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Cement Manual
Cement Manual
Table of Contents
Section 1: Overview:
Special Considerations:
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Cementing High Pressure - High Temperature wells (HPHT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Cementing in Deep Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Cementing Highly Deviated and Horizontal Wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Cementing Extended Reach Wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Cementing of Multilateral Junctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Coiled Tubing Cementing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Estimated job time (including cleanout time for excess cement) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
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Section 2: Equipment:
Surface and Subsurface Equipment:
Surface Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Aims: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Cement Mixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Recording . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
High Pressure Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Safety Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Bulk Cement Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
Cement Heads, Water Bushings, Sweges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
Float Shoes and Collars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18
Stage Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
Casing Centralization:
Centralization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
Reduce the Risk of Sticking the Casing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Non Centralization Equals Poor Isolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
How is Centralization Achieved? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
Some Important Advantages/Disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
How Much Cement is Needed for Isolation? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37
The Benefit of Swirl (Spiral Flow) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
Durability and Wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Wear in Microns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Stop Collars the neglected issue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
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Section 3: Cement:
Cement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Aims: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
What is Cement? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Manufacture of Portland Cement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Chemistry of Portland Cements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Cement Hydration or 'How does it Work?' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Limitations of Cement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Brief History of the Use of Cements in Oil Wells in the USA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
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Section 4: Displacements:
Displacing Cement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
The Displacement Problem in a Nutshell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Fluid Incompatibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Rheological Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Minimization of Channeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Erodibility Technology:
Wellbore Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
The Phenomenon of Free-fall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
Optimization of the Displacement Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
The Importance of Pipe Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27
Modeling the Displacement Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29
Example of a Job Simulation: A Slim Hole Situation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
The Real World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38
On Site Data Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50
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Appendix
Additional Information:
Publications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Guidelines, Check Lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Cementing Equipment Operations Check List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Cement Sampling Check List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
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Index
General Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
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Section 1: Overview
Special Considerations
Introduction
Understand some of the cementing issues presented by:
HPHT
Deep Water
ERD
Horizontal wells
Coiled Tubing Jobs
Multilateral Wells
Examine several special situations which place particular, and often very critical,
demands on the cementing operation, seriously impacting not just the slurry and
spacer systems design, but also the execution of the job, placement equipment
and techniques.
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failure are normally more severe than for normal wells. This is due to the
technical difficulties of drilling and completing these wells and the often elevated
costs of such operations.
The best, most experience personnel and resources must be brought to these
wells. Train-wrecks in HPHT cementing operations are usually caused by simple
things overlooked or by a complete, total, lack of knowledge about some critical
aspects of the operation (you don't know what you don't know).
Of all the aspects connected with a cementing job, an accurate knowledge of the
well temperatures is normally considered one of the most critical. In HPHT wells,
temperature is, without question, the key to success of the job. Laboratory design
of the cement slurry and spacer systems needs to be done way ahead of the job,
using realistic well temperatures. As drilling continues and better information is
obtained, the lab designs need to be refined using exactly the same cement and
batches of additives that will be used on the job.
Another aspect often associated with HPHT wells, is the narrow pore
pressure/fracture gradient window. Accurate knowledge of this is vital for correct
job design. Additionally, realistic simulations of surge and swab pressures to
estimate casing, or liner, running speeds and break circulation are essential.
An HPHT cementing operation should include contingency planning for situations
that require unexpected cement jobs. For example, sidetracks, losses or casing
shoe squeezes. The slurry and spacer designs need to be tested well ahead of
time. It can easily take a week of laboratory testing to achieve a slurry design
which can be mixed and pumped with confidence at high temperatures.
The best possible quality cement must be used, and the additives must be
selected for the elevated temperatures of the job. Sensitivity testing to
temperature is needed on the critical properties of the cement slurry such as
thickening time, fluid loss, free fluid, rheology and compressive strength
development. This is to cover the uncertainty normally associated with well
circulating temperatures. Slurry and spacer systems need to be kept simple,
eliminating the use of additives that are not strictly needed to fulfill the goals of the
design (for example, the need to be able to control gas or water invasion after
cementing). Since elevated temperatures accelerate chemical reactions and
effects considerably, compatibility studies between the drilling fluid, spacer system
and cement slurries must be carefully conducted ahead of time.
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Water Sands
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While drilling the surface holes of these wells in the Gulf of Mexico and other parts
of the world, formations shallower than 2,000 ft below mud line can be weak and
unconsolidated. In addition, shallow, highly pressurized, water containing zones
may be encountered. The presence of these shallow, pressurized water zones is
quite hard to predict even with the use of shallow seismic methods. These
complex situations, if not handled correctly, can easily lead to the occurrence of
high water flows through the cemented annulus of the shallow surface casing.
Shallow water zones with pore pressures of around 9.5 lb/gal equivalent may
require (depending on the depth where they are encountered), as much as 12 to
14+ lb/gal mud density to control them.
Operators have experienced pore pressures as high as 12.6 lb/gal very close to
the mud line. Very severe water flows have been experienced. It has been
reported that flow rates as high as 30,000 barrels per day are possible in some
deepwater locations. In these extreme situations, the shallow water flow rates
can be so high , that they can generate washout craters large enough to seriously
jeopardize the integrity of the well. There are documented cases in the industry
where uncontrolled shallow flows have practically "swallowed" the entire
multi-well template, at a cost of millions of dollars to the operator.
In addition to the potential for shallow water flows, these deep water wells present
other complicating problems such as:
shallow gas,
cool temperature profiles down the riser and at the mud line - often
approaching freezing temperature for water,
narrow window between the pore and fracture pressure,
large washouts in big holes
hydrates
To control shallow water flows and the other complicating well conditions, special
techniques and cement slurry designs are used.
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Confirmed Flow
Potential Flow
No Reported Flow
Courtesy of BJ Services
The basic approach to cementing across shallow water zones consists of:
maintaining control of the water zones while drilling
properly preparing and treating the hole before cementing to avoid the onset
of water flows
cementing the annulus using spacer fluids and cement slurries that maximize the potential for inhibition of the flows after cementing.
To accomplish this, sacrificial muds are sometimes used to drill the zones (these
are muds which are lost to the seabed since the riser is not yet connected). The
drilling fluids will have some fluid loss control and tailored rheological properties to
minimize the formation of progressive gels and of thick, mushy mud films across
permeable weak zones. This is done to facility mud removal during the cementing
operation.
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Spotting fluids are sometimes placed across the entire annulus, or across the
lower critical zones, before pulling the drill pipe. These fluids are designed to
maintain hydraulic control across the water zones, and may include some setting
properties to assist in cementing annular areas that may not be fully covered with
cement during the cementing operation. They will not set so well, or as hard, as
cement nevertheless can provide a barrier to flow.
The cement slurries used are specially designed and tested to be able to control
the shallow water zones. Most of the currently used cement systems are foamed.
Foamed slurries can be mixed at different densities using the same base slurry
design. This flexibility is needed to be able to rapidly and easily adjust the slurry
density to the levels needed to control the water zones.
Foamed systems have great sweeping properties to facilitate displacement of the
mud and/or spot fluid from the large annuli. In addition, they posses the ability to
control water and gas flows by their capacity to maintain elevated pore pressures
in the cement column while it goes through the transition stage. The cement
slurries are often preceded by foamed spacer systems to again aid in displacing
the well fluids.
Shallow gas may also be encountered while drilling the shallow sections of
deepwater wells, but generally is not so problematic as that of the shallow water
zones.
In general, the same cement slurry formulations and placement
techniques needed to control the shallow water flows, apply to the control of
shallow gas.
The cool temperatures and the necessarily low cement slurry densities seriously
complicate slurry design. Temperature affects all the properties of cement slurries
that are critical for deepwater cementing: rheology, thickening time, transition
time, free fluid, fluid loss and strength development.
Excessive thickening times are undesirable and the goal must be to eliminate or
minimise WOC time.
Transition Time is the time from when the slurry stops behaving as a fluid (full
transmission of hydrostatic head) to the point when it develops a significant
measurable rigidity. During the transition time of un-foamed slurries, the pressure
exerted by the column decreases due to the generation of progressive gels which
support part of the annular load exerted by the slurry.
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This pressure drop can allow influx of formation fluid or gas into the annulus.
Short transition times are therefore necessary when cementing across shallow
water zones. Again, foamed cement slurries, due to the presence of the Nitrogen
phase, have the ability to maintain the pore pressure of the cement columns,
reducing the risk of annular invasion.
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Research has shown that transport of cuttings in drilling muds becomes more
difficult as hole angle increases. Hard solids beds have also been found on the
low side of the inside of the casing. These inside-casing solids beds are not
always easily removed by the cementing plugs; in fact, cementing plugs damage
has been observed in certain cases.
D e v ia te d /H o riz o n ta l W e lls
S t a tic /D y n a m ic
S o lid s S e t tlin g
D if fic u lt to
rem ove
M u d S o lid s
It can be seen that minimization of solids settling from the drilling fluid while drilling
the hole is critical to the success of the cementation of these types of wells.
Another problem is the tendency of the casing to rest on the low side of the hole.
Across doglegs, the string may even rest against the high side of the well,
depending on the direction of the normal forces generated in the wellbore.
Because of this, to get good cement jobs, it is critical to use proper centralization.
Minimum stand-off should be around 80 to 90% + at the lowest casing point (i.e.
between centralizers). Fortunately, specially designed centralizers have been
developed that are capable of reducing drag and torque in these wells, while still
providing good centralization for the pipe. The most recent developments include
rollers to effectively "roll" the pipe to bottom.
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Settling of solids from the cement slurry and spacer fluids is also a serious
potential problem Therefore, the slurry and spacer used in these wells must be
non-settling statically and dynamically at downhole conditions.
The Free Fluid of the cement slurry must be zero at downhole conditions,
particularly if gas or formation water migration is a potential problem in the well.
An unstable mud or cement can lead to a blow out in these wells.
Estimating well circulating temperatures to design the cement slurries can be a
challenge for these wells. To estimate the well bottom hole circulating temperature
(BHCT), a bottomhole static temperature (BHST) and/or the temperature gradient
in the particular area is used. For vertical holes, the BHCT can be calculated
using API published formulas or temperature charts. While the API method is the
accepted standard for estimating BHCT, the correlations were developed before
deviated drilling was common. Factors such as hole size, pipe size, surface
temperature, water depth (for offshore locations), mud type, pump rates, etc., vary
from well to well and can have an affect on the actual BHCT. Most of the wells
investigated to develop the API temperature correlations were vertical. Thus, for
highly deviated, extended reach and horizontal wells, the API correlations should
not be used.
