Adeline Chang

Immigration as Europes Core Challenge:

A Look at Central Debates and Horizontal and Vertical Implications

Immigration as Europes Core Challenge:

A Look at Central Debates and Horizontal and
Vertical Implications

by Adeline Chang

Adeline Chang

Immigration as Europes Core Challenge:

A Look at Central Debates and Horizontal and Vertical Implications
Immigration as Europes Core Challenge:
A Look at Central Debates and Horizontal and Vertical Implications

Immigration in all its forms family reunification, economic migration, study-based, humanitarianbased, and others constitutes the central challenge for European countries in the 21st century. Not
only is it a significant issue Europe-wide, it is also far more complex to manage than other issues such
as health and education. Because immigration involves at its base a change in demographics, its
ripple effects extend to every arena of society education, work, religion, and others. Beyond that,
immigrations trans-boundary nature ensures that policy has to extend beyond the domestic arena,
and that a single countrys immigration policy has impact far beyond its own shores.
This essay first introduces the different types of migrant composition in European countries as well as
the current significant migration patterns. It then proceeds to outline current debates surrounding
security, integration and economic cost and benefit and discusses the ways in which Europes
immigration policys necessary considerations stretch horizontally across political, social and
economic dimensions and vertically across individual, national, inter-European and international
dimensions. It thus seeks to demonstrate the simultaneous necessity and yet contested nature and
complexity of immigration that make it the core challenge for European countries today.
Introduction
Whilst migration itself has roots that go much further back, the immigration that characterizes
Europe today is a relatively recent phenomenon that began with the Western European states.
There, the immigration boom began in the 50s and 60s, when large numbers of immigrants were
recruited for economic purposes (van Munster, 2008). Tensions and demographic effects could be
felt even then surveys in the 60s revealed that four out of five Britons thought there were too
many immigrants in the country (The National Archives, n.d.); by the 1990s in France, over a fifth of
French residents had non-French ancestors (Noirel, 1995).
Today, gradually rising migrant shares of the population (Migration Policy Institute, 2013), recent
waves of irregular immigration spurred by geopolitical unrest abroad, highly-publicized terrorist
attacks both in Europe and outside, the rise of East-West migration with the EUs expansion and the
rise in unemployment in the wake of the Euro crisis, as well as a host of other happenings, combine
with historical amnesia and the myth of a unified, homogeneous national entity (Noiriel, 1995)
pluralized and threatened by immigration to make immigration a hotly debated topic in Europe.

Adeline Chang
1

Immigration as Europes Core Challenge:

A Look at Central Debates and Horizontal and Vertical Implications

Types of Immigration

Immigration may be divided into several categories according to legality and volition. Legal and
voluntary migration streams include: (i) economic migration; (ii) study; and (iii) family reunification;
(iv) return migration; and (v) national minorities.
Illegal immigration, which the European Union (EU) has in their latest European Agenda on
Migration recently focused on targeting and reducing, include two main types: smuggling, which is
voluntary, and trafficking, which is forced.
2

