9 Shadowing

S.R.
Saunders, 1999, 1
Source of shadowing
Shadowing statistics
Impact of shadowing on cell size and
system availability
At cell edge
Over cell area
Measured shadowing variability

Shadowing correlations
Serial (auto) correlation
Site-to-site (cross) correlation
S.R. Saunders, 1999, 2
Path 1
Path 2
Base
station
1
3
Path 3
Mobile
Location
Geometry of
individual path
profiles varies at
fixed distance
Path loss models
predict the
median level,
exceeded at
50% of locations
Signal level relative to median [dB]
25
20
15
10
5
0
-5
-10
-15
-20
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
Distance [m]
30
0
20
10
Shadowing Level [dB]

0
10
20
30
40
0.005
0.01
ytisneD ytilibaborP
0.015
0.02
0.025
0.03
0.035
Normal Distribution
Measured
0.04
Power in dB is
approximately
normally distributed
Hence power in
watts is lognormal
Typical standard
deviation (location
variability) of 5-12
dB
Assume contributions to the path loss are

multiplicative and independent:
A = A1 A2
In decibels:
L = L1 + L2 +
AN
+ LN
If N is large, central limit theorem gives L

normal, so A is lognormal
L = L50 + Ls
Total
path loss
Median
path loss
(from
models)
Median
path loss
(from
models)
Probability density function (zero mean

normal):
2
p (LS ) =
LS
exp
2
2
2 L
is location variability
-60
Total Path Loss [-dB]
-70
Reduced
radius for
availability
above 50%
Median
Path Loss
-80
-90
-100
-110
Maximum
Acceptable
Path Loss
Fade
Margin, z dB
-120
-130
-140
1000
Maximum Cell
Range
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
9000
Distance from Base Station [m]
10000
Probability shadowing exceeds fade margin

z [dB]:
Pr[LS > z ] =
x= z
z
x
1
exp dx = Q
2
L
2
where Q(.) is complementary cumulative

normal distribution:
Q(t ) =
t
1
x
1
exp dx = erfc
2
2 x =t
2
2
Percentage of Locations Adequately Covered [%]
100
L=6dB
90
8dB
80
70
10dB
60
50
40
30
0
100 0
200 0
300 0
400 0
500 0
600 0
700 0
800 0
Distance from Base Station [m]

Availability decreases with distance

Compute at all distances and average
rmax
r
r
pe = 0.95
0.9
0.85
0.8
0.75
0.7
0.65
0.6
0.55
Cell edge availability: pe = 0.5

10 dB
Fade Margin: 1 dB
100
2
200
300 400 500
700
Frequency [MHz]
1000
2000
3000
5000 7000 10000
20000
Suburban Empirical Model

Urban Empirical Model
Ibrahim 9km
Ibrahim 2km
Black
Ott
Reudink
Okumura Urban
Okumura Suburban Rolling Hills
Egli
noitaived dradnatS
10
11
12
Suburban
Urban
Base 1
S11
Mobile 1
rm
S12
Serial (auto) correlation:
E [S11S12 ]
s (rm ) =
1 2
Base 2
S21
Mobile 2
S22
Site-to-site (cross) correlation:
E[S11 S 21 ]
c =
1 2
Rate of power variation

Affects power control
Handover (handoff) measurements
Automatic gain control in receivers
Shadowing Autocorrelation
1/e
sS(r(d)
m)
0.8
0.6
First order negative exponential

Correlation distance 10s-100s metres
Corresponds to obstruction sizes
Shadowing Correlation
Distance, rc
0.4
0.2
Distance Moved by Mobile between Shadowing Samples, rm[m]

L 1 a
S (dB)
Independent
Gaussian
Samples
speed
a=e
10x/20
Linear
Voltage
sampling
interval
vT rc
correlation distance
15
10
20
30
40
Time [seconds]
50
60
70
80
90
100
10
]Bd[ rewoP evitaleR
10
15
20
25
Speed 50 km h-1
Correlation distance 100m
Location variability 8 dB
Probability of inadequate C/I
10
10 -1
10 -2
12c
12c
10 -3
10
-4
10 -5
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
Difference between threshold and mean C/I
Sectorisation gain
Soft handoff, site diversity, simulcast
performance
Handover algorithm performance
Frequency planning
Adaptive antenna performance
r1
Mobile
Base 1
r2
t
Base 2
Correlation arises from overlap of independent

shadowing elements
r1
r2
c =
T r1
r2
for 0 < T
for T
T =
dc
r1
0.8
Shadowing Correlation, 12
0.7
Measurements
Model
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
Angle-of-arrival Difference, [degrees]
180
C/I threshold = 9dB
Shadowing makes coverage prediction

statistical (predict availability rather than
signal level)
Affects both coverage and capacity
Can be predicted using simple statistics
without specific knowledge of variability of
path profiles
Overall impact dependent on correlations

9 Shadowing

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S.R.

Measured shadowing variability

Signal level relative to median [dB]

Shadowing Level [dB]

S.R. Saunders, 1999, 5

Assume contributions to the path loss are

If N is large, central limit theorem gives L

Probability density function (zero mean

Total Path Loss [-dB]

Distance from Base Station [m]

Probability shadowing exceeds fade margin

where Q(.) is complementary cumulative

S.R. Saunders, 1999, 9

S.R. Saunders, 1999, 10

Percentage of Locations Adequately Covered [%]

Distance from Base Station [m]

Availability decreases with distance

S.R. Saunders, 1999, 12

Cell edge availability: pe = 0.5

S.R. Saunders, 1999, 14

300 400 500

5000 7000 10000

Suburban Empirical Model

S.R. Saunders, 1999, 15

S.R. Saunders, 1999, 16

Rate of power variation

S.R. Saunders, 1999, 17

First order negative exponential

Distance Moved by Mobile between Shadowing Samples, rm[m]

]Bd[ rewoP evitaleR

Probability of inadequate C/I

S.R. Saunders, 1999, 21

S.R. Saunders, 1999, 22

Correlation arises from overlap of independent

Angle-of-arrival Difference, [degrees]

S.R. Saunders, 1999, 25

S.R. Saunders, 1999, 26

C/I threshold = 9dB

S.R. Saunders, 1999, 27

Shadowing makes coverage prediction

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