Other methods to estimate the expected well temperatures are available. In
extreme ERD wells, the BHCT can become close to the BHST at the TVD.
If we compare two wells with the same true vertical depth (TVD), one vertical and
the other with a horizontal section, the BHCT of the horizontal well will be hotter
due to the high constant temperature along the horizontal section. On the other
hand, if we compare two wells with the same measured depth (MD), one vertical
and one horizontal, the BHCT of the vertical well will be the hotter because it sees
higher temperatures at the bottom of the hole.
One of the best ways of obtaining the BHCT of highly inclined and horizontal wells
is using downhole temperature recorders specially designed for this purpose. One
of the available designs consists of a memory recorder that can be tripped into the
well with pipe or can be dropped down the drillstring during a cleanup trip. The
tool measures the temperature at the bottom of the hole versus time. Once
retrieved, the tool is connected to a portable computer and a graph obtained. This
can be used to estimate BHCT but it should be born in mind that the geometry is
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different. In cementing the annulus is small and the pipe large. When the gauge is
run in DP, the pipe is small and the annulus large. This can result in different flow
regimes and different heat transfer results.
However, with several of these BHCT measurements at different depths in a given
field, a reliable BHCT correlation may be developed. Of course, on critical wells
the cost of making these BHCT measurements may be acceptable; but it is often
critical wells which have high costs and the time is not made available.
Next to actual measurements of the well temperatures, software temperature
simulators can be used to predict BHCT at any well deviation and geometry.
Simulators are capable of estimating the entire temperature profile up and down
the well, not just the BHCT. In long horizontal sections, due to the near constant
temperature, the circulating temperature tend to be near constant too.
The best way to use simulators is to first match measured temperatures from the
well (such as log temperatures). This allows fine-tuning of the simulation to obtain
a more reliable prediction of the BHCT temperature at the depth of interest.
The Measure-While-Drilling (MWD) instrumentation can provide a temperature
while drilling. The BHCT temperature obtained from MWD at the depth of interest
is typically higher than the actual BHCT is during cementing, but it provides an
upper limit to estimate the BHCT for cementing.
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E x te n d e d R e a c h
Extended
Reach sections
Horizontal
A p p lic a tio n
s
well sections
Courtesy of Weatherford
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Extended reach wells, by definition, present long sections of hole where the angle
of inclination is high and essentially constant. These extended sections of hole
can be many thousand of feet. It is not uncommon to find extended reach wells
with measured depths of 15,000 feet or more. These extended sections further
complicate problems like formation of solid beds, the difficulty of centralizing the
pipe, etc. All of the comments made in the previous section on cementing highly
deviated and horizontal wells apply to cementing extended reach wells.
An additional factor can be the very high ECDs which result from the pressure
drop in the annulus in the long hole sections. This can impact displacement rates
which, coupled with eccentric pipe, can lead to massive channeling of cement
through the mud. This again emphasizes the need for a fully integrated approach
to job design. The aims and requirements of the cement job need to be carefully
set out and all the factors which might influence success addressed thoroughly.
The mud, the hole condition, the pore/fracture gradient window, dog leg severity
and many other factors will play a crucial role.
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Figure 5: Multilateral
Wells
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wells based on the amount and type of support provided at the junction. This
categorization makes it easier for operators to recognize and compare the
functionality and risk-to-reward evaluations of one multilateral completion design
to another. Recognized TAML levels increase in complexity from Level 1 (simple
open hole mainbore) through Level 6 as shown.
Figure 6:
TAML Multilateral Classification
Construction
time: 1 day
Level 1
Construction
time: 4 - 9 days
Construction
time: 2 - 3 days
Level 4
Level 2
Construction
time: 8 - 12 days
Construction
time: 4 - 7 days
Level 5
Level 3
Construction
time: 5 -10 days
Level 6
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Many conventional cement systems are prone to crack and lose their ability to
provide an annular seal during the process of milling a window, drilling the lateral,
and constructing the junction. For these applications, non-conventional cement
systems are available. For example, research has suggested that foamed
cements with gas content between 18 to 38% by volume produce more ductile
systems which are more likely to retain integrity. In laboratory experiments,
foamed cement systems have been shown to withstand significant deformation
and cyclical loading, showing no damage to the integrity of the cement matrix and
experiencing minimal permanent deformation. Cement systems containing latex,
and latex with fibers, have also been used. The primary benefit of the fibers in the
cement is that they hold the cement together even after compressive load failure.
This can help prevent chunks of cement from falling down into the parent wellbore
during milling, drilling, and other operations conducted around the junction.
Level III: Cased Hole TrunkMechanically Supported Junction
For these applications, the mother-bore is cased off and cemented. The laterals
are also cased, but not cemented. Level III junctions are again typically placed in
consolidated formations. They have a non-cemented junction with no hydraulic
integrity at the junction. The lateral liner is anchored to the mother-bore. Like
Levels I and II, no cementing is involved in the construction of Level III multilateral
wells in the lateral sections.
Level IV: Cased Hole TrunkCased and Cemented Lateral
In Level IV applications, both the main bore and the laterals are cased and
cemented. They include a cemented junction. The junction does not require
hydraulic integrity to be a Level IV junction, but some Level IV systems require
hydraulic sealing at the junction.
In this configuration, the cements used to cement the lateral section must
maintain their integrity under conditions that cements used for conventional jobs
are normally not subjected to. For this junction configuration, a window is milled
and a lateral hole drilled. A casing string is cemented through the window to form
the junction. The cement is then exposed to additional stresses when the junction
is completed. For example, the completion process may involve milling off the
casing stub that is left inside the parent wellbore. The milling process leaves a
flush joint at the junction with the cement being exposed to the inside of the casing
at the junction with the main wellbore.
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Some of the physical and mechanical properties that the Level IV junction cement
systems may need to possess include:
Acid resistance
Durability to exposure to various oils, synthetic oils, and other fluids
Impact resistance
Elasticity
Hydraulic bonding
Impact resistance will generally be required for every Level IV multilateral junction
system. The cement at the junction will be exposed to impacts during the
completion of the well construction.
Methods used to improve the impact resistance of cements include incorporating
latex in the cement formulation. Foam cements have also been found to improve
a number of the mechanical properties of cement systems.
Conventional cement systems, while having high compressive strengths, are very
brittle and prone to crack when loaded by impacts and/or internal pressure
cycling. For conventional applications, this cracking of the cement may be
acceptable because the cement is not always required to provide hydraulic
sealing from within the casing, nor is the cement exposed to direct impact from
drill pipe, tools, etc. while tripping in and out of the hole. However, for some
multilateral configurations, the cement is relied on to help provide the hydraulic
seal at the junction. Inspection of a model junction will soon indicate that this is
unrealistic.
In addition to the research to help the field engineer with the selection of the "best"
cement systems to use in multilateral applications, work is ongoing to developed
computer modeling capabilities (finite element analysis, etc.) to better predict the
behavior/integrity of cemented sealed junctions when the well is loaded with
various stress conditions (pressurized junctions, draw-down, etc.) and when
exposed to impact loads.
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One recent, novel technique that needs to be considered for Level IV multilateral
wells involves the treatment of the formation surrounding the formation before or
during the construction of the multilateral hole section with special, low viscosity
resins. For the treatment to work, the formation needs to be permeable to be able
to accept the resin. By injecting the material into the formation, the permeability
can be reduced to essentially zero.
Level V: Cased Hole TrunkHydraulically Isolated Junction
In this type of multilateral application, hydraulic integrity at the joint is achieved by
the mechanical completion used and not by the cement. The parent hole is cased
and cemented. The lateral is also cased and cemented. Level V junctions are
placed in consolidated and in unconsolidated formations. They have a cemented
junction, but the cement is not necessarily relied on for hydraulic integrity at the
junction. The junction has hydraulic integrity by way of some type of packer
assembly. Level V junctions have main bore and lateral re-entry access.
Level VI: Cased Hole Trunk and Lateral
Level VI junctions are placed in consolidated and unconsolidated formations .
They have a cemented junction, but the cement is not relied on for hydraulic
integrity at the junction. The junction has hydraulic integrity. Level VI junctions
have full bore access to the main bore and the lateral.
Level VIs: Cased Hole Trunk and Lateral & Down-hole Splitter
Level VIs junctions are placed in consolidated and unconsolidated formations.
They have a cemented junction, but the cement is not relied on for hydraulic
integrity at the junction.
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Squeeze cementing through coiled tubing (CT) is a relatively new operation in the
petroleum industry.
Interest in coiled tubing squeeze operations increased
significantly with the success and cost savings generated in the Prudho Bay field,
Alaska, in the 1980s. Techniques and cement properties developed or identified
by BP, ARCO and others for Alaskan North Slope operations served as the
foundation for CT squeeze operations throughout the world.
Squeeze, or remedial, cementing is a common operation in the petroleum industry
throughout the world. Most squeeze operations are conducted with a drilling or
workover rig, through tubing or drill pipe with threaded connections. Cement is
the most common material used for squeezing and represents approximately 7 to
10% of the total cost of the squeeze operation. The rest of the job cost is related
to well preparation, tools, waiting on cement (WOC), drilling out of excess cement
left in the wellbore after the squeeze, etc. Squeeze operations using coiled tubing
offer significant benefits for slurry placement, control of the squeeze process, and
reduced squeeze costs. However, candidate selection and preparation, cement
slurry formulation, and job design require special considerations to realize the full
potential offered by the technique. A serious complicating factor is the reduced
annular clearances often encountered when performing coiled tubing operations.
Using CT can eliminate workover rig costs and significantly reduce well
preparation and post-squeeze cleanup costs. Using CT in workover and squeeze
operations has been successful in remote areas where rigs are not readily
available or in areas where rig costs are high. Bringing a CT Unit to the well,
performing a squeeze, cleaning out and reperforating can make money. Special
techniques and material properties have been developed which improve the
probability of success and realize the cost-saving potential of CT operations.