Immigration into Europe: Recent Patterns

In 2012, an estimated 1.7 million immigrants entered the EU-27 from outside Europe (Eurostat,
2014). Nearly a third entered for reasons of family reunification, with 23% migrating for reasons of
work, and 22% for education (European Commission 2014). As of the 1st of January 2013, 77% of
non-nationals in the EU-27 lived in five member states: Germany, Spain, the United Kingdom, France,
and Italy (Eurostat, 2015).
Included in these numbers are those who have entered Europe seeking asylum. In 2014, over
270,000 immigrants entered Europe irregularly (Migration & Home Affairs, 2015), and in the same
year the EU received asylum applications from 626,000 people, the highest number since the last
peak during the Yugoslavia civil war in 1992. In part responsible for this new wave of migration is
the civil war in Syria that has seen tens of thousands flee the country in the first 4 months of this
year alone, of over 21,000 asylum-seekers entering Europe by sea, nearly 9,000 were Syrians. Most
such migrants make the journey by paying off human traffickers, and this system of exploitation and
trafficking is being exacerbated by the current chaos in Libya, one of the main departure points for
asylum-seekers from Africa and the Middle East (Peter, 2015).
A particular trend that many actors have been focused on is the rising proportion of Muslims in
Europe. A varying mixture of immigration flows for reasons of work, reunification and refuge has
contributed to a Muslim population whose share of the population has been growing steadily, rising
from 4% in 1990 to 6% in 2010. This number is projected to continue increasing in the next few
decades (Hackett, 2015).
Finally, in addition to flows from outside Europe, East-West immigration within Europe has also
become significant following the expansion of the EU in 2004 and 2007. Whilst responses to Eastern
European immigration flow was initially mixed Germany and Austria initially closed their labour
markets for new member states, only opening them in 2011 (Dettmer & Pull, 2011) Eastern
3

Adeline Chang

Immigration as Europes Core Challenge:

A Look at Central Debates and Horizontal and Vertical Implications

Europeans are today a significant portion of immigrants in Germany, the United Kingdom and the
Scandinavian States (Koller, 2007).
3

Major Immigration Debates

The various destination countries in Europe face different rates and compositions of immigrants. The
old, Western destination countries can be split into different categories depending on the main
factors for immigration. For instance, immigration in France stems largely from previous colonial ties
and South-North economic migration, whilst those in Germany and Austria are largely economic
migrants from the south and from Turkey. Scandinavian states tend to have Turkish economic
migrants as well as spillover migrants from main destination countries, and the United Kingdom
attracts migrants from former colonies as well as from Eastern member states. More recently,
Southern European countries such as Italy, Spain and Portugal have also become destination
countries mainly due to refugee flows from Africa and Asia as well as economic migration from
Eastern Europe (Koller, 2007).
Whilst different countries thus deal with different types of immigrant-associated tensions, debates
around immigration can in general be centred on three issues: security, integration, and economy.
Importantly, the first two not only impact on the practical functioning of the state, but have
consequences on the interpretation of fundamental liberal European values such as freedom and
equality.
3.1

Security

Illegal Immigrants External Threats vs. Humanitarian Concern

In the 1980s and 1990s, as immigration policy was Europeanized, the issue of immigration became
increasingly securitized. This occurred not due, as is often argued, to actual security deficits or to the
need for extra policing due to the introduction of the Schengen Area, but rather as the result of the
interplay between bureaucratic framing and political negotiations (van Munster, 2009, p. 5). Since
then, in contrast to the dearth of concern given to unregulated migrants in the 60s, targeting illegal
immigration has become a cornerstone of European immigration policy (Migration and Home Affairs,
2015).
There is a conflict between pursuing a restrictive immigration policy aligned with protecting the
integrity of Europes external borders the path the EU has taken in the last ten years and
pursuing a more expansive policy that better facilitates the immigration of those who are forced to
flee their home countries.
4

Adeline Chang

Immigration as Europes Core Challenge:

A Look at Central Debates and Horizontal and Vertical Implications

The European governments push to protect external borders is in many ways necessary, not just for
state integrity, but in order to ensure that borders can be used for the smooth processing of legal
migrants. Such a move is complicated because policing external borders requires both interEuropean cooperation as well as global cooperation between European states and countries of
origin. The formers most visible crystallization has been the formation of FRONTEX, which acts
largely on ad-hoc requests from Member States, who are under no legal obligation to collaborate in
its projects. Policies implemented under the latter include the Euro-Mediterranean Partnership
(EMP) and the European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP), both of which have stated objectives of
promoting an area of greater dialogue and friendship, but have been criticized as acting merely as
buffer zones against irregular migration into Europe (Pinyol-Jimnez, 2012).
Thus far, the EUs efforts to up policing of its external borders have proven ineffective and
unsustainable. Efforts to block certain sea routes have largely only exerted a diverting effect on
asylum-seekers, who turn to other routes that are often more dangerous. In the first four months of
this year alone, over 20,000 immigrants have entered Europe by sea; the humanitarian crisis reached
a peak when 800 asylum-seekers lost their lives on 19 April, prompting an emergency meeting
between European leaders and a renewed commitment to step up action to stem the crisis.
Given the highly contingent nature of irregular migration and the ongoing geopolitical conflict in the
Middle East, the external security debate is a challenge that is here to stay.
Immigrants as Internal Threats
The issue of immigration in Europe has never been completely conflict-free, and beginning in the 70s
debates concerning multiculturalism began to develop (Pinyol-Jimnez, 2012), gaining special profile
in the 21st century with the rise of high-profile terrorist attacks and geopolitical unrest in Islamic
regions. Views of immigrants as threatening Europes liberal and secular values have subsequently
become a concern. Relatively high levels of unemployment following the Euro crisis have also
contributed to the perception of immigrants as a threat to the livelihoods of locals. In addition,
asylum-seekers are often argued to be threats to the welfare state, exploiting the relatively
generous welfare systems of Western European states without paying taxes.
Such conceptualizations of immigrants as internal threats may be seen as the flip side of successful
immigrant integration, which is a second major debate surrounding immigration in Europe.

Adeline Chang
3.2

Immigration as Europes Core Challenge:

A Look at Central Debates and Horizontal and Vertical Implications

Economic and Cultural Integration

Economic
Immigration policy with regard to economic integration has largely been domestically-focused. In
this arena, the debate involves contestation between those who see the need for better integration
of immigrants into the local labour market, and those who see them as competition for jobs that
locals are more deserving of. In addition to this, however, the success or failure of economic
integration can impact on the general public acceptance of immigrants due to a tendency for cultural
explanations to be given for an immigrants failure to integrate economically, and for discussion then
to veer into the area of conflicting values, where rational discussion becomes more difficult.
Increasingly, there is an acknowledgement that the success of economic integration is more a
function of a political economys structure than of an immigrants culture. In her analysis of
economic integration in various European countries, Guiradon (2014) found that the basic structural
features education and training systems, labour market rules, and welfare systems were better
able to explain the relative success of migrants to economically integrate in certain areas than in
others, even within the same country. Thus, in the long run, investing resources to modify the
structure of the political economy will be necessary for the benefit of both immigrants and the host
society but in the short run, such investment in support of immigrants is likely to meet local
resistance in light of the continually gloomy economic climate (Peter, 2015).
Cultural
The debate about cultural integration is frequently dominated by alarmists on one side, and
victimists on the other, with the former claiming that Islam is an adversary culture (Caldwell, 2009,
p. 329, in Joppke, 2014) that threatens Europes foundational values, and the latter that Muslims are
subjected to widespread Islamophobia. However, as religion-based discrimination is notoriously
difficult to separate from country-based discrimination (Joppke, 2014), an examination of
immigrants own attitudes towards their cultural integration might prove more fruitful. In this
respect, the available polls suggest that a real integration deficit exists in the form of ethical-moral
values. A significant gap exists between local and immigrant support for gender equality and sexual
liberalization a gap that appears to be increasing as descendants of immigrants retain traditional
views whilst their Western peers grow increasingly liberal (Norris & Inglehart 2002, in Joppke 2014).
It remains to be seen if this gap can be overcome, whether ideologically or in effect.
Within the cultural integration debate, the widespread use of the Internet and access to mass media
can especially prove to be a double-edged sword. On one hand, responsible reporting can help
6

Adeline Chang

Immigration as Europes Core Challenge:

A Look at Central Debates and Horizontal and Vertical Implications

increase public understanding of immigration issues, and of the need for concerted action to
facilitate better integration; on the other, the nature of media logic, and the tendency for media to
align reporting with the news values of visuality, drama and easy intelligibility, might serve
conversely to inject excessive emotionality and hamper the creation of a public sphere where
informed and rational discourse regarding integration can take place.
3.3

Immigration: Economic Benefit or Burden?

