

MANAGER,
L. R.

GOVERNMENT

BATRA

DIVISION.

NBW

OF [NDlA

ASSTT. DIRECTOR

DEuu-llOOOl.

PRESS.

FAlUDABAD.

(p) : K. R. KRISHNAN