The process of squeezing with CT is similar in many ways to squeezing through
conventional threaded tubulars. Many of the general techniques for problem
diagnosis, well preparation, and job design and execution used in conventional
squeeze cementing operations apply to CT operations. However, there are some
differences, and these differences can significantly affect the success of the
operation.
CT squeeze operations are essentially scaled-down squeeze
operations: smaller tubulars and annular clearances, and generally smaller
cement volumes. As with most reduced scale operations, attention to details is
very critical in every aspect of the job.
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Coiled tubing lends itself to plugging operations because it allows the operator to
place small volumes of slurry in the wellbore more quickly and inexpensively than
with conventional plugging procedures. Well pressure control can be maintained
at the surface through a stripper and blowout preventer (BOP) so it is possible to
run into a live wellbore, and the production tubing and wellheads do not need to
be removed before the job. The tubing can be reciprocated during hole
conditioning.
Temperatures in the wellbore for CT operations can be significantly different from
temperatures in conventional squeeze cementing operations.
Downhole
temperatures are affected by many variables including the type of fluid pumped or
circulated, fluid density and rheological properties, volume pumped or circulated,
rate of pumping, and the well configuration. Generally, the temperatures in CT
operations are higher than in conventional squeeze operations with threaded
tubing or drill pipe, primarily because of the lower volumes of fluid pumped and
the lower flow rates used. However, with the larger CT workstrings, the
temperatures may be closer to the conventional case. For most squeeze
operations, and especially CT operations, accurate measurement of the wellbore
temperature and temperature profile above and below the interval to be squeezed
is necessary.
Most cement slurries for conventional applications are tested using well simulation
tests developed by the American Petroleum Institute (API). These tests represent
a composite set of conditions, generally based on well depth, type of cementing
operation and geothermal gradient. It is important to understand that none of the
current API test schedules or procedures were developed from CT cementing
operations. Therefore, job-tailored test procedures and schedules should be used
to model the planned CT squeeze cementing operation as closely as possible to
field conditions. Job related information needed to formulate job tailored test
schedules include the following:
Well temperatures (temperature is the most important variable affecting cement
hydration.)
Well pressure (pressure has a lesser effect than temperature on cement hydration
but has a significant effect on fluid loss. Well pressures can be reasonably
estimated from the hydrostatic pressure of wellbore fluids and the cementing
fluids plus the expected surface pump pressure.)
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Mixing equipment and procedure (the amount of time the slurry will be held on the
surface before being pumped into the well can have a substantial effect on the
thickening time of the cement, depending on the surface temperature, well
temperatures and cement slurry formulation.). Batch mixing of the slurry is
recommended, but the type of batch mixer and the way it is operated can affect
the slurry properties. In some cases, particularly relatively small volumes of slurry
(<25bbl), the actual properties of the slurry can be very different to the lab design.
This can arise through the different magnitude and duration of shear imparted in
the mixing process and to the heating involved. Beware of over-shearing the
slurry in a batch mixer with a centrifugal recirculating pump.
Expected pump-rate range (the time taken to pump the slurry down the CT to the
interval to be squeezed determines the rate of heating experienced by the slurry.
The heat-up rate is an important variable affecting the thickening time of a cement
slurry.)
Coiled tubing dimensions (the volume of the coiled tubing coupled with the pump
rate can be used to design the thickening time test schedule for the slurry.)
Planned pumping schedule and technique.
Modified well simulation test
schedules have been designed to simulate hesitation squeeze operations.
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The API Operating Fluid Loss test is a filtration procedure performed to determine
the amount of filtrate that can be removed from a slurry under specific conditions.
This test is performed with a known filter medium, under 1,000 psi differential
pressure and at the expected well temperature for the squeeze operation. For
API tests, the filter medium is a 325-mesh, stainless steel screen. This screen
has an effective permeability greater than about 1 darcy, and the entire filtration
area is about 3.5 in2.
For most cement slurry designs, the amount of fluid removed from the slurry in 30
minutes under the conditions listed above is the value of interest. However, for
CT squeeze operations, the thickness or volume of filter-cake produced during the
test is also of interest. Pressure applied during a CT squeeze is often higher than
1,000 psi, particularly when excess cement will be washed out to eliminate drillout
cost and time.
In these cases, the filter-cake must withstand the pressure
differentials present in the wellbore during cleanout of excess cement before the
cement has hydrated and developed strength. The permeability of the filter
medium used in the API test is significantly higher than many formations,
especially carbonates. In some test cells, core disks or synthetic (aluminum
oxide) disks of varying permeability can be inserted in the cell by using an
adapter. These adapters should be used when available, to better simulate well
conditions during the test.
For CT squeeze simulation tests, filtration time or the time of applied squeeze
pressure usually exceeds the 30 minutes used during an API test. Thus,
filter-cake volume produced under downhole CT conditions can be significantly
larger than the filter-cake volume generated during an API test procedure at a
single pressure. The API fluid loss cell does not have enough volume to
accommodate all the filtrate generated from a CT in-situ test because of the
extended time for squeezing and the higher pressures typically applied during CT
operations. Cement slurries with filtrate volumes in excess of 60 ml will cause all
the slurry to form filter-cake (become dehydrated) in the API cell. Modified
methods for measuring fluid loss and filter-cake have been develop for CT
applications.
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2.
3.
Allow the top of the cement to rise above the nozzle at the end of the CT
before pulling the CT string up.
4.
Pull the CT string out of the well at the same or a slower rate than pumping to
permit the end of the CT nozzle to remain 5 to 10 ft below the top of the
cement.
5.
For the last volume of cement, accelerate the CT pulling rate to allow the end
of the CT nozzle to be above the planned top of cement.
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Figure 7: Solids Settling from Drilling Muds in Deviated Wells. A large Scale
Experiment
It is sometimes assumed that as long as the mud is conditioned (pumping of a
reduced rheology mud, etc.) before the cement job, that the cement job will go
well. However, as confirmed by large-scale experiments, if permeable zones are
drilled with mud with poor properties (capable of developing thick, gelled, partially
dehydrated, mud cake), it is extremely difficult to get the bulk of the mud in the
annulus moving.
In fact, there is evidence that pumping a high mobility
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(conditioned) mud in the hole during hole conditioning in this situation, may lead to
channeling of the high mobility mud through the low mobility (gelled) mud. At the
surface, the mud properties may look fine, giving a false indication that the hole is
in good shape. In such a situation, the chances of getting a good cement job are
reduced greatly. The answer is to ensure the zones of interest (pay) are never
contacted by a low quality drilling fluid. The pay zones need to be drilled with a
high mobility, good property drill-in mud that can be easily conditioned before the
cement job.
Pipe Movement
A fairly straightforward and relatively simple technique to aid in the mud
displacement process is to move the pipe while conditioning mud and, if possible,
while pumping the cement into the annulus. Full-scale displacement tests have
shown that simple pipe movement, either rotation or reciprocation, can improve
displacement. Pipe movement helps remove gelled mud and assists in getting a
competent, uniform sheath of cement all around the casing.
Pipe movement is often not a viable option in the following circumstances:
large surface casing strings (bigger than 9 5/8)
very long strings
high deviation wells or wells with high doglegs (DLS)
offshore wells fromdrillships or semi-submersibles.
In near-vertical wells, during reciprocation the pipe tends to move from side to
side of the hole and this helps break much of the gelled mud. For highly deviated
and horizontal wells, the pipe may not move from side to side so well (around
doglegs, for example).
With reciprocation in highly deviated/horizontal holes, the pipe may get stuck on
the upward stroke, potentially leaving uncased openhole.
Reciprocation
sometimes limits pipe movement to only pre-cement job conditions. In deviated
wells, rotation has an advantage over reciprocation in that it tends to drag the
fluids all the way around the pipe (better mud removal).
With liners, reciprocation all the way to bumping of the plug has been used very
effectively in near-vertical holes. Reciprocation is much better than no pipe
movement, but regardless of deviation, with liners, rotation is preferred because it
overcomes some disadvantages of reciprocation:
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should be performed, since the well temperatures that the slurry will see are not
well known (margin of error is often +/- 10 to 15 degrees F for the BHCT).
Properties that Need to be Measured for Slurry Designs
To minimize the potential for job failures, the following properties should to be
measured in the laboratory and reported for slurries to be used in the field:
Thickening time
Compressive strength development
Rheology
Fluid loss
Free fluid
Settling behavior
Expected WOC time
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WOC Time
The waiting on cement (WOC) time is best determined using an Ultrasonic
Cement Analyzer (UCA). The UCA provides a nondestructive way to continuously
monitor compressive strength development under downhole temperature and
pressure.
The test should also be conducted at the downhole T and P at the top of the
cement column.
The cement slurry should be pre-conditioned in a consistometer. The preferred
practice is to run UCA compressive strength tests at both bottom hole and at the
top of the cement column or top-of-liner conditions to determine the optimum time
to resume operations in the well. Normally, operations should not be resumed
until the cement has developed 500+ psi at the top of the column. It needs to be
remembered that the UCA obtains the compressive strength from correlations
based on the acoustic transit time of the cement. Often, it is found that the
compressive strength estimates of the UCA are conservative when compared with
destructive (crushed) compressive strength tests. However, the UCA estimate of
the time for initial set (~50 psi strength) is often quite accurate.
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Once the mixing operation begins, the only control the operator has over the
cement slurry going downhole is the regulation of slurry density. The cement
slurry is designed to have an specific solids-to-water ratio. Deviations from this
ratio will affect the cement properties. Most slurries will entrain air during the
mixing operation. Chemicals are available that eliminate serious foaming but do
not always prevent the formation under shear of minute air bubbles. When a
slurry density measurement is made with a balance that weighs the slurry under
atmospheric pressure, these tiny air bubbles can cause an erroneous
measurement of the slurry density. The more accurate devices are those which
measure the slurry density under pressure (the pressurized mud balance).
Pressurized density measurements during the job should be made to validate the
accuracy of the radioactive densiometer or other continuous density
measurement device being used in the job.
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Contingency planning
Cement job post-analysis
Cement job evaluation
Cementing in particularly difficult situations:
-
Deviated/horizontal/extended reach
HPTH
Cool environments
Slim holes
Deepwater
Challenging muds
Off-shore
Remote locations
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During casing running, running speeds need to be controlled and checked vs. the
computer simulations for surge and swab pressures. Responsibilities are
assigned to specific personnel to make sure the casing is run according to the
pre-calculated speeds, paying special attention once the casing starts below the
last casing shoe, and in particular as the casing approaches the bottom of the
hole. Line testing pressures are decided upon based on the expected job
pressures and the weakest pressure rating of the equipment (normally the
cementing head).