Immigrants exert an economic impact on European states in three ways: (i) labour markets; (ii) fiscal
impacts; and (iii) impact on economic growth.
There is disagreement about whether immigrants constitute a net economic burden or benefit, and
a dearth of literature looking at the net economic impact of migration, in particular with the
inclusion of humanitarian migration. An analysis of the three areas of economic impact preliminarily
suggests that immigration benefits host economies in Europe, particularly with respect to labour
markets, even if workforce needs do not directly drive most immigration (OECD, 2014).
Firstly, net migration into Europe replenishes a workforce that Europe sans migration would find
dwindling, given her rapidly aging population. Over the first 10 years of the 21st century, migrants
have in fact accounted for 70% of the increase in Europes workforce, contributing both to the most
dynamic sectors (constituting 15% of the workforce) as well as to declining sectors that domestic
workers find unattractive (constituting 24% of the workforce), thus helping fill labour needs. Freemovement migration within Europe also contributes significantly to labour-market flexibility (OECD,
2012, in OECD, 2014), strengthening destination countries ability to cope with structural changes or
crises.
On the counts of fiscal effect and economic growth, some studies suggest that immigrants effects
are minimal. Immigrants constitute no significant fiscal benefit or burden to the 24 European
countries in the OECD, and contribute more than they receive in benefits, except in countries with a
large share of older migrants. The fact remains that the higher a countrys share of humanitarian
migrants, the less favourable the fiscal impact of immigrants. Nevertheless, the importance of
economic integration remains salient here employment is the single biggest determinant of
migrants net fiscal contribution, and successfully raising immigrant employment rates to the level of
natives would substantially boost fiscal gains in many European OECD countries. Similarly, there are
suggestions that immigrants would constitute a minimal but positive effect on economic growth
(OECD, 2014).

Adeline Chang

Immigration as Europes Core Challenge:

A Look at Central Debates and Horizontal and Vertical Implications

These results, however, lack inclusion of humanitarian migration, which tends to be the issue on
which debate is the most heated and divided. Concerns about refugee burden include arguments
about the economic burden stemming from the resources needed to support asylum applicationprocessing, direct provision pending application outcomes, the deportation of unsuccessful
applicants, the processing of cases in which asylum-seekers sue courts, and other such activities.
Opposing voices suggest that the positive economic impact that well-integrated refugees would
have would outweigh the costs. In addition, streamlining refugee-processing procedures would
contribute in the long run to a lowering of costs needed to provide accommodation for asylumseekers who end up being rejected or who are awaiting deportation, particular in the UK where over
60% of work-in-progress cases in June 2012 were failed asylum-seekers awaiting deportation (Dawar,
2013).
Ultimately, a greater focus is needed on the net economic impact of immigrants and asylum-seekers,
if the economic debate is to be resolved.
4

Immigration as the Core Challenge

The above debates demonstrate the ability of immigration to stretch across all domestic and
international arenas in its implications. The necessity of immigration, when combined with the sheer
complexity of the immigration issue, make immigration very much Europes core challenge today.
4.1

A Necessity Old and New

Immigration is a necessary evil or blessing, depending on how European countries handle it, but
remains a necessity regardless.
The first reason lies within Europes demographics: consistently low birth rates and higher life
expectancies in Europe are gradually leading to a markedly older population with higher dependency
ratios. In the last ten years the Europes average dependency ratio has been above 25, one of the
highest in the world a number lower only than Japans (The World Bank, 2015). Immigration is thus
necessary to replenish the shrinking workforce, and stepping up to the challenge of adapting
immigration policy to their needs will have very significant impacts on the economies of European
countries, as well as on their ability to continue upkeep of their welfare systems.
The second reason is ideological, and lies in Europes responsibility to protect human rights. As
geopolitical unrest is unpredictable and persecution of various groups can persist even in the
absence of regional unrest, forced migration will continue taking place at irregular intervals, and
such immigration has to be met with sustainable policies and systems for acceptance or rejection.
8