Planning for last minute contingencies is also done at this stage of the process.
What if? scenarios are constructed. For example, what will be done if the well
loses complete circulation once the casing is on bottom? What if the liner cannot
be set? What if we do not see the pressure blip when the dart picks up the liner
wiper plug? How much over-displacement (if any) will be pumped if the plug does
not bump, etc.
During and After the Cement Job
Once the job is in progress, hopefully all possible situations have been reviewed
and contingency plans are in place for any unexpected event. The job needs to
be performed exactly as planned (rates, volumes, etc.). and all the data collected
so that an effective post-analysis can be performed.
After the job, the previously discussed plan for material balance is put into effect.
Water volumes used are checked. Tanks are checked for leftover cement.
Cement bulk volumes used are checked vs. volumes pumped, etc. The job is
reviewed with all personnel involved, and discussions are conducted as to how
the job went vs. the expected pressures, etc.
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On occasions, the plug does not bump at the calculated and pumped
displacement volume. Possible causes include:
compressibility of the displacement fluid not included in calculations
errors associated with the calculation of the displacement volume due to
casing actual volume somewhat different from the book value
air in lines between pumps and the well head
assumptions about rig pump efficiency which lead to an over-estimation of
number of strokes to bump the plug
human errors during the monitoring of the volume being pumped
mechanical problems or failure of the devices being used to measure the
volume (displacement tanks, pump efficiency, flow meters, etc.)
Occasionally, the plug may bump early (before the total calculated displacement
volume is pumped). This is clearly an indication of a serious human error or of a
mechanical problem as outlined above. For example, displacement volumes
have been calculated all the way to the shoe, instead of to the float collar.
The plug not bumping may, or may not, present a serious problem. If it is not
absolutely necessary for the plug to land, often the pumps are shut down after
pumping the calculated displacement volume and the cement slurry allowed to set
(WOC time). Another approach is to pump an extra one half the shoe-track
volume (casing volume between he float collar and the float shoe) to see if the
plug bumps. If not, again the pumps are shut down and the job terminated. This
last practice is more common with the large casing strings. With the smaller sizes
of casing, this approach needs to be used with extreme caution because of the
reduced capacity of the casings, and the great danger of over-displacing
(pumping displacement fluid around the shoe), causing what is called a "wet
shoe" situation. A wet shoe will require a cement squeeze operation of the casing
shoe.
The end result of the top plug not bumping may be that more cement needs to be
drilled inside the casing before drilling ahead. This is not near as serious as
causing a wet shoe by over-displacing, so normally, under-displacement is
preferred.
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There are situations, however, where it is necessary for the top plug to bump, for
example if an external casing packer needs to be inflated, or if a hydraulic stage
tool needs to be opened. In these cases the top plug not bumping can be a very
serious problem. For these cementing jobs, a pre-agreed procedure needs to be
on hand outlining actions to be taken. Obviously, calculations and metering
devices need to be checked and double checked to obtain the best possible
estimate and measurement of the displacement volume needed to bump the plug.
A good rig will keep records of calculated and actual pumped volumes to pump
plugs so that efficiencies can be confirmed and/or adjusted. Some callibration of
rig pumps can be done by pumping from one mud pit to another but this does not
take account of all the potential errors which can occur.
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Sometimes during the life of the well, poor isolation becomes evident by the
observation of communication between zones.
It can be noticed by the
production of water or gas from a nearby zone, or by noise logs detecting flow to a
depleted zone, etc. In these cases, isolation can be regained by performing
some type of repair procedure. The most common way to recapture zonal
isolation is by performing an squeeze cementing operations. Squeeze cementing
practices are discussed in detail in the Squeeze Cementing Manual.
Where cross flow exists in an open hole section prior to cementing perhaps due
to an induced fracture and a loss and kick zone open simultaneously - every effort
should be made to cure this before running casing.
Annular Pressure
Sustained Annular Casing Pressure can be caused by several factors. One
obvious one is poor displacement of the drilling mud in the hole during cementing,
generating mud pockets and channels that eventually allow communication of
fluids to surface.
Another cause can be flow through a micro-annulus. Micro-annulus flow may
occur after the cement sheath is damaged during drilling out of the liner top, or
casing shoe, or by high pressure testing the casing after the cement has taken an
initial set (this may include when conducting a Leak Off Test). Similar effects can
occur if the cement is displaced with heavy kill weight mud and then a light weight
completion brine is used. It has been shown in the literature that testing the
casing with pressure differentials of 4,000 psi and above over the differential that
existed in the well when the cement set up, will cause damage to normal cement
formulations. Extreme temperature changes during production can also cause
damage to the cement sheath, particularly if coupled with fluid density changes.
In many producing wells this pressure is routinely bled-off and is not a major
problem high pressure, but small volume. In other wells it can be a serious
problem requiring difficult and expensive intervention.
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Figure 12: Example of the Effect of a Water Base Mud Contamination on the 12
hrs Compressive Strength Development of Cement Slurries Cured at 230F
Percent Mud
Contaminati
on
17.4 lb/gal
2910
7010
10
2530
5005
30
1400
2910
60
340
2315
The need to use densified (low water ratio, heavy density cement slurries)
complicates the placement of the kick-off plugs because heavier cement slurry
tends to swap places with the lighter mud in the hole. Therefore, the best plug
placement practices need to be used to protect the cement slurry from levels of
contamination that would prevent sidetracking. This will often involve spotting
some very viscous mud or using a mechanical device to give the plug something
to sit on.
Kick-off cement plugs are normally allowed to harden for 12 to 24 hours. When
testing the plug, drill pipe with a bit is run in the hole and the plug is tagged and
weight is applied. The time required to drill or dress off the top of the plug is used
as one of the means to judge the quality of the plug. A good kick off plug may drill
at a rate of around 20 to 30 ft/hr with a medium tooth rock bit and weight on bit
(WOB) of around 1000 lb/in of bit diameter and around 50 rpm. When drilling a
hard kick off plug, the cuttings should be sharp and angular.
If the kick off plug is too soft for sidetracking, the normal procedure is to drill or
wash to a point low enough to allow setting of another plug, and the plug
placement procedure repeated. Often the second plug will work because the first
one contributes to forming a base that minimizes migration of the second cement
slurry.
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Several factors can contribute to failed cement jobs across liner tops (overlaps).
A field survey conducted by a major oil company suggested the following possible
causes of leaky liner tops:
Poor cement placement (channeling) around the liner in the overlap due to
poor liner centralization, lack of pipe movement, poor spacer design, etc.
Poor cement placement around the liner in the overlap caused by tight clearances.
Lost Circulation during cementing due to excessive pressures ECDs, bridging of the liner lap, etc.
Not enough overlap (300 - 500 ft needed based on field experiences).
Contaminated cement in the overlap caused by not using enough cement on
top of the liner, lack of centralization, improper spacer design, etc. Should
aim for 500ft of cement ontop of the liner.
Immobile solids beds accumulated in the overlap due to tight clearances,
and the aggravating presence of flow restrictions caused by the presence of
liner hangers, and polished bore receptacles (PBRs).
Immobile solids beds accumulated in the overlap generated by well inclination.
Poor cement slurry design: over-retarded slurry, not using a gas migration
control slurry, slurry settling, etc.
Not waiting on cement long enough for the cement to get a good set at the
top of the liner.
Swabbing of the liner top, by using poorly planned well operations after the
job, before the cement is set.
High pressure testing of the casing after the cement is set, damaging the
cement sheath in the overlap, etc.
Leaky liner tops may be repaired from the top if the overlap is capable of taking
fluid. If not, perforating below the overlap or across the offending zone may be
needed to shut off the source of the flow. A liner top packer would be a more
common solution.
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Hydrostatic Pressure
C em ent
F lu id
C em ent
S e ts
C em ent
G e ls
O v e rb a la n c e
P re s s u re
C em ent
H a rd e n s
F o rm a tio n G a s P re s s u re
T im e
Figure 14:
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500
No Gas flow
400
300
Gas Flow
200
100
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Time (min)
Figure 15:
Beyond 500 - 1,000+ lb/100 ft2 (or some other high value), gas migration through
the unset cement can no longer occur. The time it takes for the cement to gel
from 100 to 500 lb/100 ft2 has been defined by a service company as the
Transition Time of the cement. A better definition of "Transition Time" is the time
from the start of development of gel strength (the point when the cement stops
transmitting 100% of the hydrostatic head above it) to the time it has developed
1,000+ lb/100 ft2 of gel strength.
Before the industry had developed an understanding of the causes of gas
migration, and before cement slurries were developed that can help control the
flow, serious problems were encountered. Cases of blow-outs and fires are well
documented in the literature. Nowadays the situation is much less common.
When migration after cementing occurs, it is generally because the cementing
operation was not well designed, or executed, or the potential for migration after
the job was not correctly diagnosed. In all cases of gas or water migration after
cementing, repair normally consists of determining the location of the source of
the gas or water, and perforating and squeezing to seal off the offending zone.
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Bring competent cement to the mud line (ML) to provide adequate structural support for the well.
Isolate the potential loss circulation zone in the XYZ formation from +/- 225
to 255 meters from the rotary table (RT).
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Well trajectory
Drilling Rig details
Mud types, densities, expected rheologies
Required tops of cement (TOCs)
Expected well temperatures static, undisturbed geothermal temperature
gradient
Provisional tail and filler slurries densities and column lengths
Lithology information: formation types, strengths, etc.
Pore pressure/fracture pressure profile
Potential loss and kick zones
Anticipated drilling time curve
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Well diagram including proposed depths, casing and hole sizes, casing
weights, MD & TVDs.
Available well temperatures data and source (offset wells or from correlations, etc.)
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Often to start with, these sections are left almost blank until the detailed
interaction with the service company representatives has taken place.
Details of each cement job procedure including the contingency jobs.
Often to start with, these sections are left almost blank until the detailed
interaction with the service company representatives has taken place.
Details of the cement slurries and spacer systems proposed: density, volumes, fluid loss requirements, WOC times, cement tops, etc. Often to start
with, these sections are left almost blank until the detailed interaction with
the service company representatives has taken place.