Adeline Chang

Immigration as Europes Core Challenge:

A Look at Central Debates and Horizontal and Vertical Implications

Furthermore, the strategies that European countries use to deal with new immigration will have
spillover effects on the descendants of old migrants as well as recent migrants in the process of
settling down, a significant share of the population in many European countries (15.9% in Sweden;
13.8% in Spain; 11.9% in Germany; 11.6% in France; and 9.4% in Italy (Migration Policy Institute,
2013)). The significance of developing a coherent immigration policy addressing the debates of
security, integration and economy thus cannot be overestimated.
4.2

Immigrations Multi-level Complexity and Impact

4.2.1

Within a Country: Immigration Policys Horizontal Considerations

Political
Immigration policy, of course, requires action from political bodies, and a balancing of political
palatability and feasibility. It tends however to become highly politicized, something encouraged by
immigrations position as a media fixture. Democratic governments also have issues with blameavoidance and credit-claiming (Weaver, 1986, in Guiraudon, 2013), and electoral politics are often a
determining factor in the stepping up or down of integration policies. The short-term nature of such
politicking is detrimental to the need for long-term policies with respect to immigration, in areas
such as economic integration.
A further consideration when managing immigration policy is the importance of a perception of
political and border management on the part of the citizens of destination countries. If successful
asylum-seekers are to be accepted as legitimate and true integration is to take place, it is critical for
the public to perceive that sufficient control over the borders is generally being maintained, and that
only those truly in need of asylum are being accepted. Failing this, popular support for humanitarian
migration easily erodes (Price, 2006).
Economic
As previously discussed, immigration provides a key contribution to the working force of European
destination countries. At the same time, the issue of migration is an important one for Eastern
European origin countries who have contributed significantly to European immigration since their
accession to the EU, and for whom some are arguing the emigration constitutes an economicallydamaging brain drain. The economic impact of immigration in Europe thus has two faces, both of
which exert challenges on states.

Adeline Chang

Immigration as Europes Core Challenge:

A Look at Central Debates and Horizontal and Vertical Implications

Social
Immigration in Europe has been an especially tricky issue in Europe when it involves Muslims. The
easy visibility of Muslim women who wear headscarves, burqas or niqabs and the high profile jihad
being waged by extremists in the Middle East and beyond have sensitized citizens of destination
countries to worries of fundamental cultural and ethical value clashes.
This is problematic for two reasons. Firstly, it poses a challenge to the notion of national identity,
which is a particularly sensitive issue for many Europeans. Thus, like economic integration, social
integration of migrants with respect to issues such as culture and values often comes with a
significant degree of emotionality. Secondly, the Islam vs. Europe debate, by failing to distinguish
between new Muslim immigrants and later-generation naturalized Muslims, can in itself support the
beginnings of a divisive religious rift in society.
In these ways immigration in Europe has implications for national stability and solidarity, important
issues that thus demand nuanced immigration policies.
4.2.2

Immigration Policys Vertical Considerations

Beyond the national dimension, immigration and its debates also exert effects which range from an
individual level to an international one.
Individual
On an individual level, humanitarian migration is challenging to manage as it relates to the issue of
asylum-seekers human rights, both during transit and after arrival at the destination country in
Europe. This makes it an especially sensitive issue attracting the attention of actors ranging from
non-government organizations to inter-governmental organizations, and prompts the need to show
dedication to concerted action.
In addition, the actions European states take to address concerns about Muslim immigrants cannot
be seen as contravening the human right of freedom of religion. This creates a paradox and tension
between the values of equality and that of freedom of religion, once one takes into consideration
the fact that many Muslims differ significantly in their views on progressive notions such as gender
equality and sexual liberalization. The clash of Europes liberal ideology with the very sort of
freedom it purports to support adds a particularly complicated dimension to the handling of
immigration policy.

10

Adeline Chang

Immigration as Europes Core Challenge:

A Look at Central Debates and Horizontal and Vertical Implications

National
At a national level, given significant national differences in areas ranging from political economy
structures to demography, it is necessary for specific and localized policies at regional in addition
to national levels to be implemented in addition to any Europe-wide policies, treaties or other
agreements.
Inter-Europe
The Inter-European dimension specifically is challenging for a number of reasons.
Firstly, the importance placed by many European countries on ensuring national sovereignty can
hinder inter-European cooperation on the immigration issue with regards to humanitarian migration.
The horizontal enforcement mechanisms (Neyer & Wolf, 2003, in Bale, 2005) used in the EU rely on
the political willingness of states to follow rules and make it difficult for the European Commission to
ensure implementation and enforcement (Bale, 2005).
Secondly, the fact that different European countries experience immigration at such different rates
and compositions, and face social tensions of differing types (Koller, 2007), makes it challenging for
common goals and immigration policies to be set in the European Union. Despite this difficulty,
however, creating a more sustainable and fair system is necessary, as evidenced by the
demonstrated non-viability and effectiveness of the Dublin Regulation (MPI, 2015).
The capacity of European countries to meet this challenge also has implications for European
relations in other arenas. Whether states can successfully and continually adapt their management
of immigration will influence inter-European relationships and affect the trust that is instilled in
European institutions. The weight borne by Northern countries of asylum-seekers fleeing Syria, for
instance, has led to a Northern-Mediterranean split in which both sides accuse the European
Commission of ineffective mediation (Rolander & Stevis, 2014).
International
Firstly and most directly, European countries immigration policies exert an effect on the economies
of origin countries. This is especially so in the case of economic migrants, for which category
immigration policy will decidedly influence the economic benefits that accrue to origin countries,
especially in the form of remunerations from abroad, which depend on migrants economic
integration, something that should begin not only in destination countries but in origin countries as
well, via the creation of bilateral agreements and arrangements.

11

Adeline Chang

Immigration as Europes Core Challenge:

A Look at Central Debates and Horizontal and Vertical Implications

The issue of direct economic impact notwithstanding, Europes treatment of immigration in

particular of asylum-seekers also has important impacts on the EUs normative power and standing.
As an international institution that utilizes a hybrid of supranational and international forms of
governance (Manners 2002, p. 240), the EU is a new political form that has displayed a commitment
towards implementing universal norms in its internal and external relations (Merlingen et al., 2001,
in Manners, 2002). To that end, its identity has to a significant extent become intertwined with the
supporting of human rights, with normative power serving as an instrument to exercise influence
over the actions of other actors. The continuation of such influence will depend in part on whether
the EUs behaviour and achievement of normative ends ultimately matches up to the identity it has
crafted. Thus, as geopolitical scenes of unrest continue to unfold periodically and unpredictably
around the world, the handling of the asylum issue remains ever-salient, and the immigration policy
of Europe and its countries will have significant bearing on the EUs normative power in the 21st
century.
5

Conclusion

Immigration in the EU has been a salient trend ever since the 50s, and over time is only increasing in
prominence as Southern states join the West and North in becoming destination countries. For both
pragmatic and ideological reasons, immigration remains a necessity for European countries, but is
complicated by its far-reaching implications in both horizontal and vertical directions over politicosocio-economic dimensions at the national level, and into individual, inter-European and
international dimensions. No matter where ones position lies in the debates on security, integration
and economy that surround immigration, it remains that this phenomenon will continue to exert a
very significant impact on multiple dimensions of the European interest. It is thus that immigration
constitutes the core challenge for Europes states in the 21st century.