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Figure 16: Illustration taken from the Applied Drilling Engineering SPE textbook
series. Vol. 2
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To conduct the tests, the mud in the casing is conditioned or displaced to new
mud for the next section. The casing is closed at the surface (BOPs) and a good
quality, low fluid loss drilling fluid is pumped down the well at a fixed slow rate,
normally about 1/4 bpm, until the desired pressure is obtained or the well starts to
take fluid, noticed by a departure in the observed pressure trend. The surface
pressure and the volume of fluid pumped are recorded and plotted on Cartesian
paper as the test is performed. The Figure illustrates the process. Once the
desired pressure is obtained, or the well starts to take fluid, the pump is stopped
and the pressure observed and recorded for 10 to 20 minutes. If the casing was
tested before drilling the shoe track, the line of pressure vs. volume pumped
should be plotted on the same graph. In the figure, the dashed line was plotted
based on anticipated results from previous tests (expected behavior). This line
and the casing pressure test line can be of great help when conducting and
interpreting the LOT or FIT.
As illustrated in the figure, the pressure vs. volume tends to fall on a near straight
line. Point D, near the start of the test, can be used to estimate the mud's gel
strength development (resistant to initiate movement of the fluid). Likewise, the
slope of the early portion of the line can be estimated from the compressibility of
the drilling fluid, or the early measured slope can be used to estimate the
compressibility of the mud.
For a good FIT, when the pump is stopped, the last pressure point should fall on
the straight line. For a LOT, a point is reached (point A on the graph) where the
data departs from the straight line behavior. At that point, the formation (or the
weak cement job) starts taking fluid. The pressure at point A is known as the leak
off pressure. Pumping is continued at the same constant pump rate after reaching
point A, to make sure that leak off is actually taking place. After a while (point B),
the pump is shutdown to observe the pressure decline.
As a rule of thumb, about 0.6 barrels of a 9 lb/gal water base mud is required to
increase the surface pressure by 1000 psi for every 1000 ft of a 13-3/8 in. casing.
Values for other casing sizes are given in the Table below. For example, if 13-3/8
in. casing is set at 7000 ft, it should require about 8.4 bbls of mud after all the
compressibility and slack have been removed from the system, if a surface
pressure of 2000 psi is desired for a FIT. This test would require about 34 minutes
if pumping at 1/4 bpm.
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Figure 17: Pressure Increase vs. Volume Pumped. Low Density Water Base
Mud
Casing, in
13-3/8
0.60
10-
0.40
9-5/8
0.32
0.16
If a good LOT or FIT is obtained, drilling continues. If not, and the cause is a
faulty cement job, a squeeze job may be performed to repair the shoe,. If the
cause of the problem is the formation (weaker than anticipated and incapable of
supporting the needed mud densities), normally a squeeze job will only
temporarily solve the problem. In extreme cases, a drilling liner may need to be
run and cemented to isolate the weak shoe.
Temperature Survey
Cements, when they set, generate energy, or heat of hydration, due exothermic
chemical reactions. The temperature increase thus caused can be used to locate
top of cement (TOC) by conducting a temperature survey before the heat is
dissipated into the surrounding formation. To obtain the best determination of the
cement top, the survey must be conducted around the time of maximum
temperature increase.
This maximum temperature increase is generated at around the time that the
cement develops its final set. One rule of thumb is that the maximum heat
generation takes place at a time approximately equal to the time needed for the
cement to thicken under downhole conditions multiplied by a factor of 2. For
example, if the thickening time of a slurry is 2-1/2 hours, then the temperature
survey should be run at about 5 hours after bumping the top plug. This rule of
thumb is not 100% since it needs to be remembered that for long cement
columns, the top of the cement column normally sees lower temperatures than the
BHCT. Thus, it is not unusual to have to re-run the temperature survey again if
the initial run fails to detect the cement top. On the other hand, if one waits too
long, the temperature surge may dissipate and the cement top may not be
detected.
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A better rule of thumb is to run the temperature survey at the time when it is
expected that cement top has developed an early compressive strength of about
50 to 100 psi. This places the emphasis on the behavior of the cement at the top
of the column. Laboratory data from the Ultrasonic Cement Analyzer (UCA) at the
conditions of the top of the cement column are needed in this case. In any case,
if the top of the cement is not clearly observed from the temperature survey,
waiting a few more hours and re-running the survey often yields a good cement
top.
A big disadvantages is the time delay required.
Acoustic Logs
The evaluation of the quality of cement behind pipe after the cement has set is
one of the most difficult operations on the well. The problem is caused by the fact
that the current tools and interpretative methods are not accurate, and are subject
to a great deal of individual interpretation of the data generated. This had lead to
many myths, misconceptions and misuses of the instruments and methods
available in the industry. Here we will not discuss how to run or interpret a sonic
or ultrasonic log. That belongs in the Cement Evaluation Course. Instead, we will
review the proper way to make use of the logs as a tool to help evaluate the
cement job.
The above difficulties with the currently available technology has generated
different approaches to the evaluation of cement jobs. On one hand, some in the
industry use the data generated by sonic or ultrasonic logs exclusively to evaluate
the cement quality, without examining other important and relevant data. Others
do not believe in the tools at all and do not run them. The best approach is, of
course, somewhere in between the two extremes.
The proper evaluation of the quality of a cement job should include sonic and
ultrasonic logs, in addition to the examination of all the other information available
to the engineer. The cement job evaluation approach described below includes
the analysis of the data from all the different sources. These sources include the
open hole log data, the actual cement job execution and performance, the
formulation and properties of the cement used in the job, and the data from the
sonic and ultrasonic logs. Each of these sets of information needs serious
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was a serious effort made to use best cementing practices during the planning and execution?
If the answer is no, then there is a good chance that the job did not produced
good results, and this lack of attention to good practices may point, along with
other pieces of the puzzle, toward a possible bad job. When investigating the use
of best cementing practices, several issues need to be examined. For example:
Hole Conditioning and Displacement Procedures: The application of good
hole conditioning procedures and mud displacement practices is essential to the
success. The actual use of these techniques varies with well conditions. If good
procedures were used, this should imply a likely good job.
Proper use of Spacers: The job record should show that quality spacer systems
and proper spacer volumes were used. Lab data should indicate good
compatibility with the cement slurry, the spacer and the actual location mud. If an
oil based mud was used to drill the hole, the spacer should have been tested for
its ability to water-wet surfaces. If all of this was done, this should suggest the
potential for good cement job.
Use of Cementing Plugs: A bottom plug ahead of the cement slurry should have
been used. Another bottom plug ahead of the spacer would indicate that a good
effort to minimize contamination of the fluids in the casing was made. No use of
bottom plugs points to possible contamination of the fluids in the casing. The
bigger the casing ID, the greater the chances of contamination of the cement
slurry while going down the pipe.
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Job pressure behavior: The analysis of the surface pressure signature can help
determine if the job went well without loss circulation, channeling or inflow. It can
also indicate if restrictions were present during the job. The correct analysis of the
data includes comparing the record to the predicted values and trends, the onset
and end of free-fall, etc.
Density record: This record should be used to check if all the fluids were pumped
at the designed densities. Cement slurry properties can be drastically altered if
the mixed density is not within the design requirements. Normally, the cement
slurry needs to be mixed at the desired density +/- 0.1 lb/gal.
Other problems experienced during the cement job: The recorded data and
the comments from personnel on the job, should be used to decide if other
problems occurred during the mixing and execution of the operation. For example,
problems with quantity and quality of the water getting to the mixing equipment,
excessive amounts of cuttings and debris coming in the returns, pipe tendency to
sticking, etc.
Data from logging tools
All these sets of data and information can only point to the possibility of a good, or
bad, cement job. The information must be used with data from logging tools to
come to an informed decision about the quality of the job. On the other hand, the
cement evaluation logs are the only tools run to try to actually "measure" the
condition of the cement behind pipe. Again, the reason for the necessity to look at
all the data available is that the cement logging tools are not accurate, and are
subject to individual interpretation. Other limitations of the tools will be discussed
below.
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Tools Available
Sonic bond tools: These tools have the capability of "measuring" the bond of the
cement to the casing and the bond of the cement to the formations. The bond
however is greatly affected by the well conditions and other factors that will be
discussed below. The bond to the casing is inferred using the measurement of
the sonic energy transmitted down the casing. The bond to the formation is
qualitative and is implied by the characteristics of the formation signals received
by the tool (variable density log). All of the tools except the segmented tools
provide data that is omni-directional. This means that the data is averaged from
all the signals received from around the entire circumference of the pipe. This is a
serious limitation of these tools. The segmented tools however, provides
segmented data for the casing bond.
The following tools can be classified as sonic evaluation tools.
Amplitude tools
Attenuation tools
Segmenting bond tool
The amplitude and the attenuation tools are similar and essentially provide the
same information. The amplitude tools provide energy transmission data while
the attenuation tools provide data on the amount of dampening of the sonic signal.
The segmented tools provide amplitude or attenuation at specific locations around
the casing.
Ultrasonic Tools: These tools measure the reflection of an ultrasonic signal as it
passes through the casing and is reflected by the casing cement interface.
Because these tools only give information on the condition of the cement-pipe
interface, only the quality of the cement bonding to the casing can be inferred.
This is a serious limitation of these tools, since often mud channels form at the
formation-cement interface, and the tools cannot "see" that section of the annulus.
The tools, however, are segmented and can provide the quality of the cement
bond at many locations around the casing. The tools are claimed to be less
sensitive to (but still affected by) the presence of a microannulus. The following
are the types of ultrasonic tools available:
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Sonic
(omni-directional)
Sonic
(segmented)
Ultrasonic
(segmented)
Ultrasonic
(scanning)
Casing Bond
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Formation Bond
Yes
Yes
No
No
Gas
No
No
Yes
Yes
Microannulus
Very Sensitive
Very Sensitive
Sensitive
Sensitive
Not specific
Deviated High
side Channel
Not specific
Not specific
Small Channels
Channel on formation
Not Specific
Not Specific
No
No
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Fast Formations
Cycle Skipping/stretch
Thin Cement Sheaths
Casing thickness limitations
Borehole fluids
Gate Settings
Transducer malfunctions
Collection/presentation of the Log Data
It is important that the cement evaluation logs be run with and without pressure.