12

Adeline Chang

Immigration as Europes Core Challenge:

A Look at Central Debates and Horizontal and Vertical Implications
Bibliography

Bale, T. (2005). European politics: A comparative introduction. London: Palgrave Macmillan.

Dettmer, M. & Puhl, J. (2011, April 28). About time: Germany finally opens labor market to
eastern workers. Spiegel Online International. Retrieved from
http://www.spiegel.de/international/europe/about-time-germany-finally-opens-labor-market-toeastern-workers-a-759325.html
Eurostat. (2015, May 21). Asylum statistics. Statistics Explained. Retrieved from
http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/Asylum_statistics
Eurostat. (2014, May). Migration and migrant population statistics. Statistics Explained.
Retrieved from http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statisticsexplained/index.php/Migration_and_migrant_population_statistics
Garlic, M. and Fratzke, S. (2015). EU Dublin asylum system faces uncertain future after ruling
in Afghan familys case. Migration Policy Institute.
Hacket, C. (2015, Jan 15). 5 facts about the Muslim population in Europe. Pew Research
Center. Retrieved from http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2015/01/15/5-facts-about-themuslim-population-in-europe/
Jones, O. (2014). Statistics alone wont win the immigration debate. Theguardian.com.
Accessed http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2014/nov/05/statistics-immigration-debateeuropean-migrants-uk-20bn
Joppke, C. (2014). Europe and Islam: Alarmists, victimists, and integration by law. West
European Politics 37 (6). doi: 10.1080/01402382.2014.929337
Koller, I. (2007). Migration types and migration patterns in Europe. In: Istvn Tarrsy and
Susan Milford (eds.) European Higher Education in a Changing World A View from the Danube
Region, Proceedings of the 4th DRC Summer School, Pcs, p. 155168.
Migration and Home Affairs. (2015). DGS migration and home affairs. Retrieved from
http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/home-affairs/

13

Adeline Chang

Immigration as Europes Core Challenge:

A Look at Central Debates and Horizontal and Vertical Implications

Migration Policy Institute. (2013). [Graphs of levels of migration and migrant shares of
population, by destination country]. International migrants by country of destination, 1960-2013.
Retrieved from http://www.migrationpolicy.org/programs/data-hub/international-migrationstatistics
Noiriel, G. (1995). Immigration: Amnesia and memory. French Historical Studies 19 (2), 367380. doi: 10.2307/286777
OECD. (2014, May). Migration policy debates. Retrieved from
http://www.oecd.org/migration/mig/OECD%20Migration%20Policy%20Debates%20Numero%202.p
df
Peter, L. (2015, May 28). Why is EU struggling with migrants and asylum? BBC. Retrieved
from http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-24583286
Pinyol-Jimnez, G. (2012). The migration-security nexus in short: Instruments and actions in
the European Union. Amsterdam Law Forum 4 (1), 36-57.
Price, M. E. (2006). Persecution complex: Justifying asylum laws preference for persecuted
people. Harvard International Law Journal 47 (2), 413-466.
Rolander, N. & Stevis, M. (2014, March 3). Sweden wants rest of EU to share refugee burden.
The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved from
http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702304815004579417171281318050
Staff and agencies. (2015, May 30). EU naval mission rescues more than 4,200 migrants in 24
hours. Theguardian.com. Retrieved from http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/may/30/eunaval-mission-rescues-more-than-4200-migrants-24-hours
The National Archives. (n.d.) Postwar immigration. Retrieved from
http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathways/citizenship/brave_new_world/immigration.htm
van Munster, R. (2009). Securitizing Immigration: The Politics of Risk in the EU. London; New
York: Palgrave.
The World Bank. (2015). Age dependency ratio, old (% of working-age population). The
World Bank. Accessed http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.DPND.OL/countries/1WEU?display=graph

14