The sonic tools are very sensitive to the presence of microannuli and ultrasonic
ones are also to a lesser extent. If there is a substantial difference in the logs
conducted with and without pressure, then it is very likely that a micro-annulus is
present.
Microannuli are frequently present in wells. They can form for a variety of
reasons. They normally do not compromise the cement job, but make the
evaluation of the job with sonic or ultrasonic tools more difficult. The presence of
a microannulus is normally not a serious problem since flow is not likely or, if it
takes place, is very small due to the large pressure drops required. Gas is more
likely to be a problem than oil or water.
There are other special considerations when evaluating a cement bond log. For
example, soft formations can produce a low stress environment for the cement
and allow it to lose tight contact with the casing creating a microannulus that
affects log evaluation.
Some Log Interpretation Comments
Continuous good bond: If the log indicates good bonding all along the cemented
interval and the formation signal is good (comparison with the open hole sonic log
and the Gamma ray log is very important!), then the cement job is generally
considered good, particularly if the bulk of the other information available
suggests a good cement job.
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Continuous poor bond: If the log indicates little or no bonding all along the
cemented interval, then the job may, or may not, be a good one. The examination
of the additional data will help decide the actions to take: ignore the log, or do a
squeeze job?
Combination of poor and good bond: As with the previous case, the other data
available will help with the interpretation. In addition, detailed examination of the
logs may indicate that, for example, the poor bond is always across permeability.
This may suggest the presence of a soft mud filter cake. If good contact with the
formation exists across the shale barriers (Gamma ray is used to determine the
presence of the shales), isolation may still exist, and a squeeze job may not be
needed.
Low side/high side differences in the logs: If the wellbore is deviated, channels
on the low and high side of the hole may be present. If the cement slurry exhibits
free fluid, a channel would form on the high side of the annulus. The channel may
exist along the entire cemented interval. If the low side solids in the hole were not
removed prior to or during the cement job, a solids channel will be present on the
bottom of the annulus. The use of the segmented tools can be valuable for
determining the presence of channels on the top or the bottom of the annulus. If
channels are detected, the next thing is to estimate the length of the channels,
and to decide if isolation exists or if a squeeze job may be needed.
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Section 2: Equipment
Cement Mixing
Cement mixing equipment has to be robust and fail-safe. It has to cope with a
wide range of slurry densities and slurry types. It has to be capable of mixing
continuously at relatively high rates (minimum 4 to 5 bbl/minute, or greater than 1
MT/minute) and at a constant density. It must be able to cope with variations in
bulk cement supply.
These are very demanding requirements and in the early days required skilled
and experienced operators. Even today mixing can, and does, create problems. It
is, unfortunately, not that uncommon for the slurry to go downhole at a somewhat
different density from that designed in the lab.
Early mixing consisted of a jet mixer, hopper, small slurry tub and a cutting table
for sacks. The cementer operating the unit would vary the water going to the jets
in an attempt to cope with variations in cement supply or blockages in the hopper.
The slurry tub would contain only about a bbl of slurry so little homogenisation
took place. This type of mixing set-up is still the default, fail-safe, method on many
sophisticated modern units.
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Batch Mixing
Batch mixers come in many forms and sizes. All are basically tanks which will hold
the slurry before it is pumped downhole. Some hold only 50 bbl; others are 100
bbl or more. They will usually be equipped with some form of agitation. This may
be paddles, centrifugal pumps or compressed air.
The main use is in liner and plug cementing; the advantage being that the slurry
can be brought up to weight with all the additives, homogenised and even tested
before being pumped. There is thus no variation in density or properties and there
is more assurance for critical slurries that everything is optimised.
Two aspects to be aware of:
Lab testing (particularly pumping time) should take account of the holding
time on surface. Testing in the consistometer should include a period without
application of temperature and pressure.
Centrifugal pumps, recirculating small volumes of slurry over a long time,
can lead to heating and shear effects which can alter the slurry properties.
The slurry may then behave differently to the lab design. This has been a
problem with Coiled Tubing (CT) jobs where slurry volumes are often small
(<25 bbl).
Automated Mixing
Increasingly, computer automation is being used to control mixing rather than
relying on the cementers skill and experience with the knife gate and water
valves. These systems can work well and reliably but a fall back system is good
insurance.
Computer systems are essential for foamed cement slurry mixing with nitrogen.
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Pumping
High pressure pumping units, like the mixer, have to be robust and capable of
highly reliable performance. The industry has standardised on triplex (three
plunger) pumps. Most cementing units will use two banks of triplex pumps 2 x 3
cylinders. These are fed by centrifugal charge pumps through spring loaded
valves. The pumps are very ruggedly constructed, can easily be stripped and
repaired and are generally very reliable. They can pump highly abrasive slurries
across a full range of densities and rheologies. The pluger stroke can vary from 5
to 10 inches and the plunger diameter from 3 to 6 inches. By altering the sizes, the
delivery capability of the pumps can be varied to cope with different circumstances
but using the same horsepower of the unit higher pressures/lower flow rate or
higher flow rate/lower pressure.
A unit will usually deliver between 200 and 500 hydraulic horsepower (hhp).
Rates of up to 8 bbl/minute at 500 to 1,000 psi are typical cementing parameters
when pumping downhole using 2 treating lines.
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Both diesel and electric powered units are available. The diagrams below show
the guts of the fluid ends of a Halliburton HT 400 unit.
Recording
The variables of interest are:
Slurry density
Flow rate
Pressure
Cumulative volume
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These variables are rquired throughout the job mixing, pumping and
displacement. Where displacement is done by the rig pumps, either extra sensors
have to be installed and hooked up to the cement unit recording device or the data
has to be downloaded from the mud loggers.
Any cement job should have the above parameters recorded to provide:
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Treating lines are subject to erosional forces when pumping at high rates and
need periodic inspection to ensure satisfactory wall thickness. This is usaully
done annually by an ultrasonic method. Threads should be checked with a gauge
kit and magnetic particle methods are used to look for any cracking.
Size
15,000
4.5
20,000
4.5
15,000
8.5
15,000
20
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Higher rates will wear faster and require more frequent inspection.
An annual pressure test to 15,000 psi is also required.
The standard union is FMC Weco type 1502, with a working pressure of 15,000
psi. This is an integral, or Non-Pressure Thread Seal (NPTS). Threaded
connections are not permitted between a positive displacement high-pressure
pump discharge and the wellhead connection.
High pressure lines should always be chained down to prevent uncontrolled,
violent whiplash in the case of a catastrophic failure.
Safety Considerations
Cementing operations should be approached with a high precautionary
awareness of safety issues.
Particularly important are:
High pressures
Pressure testing operations
Bulk cement with pneumatic supply
Dust cement is highly alkaline and can cause serious burns to the eyes
Slips, trips and falls cement units can be wet, slippery and frequently
require climbing
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High pressure treating lines are often subject to considerable rough handling and
can often spend long periods between detailed visual inspection.
In any pressure testing exercise the treating lines should be chained down to
prevent flying around in case of a test failure. Personnel should be excluded from
the viscinity and warning signs erected.
Wherever there is a chance of overpressure being applied there shoud be a
pressure relief device either some spring-loaded device or a bursting disk.
Needless to say, such devices require periodic re-certification.
Off-shore neat cement is held in silos or P-Tanks in the same manner as bulk
barite and bentonite.
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With an air pressure of 20 psi, cement powder is easily fluidised and flows readily.
Excessive pressures should be avoided. Offshore tanks will often have a working
pressure of 40 psi but this is higher than should be required. The bulk tanks
should have a Pressure Relief Valve installed. This should be set slightly higher
than the maximum working pressure say 45 psi on a 40 psi WP tank. Periodic
inspection and testing of these devices is required.
When cement is pneumatically transferred over many feet (>30 ft) it can separate
into slug flow. The surge tank situated close to the mixer smooths out the delivery
and also allows for the switching of tanks when one becomes empty without
interrupting mixing.
Bulk systems on off-shore rigs are the responsibility of the rig contractor. Many
rigs have been built and are still in service which have less than ideal bulk
systems. Sometimes the tanks are remote from the unit and at a different level.
Often there are considerable numbers of bends in the line. Not surprisingly, bulk
delivery problems can be a major source of trouble for the cementer. Every effort
should be made to identify causes of problems with the rig contractor and steps
taken to resolve any short-comings.
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The above head is a single plug cement head and manifold. If used with both a
top and bottom plug, the bottom plug is loaded before the head is made up to the
casing. The plug is released ahead of the cement and then, after pumping the rest
of the cement into the casing, the head is opened and the top plug loaded. At this
time the cement is most likely free-falling in the casing and there will be a rush of
air as the head is opened. Alternatively, the bottom plug released and the spacer
pumped, The head is then opened and the top plug loaded before pumping the
cement. After pumping the cement the top plug is then released.
The right hand manifold is for a two plug head allows both plugs to be loaded and
circulation can be more or less continuous. Both heads have similar release
mechanisms for the plugs often a pin horizontally screwed into the body of the
head.
Two plug heads are sometimes too long for the standard bails on smaller rigs and
there are always fears of releasing both plugs before the cement with obvious
consequences.
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Liner Cement Heads are similar in principle but hold the darts which are pumped
down the drill pipe running string. They are, therefore, much smaller diameter.
A sub-sea cement head consists of an assembly holding the plugs within the
casing at seabed. These plugs are launched by darts or balls released from a
head on the surface (similar to the liner head).
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Cement heads need frequent inspection for damage and for wall thickness. They
also require periodic pressure testing. Details of the last pressure test and general
inspection details should travel with the head to location.
The following are the normal steps are required before use on a job.
Check the bolts that hold the release pin or bail assembly to the head and
make sure they are tight.
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Obviously, these valves have to be able to cope with the erosion caused by mud
and cement during pumping. In deep, hot wells (which often have high density
abrasive muds) this can be a servere materials challenge. Some years ago the
API introduced a test method to provide assurance on such equipment - RP 10F ,
Performance of Cementing Float Equipment , 2nd Edition, November 1995.
The term float comes from the use of the valve to enable the casing to be floated
into the well. Obviously, with a check valve in place the casing does not fill up with
mud as it is run and the weight carried by the derrick is reduced. This can assist
some rigs to run casing strings they would otherwise be unable to.
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If the casing is not manually filled at surface, at some stage depending on the
casing grade and mud weight it will collapse. Casing is usually filled every 5 to
10 joints with a hose at surface to prevent this.
Another type of float valve is called an auto-fill float shoe or collar. This auto-fill
device is like a normal valve except that during running in the casing the valve is
held open. The casing then fills with mud as it is run in and pressure surges
associated with movement of the pipe are reduced. When casing is close to
bottom the valve is tripped or converted to a conventional one-way valve.
Depending on the design, this may be done by dropping a ball or by exceeding a
certain flow rate.
Stage Tools
Stage equipment, either a stage collar or port collar, is placed within the casing
string to provide a selectable intermediate passage to the annulus. Stage
equipment is generally used to protect weak formations from excessive
hydrostatic pressure, to cement two widely separated zones, and to reduce mud
contamination.
Stage collars are typically hydraulically opened and closed using free-fall darts
and pumpdown plugs to select and shift the appropriate internal sleeve.The lower
sleeve covers the ports initially.
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Once the first stage is complete, the lower sleeve is pumped down to uncover the
ports by seating the free-fall (or pumpdown) opening plug and applying pressure.
The second stage is pumped and the ports are closed again by seating and
applying pressure to the larger closing plug.
Once closed, the stage collar cannot be reopened. The pressure required to open
and close varies with manufacturers, but is generally between 800 and 1,400 psi.
When two stagecollars are used, a special upper stage collar is required, and care
should be taken to release the correct plugs in the proper sequence. The internal
diameter of the upper stage collar seats must be larger than the lower collar seats.
For highly deviated holes, the free-fall dart should be re-placed with a pumpdown
plug.
Figure 9: Stage Tool Operation
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Casing Centralization
Centralization
Casing should be centralized for three main reasons:
To help get casing to bottom (this includes reduction of the potential for sticking)
To help move the pipe during hole conditioning and the cement job
Provide a good path for fluid flow during hole conditioning and cementing (mud
removal, zone isolation).
Field experiences, numerous large scale experiments and computer simulations
have all shown that even a slight de-centralization can be detrimental to the
cement job, particularly in narrow annuli (for example SPE 8253, R. Haut, 1979).
Therefore, a good centralization program should aim for high levels of standoff (90
- 95+%), particularly in critical wells and in production zones.
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Channeling can also be predicted from rigorous fluid dynamics calculations using
computer simulators of non-Newtonian flow. Below is a simulation of channeling
of a Bingham Plastic fluid in an eccentric annulus. Notice how the fluid moves
higher in the wide section of the annulus.
Less
sophisticated
computation can estimate
the movement of fluids in
variable eccentricity annuli
(eccentricity varying up
and down the annuls). An example of a non-centralized, long annulus is given in
the attached graph. In the graph, the left side represents the wide section of the
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non-centralized annulus. The right side represents the narrow section of the
annulus. Notice that much mud (a large mud channel) was left on the narrow
side of the hole.
Positions of fluids in annular segments in wellbore at 180mins
wide side
1
narrow side
2
0
2000
4000
depths (ft)
6000
Tail Slurry
8000
Lead slurry
10000
W.B. Spacer
O.B. Spacer
12000
Mud
14000
16000
18000
20000
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The sections of hole showing little to no dehydrated mud ring around the cement
across the sand were scratched (pipe movement). The others had no scratchers
(same cement job).
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forces tending to lay the casing against the formation, particularly in deviated holes.
Enough tools need to be used to provide casing centralization over the
needed intervals.
It is normally assumed (however not always the case) that the formation
can provide enough support for the tools (minimum embedment)
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Bow
Rigid
Solid
Bow Spring Type:
The bow type consists of flexible, heat-treated steel spring bows attached to two
collars. By design, the bows are flexible enough to allow passage of the
centralizer through restrictions, but are also provide sufficient stand-off in
enlarged hole areas. The springs come in various shapes and dimensions. The
relaxed OD of the bows is normally larger than the nominal hole (bit) diameter;
thus affording potential centralization in moderately washout zones. Double bow
(tandem) centralizers are also available. They provide excellent restoring forces
with low starting and running forces.
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Solid Type:
Solid centralizers are manufactured with totally non-flexible fins or bands. These
centralizers have solid bodies and solid blades with constant blade OD. They
have zero flexibility and therefore cannot adjust to any hole restriction or
enlargement. Good examples of this type of centralizer are the SpirO-Lizer and
the aluminum spiral centralizers manufactured by Ray Oil Tools, Weatherford and
others.
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Disadvantages
Can adjust to varying hole sizes (can potentially maintain stand-off even in irregular hole
size)
Advantages
Disadvantages
Rigid
Some designs have good flow path characteristics, i.e.low restriction to flow (SpiraGlider).
Solid
Advantages
Disadvantages
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Hole OD (in.)
Stand-off
8.50
83
8.75
71
9.00
0.63
9.25
0.56
10 (washout)
0.42
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Even the best obtainable standoff of 83% (hole size = to bit size) may not be good
enough to get a decent cement job!. For critical situations we want to design for
90 - 95 % standoff. Normally rigid and solid centralizes cannot give us that
level of standoff in real holes. We need to also remember that normally the
centralizers are purchased and often installed way before the size of the open
hole is known (caliper).
On the other hand, bow spring centralizers for this example can have max. OD's
of over 13 in., with a compressed OD of as low as 8.231 in.(less than the previous
casing drift diameter). Bow spring centralizers can potentially provide the desired
high levels of standoff, as long as the normal forces are not excessive (see
below). So, the main advantage of bow spring centralizers is that due to their
flexibility, they present the best chance of properly centralizing the pipe (the
issue of the quality and durability of bow spring centralizers will be visited later on
in this document.)
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An example test is shown below. Notice the high angles concentrated very close
to the device. Experiments and mathematical simulations have also shown that
even minor hole enlargements and eccentricity significantly reduce the beneficial
effects produced by the swirl due to portions of the flow bypassing the device and
not turning (Wells, 1991).
Based on these and other experiments, some in the industry have concluded that
the fact that the flow turns around the pipe, that that means that the cement will
always end up covering the entire annulus. Unfortunately, this is not always the
case in real holes.
Very few experiments have been conducted under realistic downhole conditions,
including the presence of permeability and hole inclination. Permeability has a
dramatic effect on the mobility of mud films and solids laden beds on the
low side of inclined holes. Due to partial dehydration and gelation, mud films
across permeability often exhibit levels or resistance orders of magnitude greater
than non-dehydrated mud portions (this depends also on the mud properties. Oil
base type muds for example, generate the most mobile mud films). To remove the
partially dehydrated-gelled mud films, spacer fluids have to be designed with
rheologies high enough to be able to apply the needed levels of stress.
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Thin fluids often cannot generate the necessary stress at the fluid-mud-film
interface. Mud films around the cement, across the permeable sand can be seen
in the first photo above. Below is another example.
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Figure 21: Effect of Bow Spring Centralizers in the Proximity of the Device
(after Crook, 1985)
Spiral Centralizers Digging (Plowing) into the Hole
There are documented field cases pointing to this possibility, particularly in short
radius holes and/or across "soft" formations. Cuttings beds, of course, offer a real
problem if they are pushed ahead. Therefore, caution needs to be exercised when
using high angle blade centralizers.
In an experimental well, a 7" casing with 45 degree blade angle turbulators was
run in a 9-7/8" hole with a 90 degree dog leg over 463 ft (from 0 to 90 degrees)
with a 125 ft lateral. The well was drilled across hard rock. With the turbulators,
the casing could not be run to bottom. After pulling the casing out of the hole,
packing-off was observed around the turbulator blades. Straight solid centralizers
(aluminum) were run next. Difficulties were again encountered, and the pipe was
again pulled out of the hole. One centralizer was never recovered; another was
cracked. No packing-off was noticed across the centralizers. A reaming run was
made, and the casing went down this time, with some difficulty.
In a field case, packing-off problems have been reported while circulating with
high angle blades centralizers. Plowing was suspected in this case when the hole
began packing-off while washing down the liner. The problem was cleared by
picking up the string and circulating.
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Example:
Casing size: 7 in, 23 lb/ft
Hole: 8-1/2 in.
Mud: 10 lb/gal
Horizontal hole section: 6000 ft
Legend for the following figures:
Upper Line: upstroke hookload,
Central Line: neutral weight,
Lower Line: downstroke hookload
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Wear in Microns
Specimens
Disk Material
Steel
Aluminum-Zinc
Aluminum
Steel
4.5
31
135
Sandstone
7.8
45.4
357
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Section 3: Cement
Cement
Aims:
Cement - what is it and how does it work?
Manufacture
Limitations
Modifications to make it suitable for use under different well conditions - particularly temperature and pressure.
What is Cement?
Clays and lime (CaO) were used as binding materials for stones from early times.
The Romans used materials of volcanic origin (natural pozzolans) and found that
pozzolans with lime produced a competent cementitious material that could be
used in building. A crude lime mortar was used in the building of the pyramids.
In 1756 John Smeaton rebuilt the Eddystone Lighthouse using a mixture of
natural pozzolan and lime.
Modern Portland cements started with the calcination of limestones - heating
CaCO3 - to produce quicklime (CaO). Later it was found that impure limestones
containing clay produced mortars that worked better than the more pure
limestones. These findings led to the burning of blends of limestone (calcareous
material) with silica and clay (argillaceous) materials. In 1796 James Parker
produced a material he called Roman Cement; one of the first cements that set
and and remained water resistant. It was used in Brunels Thames Tunnel and in
railway bridges built by Robert Stevenson.
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Joseph Aspdin, who had a factory in Wakefield in England, was granted a patent
by the British Government in 1824 for a cement he had developed. Aspdin called
his cement Portland cement, because concrete produced from it resembled stone
quarried on the Isle of Portland off the south coast of England. He claimed it is
not subject to atmospheric influences, and will not, like other cements, vegetate,
oxydate, or turn green but will retain its original colour of Portland stone in all
seasons and climates.
Portland cement was first produced in bottle kilns and then in shaft kilns. It was an
American, Frederick Ransome who produced the first modern rotary kiln in 1885.
Portland cement was first used in oil wells around 1903 to shut-off water. By
1917, Portland cements were used routinely in cementing of hydrocarbon wells.
As wells became deeper, hotter and more difficult to cement, the industry required
the manufacturers to modify the properties to produce so called oil-well cements.
Most cement is, of course, produced for the construction industry and relatively
little for the oil industry. The properties required differ considerably.
The American Petroleum Institute (API) established the first committee to study oil
well cements in 1937. Specifications for different oil well cements followed and
the industry developed ways to modify properties with additives to enable them to
perform under demanding well conditions.
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The dry process consists of crushing the materials separately, storing each in
bins, performing chemical analysis on each and then blending prior to being
ground to a fine powder. The final blend is analyzed, adjusted as needed, and fed
to a rotary kiln.
In the wet process, the limestone is crushed and stored. The clays and shales are
crushed and mixed in water flotation tanks to remove unwanted impurities and
large chunks. The dry materials are then mixed into this dispersion to form a
slurry. The slurry is analyzed for correct chemical content. Then the slurry is fed
into a wet grinding mill, analyzed again and fed into the rotary kiln.
The normal concentration of material in either system is approximately two parts
limestone to one part clay and shale with small amounts of iron and alumina.
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500 Deg C:
900 Deg C:
1400 deg C:
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Phase
Chemical Nomenclature
Percentage
C 3S
65%
C 2S
17%
Tetracalcium aluminoferrite
C4AF
14%
Tricalcium aluminate
C 3A
2%
Tricalcium Silicate (C3S). Forms from CaO and SiO2. During hydration, two
molecules of C3S generate three molecules of lime. Normally the lime acts as a
filler and does not negatively affect the cement. However, in the presence of
acidic well fluids, it can contribute to cement deterioration. At elevated
temperatures (above 230F), the lime can react with finely divided silica added to
the cement slurry to form stable calcium silicates, which contributes to the integrity
of the cement. C3S is the major compound in most cements. It constitutes 40 to
45% of normal cements. In high strength cements it can be as much as 60 to
65% of the total composition. C3S is the main strength producing material. It
contributes to all the stages of strength development, but particularly during the
early stages. (up to 28 days).
Dicalcium Silicate (C2S). It is also formed from the reaction of CaO and SiO2.
This component hydrates slowly, so it does not affect the initial setting of the
cement. However, it has a great impact on the final strength development.
Dicalcium Silicate is the slow hydrating compound and accounts for the small,
gradual gain in strength which occurs over extended periods of time.
Tricalcium Aluminate (C3A). This compound if generated by the combination of
CaO and Al2O3. C3A does not contribute greatly to the final strength of the set
cement. However, it is the compound that responds most actively to cement
additives and promotes rapid hydration (early strength development) and it is the
component that controls the initial set and thickening time of the cement. The set
time of C3A can be controlled by the addition of gypsum.
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According to one hydration theory, the CSH gel layer acts as a semi-permeable
membrane which allows water molecules to diffuse into the grain but slows down
calcium and hydroxide ion migration into solution. Therefore, osmotic pressure
continuously builds during the dormant period until a critical stage is reached and
the CSH gel layer ruptures. This heralds the onset of setting. The rupturing is
accompanied by growths of spikes from the grains and the locking together of
these spikes causes viscosity increase and then strength to develop.
Grains of API class G cement well into the hydration process.
Hydration Products
Anhydrous Clinker
Fast
C-S-H gel
C3S
(Colloidal
Variable
Composition)
C2S
Slow
C3A
Ca (OH)2
Portlandite
(Crystalline)
C4AF
Gypsum
Figure 6: Cement Reactions: the size of each box represents the approximate
volume of each phase
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After the paste has gained strength, the reactions become diffusion controlled. At
this time a local reaction product of dense fibrous C-S-H hydrate is formed. This
'late' or 'inner' product accounts for the high strength and low permeability of the
set cement structure.
The above brief synopsis of the setting process emphasized the hydration of the
C3S phase, for the simple reason that it is judged to be the main factor involved in
cement setting and hardening. The slower reacting C2S is probably responsible
for the long term hardening process and may follow an essentially similar
hydration mechanism. The aluminates, though important in the early stages, are
largely halted in their reaction by the presence of available sulfates; and their
contribution to the final strength is minimal.
Since the volume of the hydration products is more than double that of the cement
powder the spaces between the original grains of cement are gradually, but not
completely, filled. Once the cement slurry has set solid, hydration continues but
rarely will all the cement be hydrated. A set cement can have a quite high porosity
(30%) althought the permeability can be very low (similar to a shale). It is the
degree of porosity together with the strength and structure of the hydration
products which governs the strength and other properties of the hardened
cement.
Porosity is dependent on the initial water/cement ratio a lot of water will result in
a high porosity and a low strength. Conversely, a low porosity hardened cement
will have a high strength.
Limitations of Cement
The performance of cements, particularly under elevated temperatures and
pressures, will vary from cement plant to cement plant and from one manufacturer
to another. This is due to variations in raw materials and in the actual
manufacturing process.
Other factors add further variability in the performance of cement slurries used in
hydrocarbon producing wells. These slurries require chemical additives to modify
the properties to accomplish cementation of the casing under widely different
downhole conditions. The inclusion of additives brings more potential for
discrepancies in the response of cement slurries, since the chemicals themselves
are manufactured materials with their own potential for performance changes.
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Cement varies.
Water varies.
Additives vary.
California. Frank Hill, with Union Oil Company, mixed and dump-bailed 50 sacks
of neat Portland cement into the well. The procedure worked, and the treatment
became the accepted practice and soon spread to other California fields. The
dump-bailer technique was replaced by the two-plug method in California by A. A.
Perkins in 1910. It was with Perkins' method that the modem oil well cementing
process was born. The patent issued to Perkins specified two plugs.
Before 1940, wells were cemented using construction sacked cement mixed by
hand using very few additives. In the 1930's no additives were used. However, as
wells became deeper, more flexibility in cement performance was required than
could be achieved with available construction cements.
The American Petroleum Institute (API) Committee on Oil Well Cements
It was with the advent of the API Standardization Committee in 1937 that the
search for better cements for wells started. The API Sub-Committee 10 is still in
existence today and, in association with ISO, sets the current specifications for oil
well cements.
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Intended Application: This cement is intended for use from the surface down to
about 6,000 feet, or to 170F bottom hole static temperature, when special
properties are not required. Class A (ASTM Type 1) cement is manufactured
using specifications applicable to the construction industry. The primary use in
well cementing is for surface pipe, or other applications of low temperatures and
pressure. Due to potential variations in the cement performance from mill to mill,
slurries formulated with this cement need to be tested very carefully each time.
Class B
Specification: The product obtained by grinding Portland cement clinker,
consisting essentially of hydraulic calcium silicates, usually containing one or
more of the forms of calcium sulfate as an interground addition. At the option of
the manufacturer, processing additions may be used in the manufacture of the
cement, provided such materials in the amounts used have been shown to meet
the requirements of ASTM C 465. This product is intended for use when
conditions require moderate or high sulfate-resistance. Available in both moderate
sulfate-resistant (MSR) and high sulfate-resistant (HSR) Grades (similar to ASTM
C 150, Type 11).
Intended Application: This cement is intended for use from the surface to 6,000
feet, or to 170F BHST, where moderate or high sulfate resistance is required. This
cement is manufactured according to more stringent specifications than Class A
and is similar to ASTM Type II. Class B is similar to Class A, but it contains less
C3A and is generally ground more coarsely. This causes longer thickening times
and slower strength development than Class A. This cement is recommended for
the same range of uses as Class A.
Class C
Specification: The product obtained by grinding Portland cement clinker,
consisting essentially of hydraulic calcium silicates, usually containing one or
more of the forms of calcium sulfate as an interground addition. At the option of
the manufacturer, processing additions may be used in the manufacture of the
cement, provided such materials in the amounts used have been shown to meet
the requirements of ASTM C 465. This product is intended for use when
conditions require high early strength. Available in ordinary (0), moderate
sulfate-resistant (MSR) and high sulfate-resistant (HSR) Grades (similar to ASTM
C 150, Type 111).
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Intended Application: This cement is also intended for use from the surface to
6,000 feet, or to 170F BHST, where conditions require high early strength or high
sulfate resistance. It is a common misconception that Class C cement cannot be
used at depths greater than 6000 feet. In fact, slurries using Class C cement
have been designed and used successfully in West Texas and New Mexico at
depths in excess of 10,000 feet. The lighter slurry density (14.8 ppg) of these
cements sometimes gives Class C cement a distinct design advantage. Class C
is available in ordinary, moderate (similar to ASTM Type 111) and high sulfate
resistance types.
Several manufacturers make Class C under different trade names. Through iron
modification, all are produced free of C3A which is the cement constituent
attacked by the sulfate ion and whose absence renders cement highly sulfate
resistance. These cements are mainly used in West Texas and New Mexico.
Other oil-field-related uses are for the lining of steel pipe that carry sulfate-bearing
flood waters for secondary recovery.
Class D
Specification: The product obtained by grinding Portland cement clinker,
consisting essentially of hydraulic calcium silicates, usually containing one or
more of the forms of calcium sulfate as an interground addition. At the option of
the manufacturer, processing additions may be used in the manufacture of the
cement, provided such materials in the amounts used have been shown to meet
the requirements of ASTM C 465. Further, at the option of the manufacturer,
suitable set-modifying agents may be interground or blended during manufacture.
This product is intended for use under conditions of moderately high temperatures
and pressures. Available in moderate sulfate-resistant (MSR) and high
sulfate-resistant (HSR) Grades.
Intended Application: Class D cement is intended for use from 6,000 to 10,000
feet, or from 170F to 230F BHST where moderate temperature and pressure
conditions are present. This cement is classified as one of the manufactured
slow-set cements and is no longer generally available. A "slow set" cement is
defined as a cement in which the thickening time was extended by (1) eliminating
the rapid hydrating components in its composition or (2) by adding a chemical
retarder. Starch is commonly used as the retarder in Class D cements. Class D
cement has been replaced by Class G and Class H cements for most
applications.
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Class E
Specifications: The product obtained by grinding Portland cement clinker,
consisting essentially of hydraulic calcium silicates, usually containing one or
more of the forms of calcium sulfate as an interground addition. At the option of
the manufacturer, processing additions may be used in the manufacture of the
cement, provided such materials in the amounts used have been shown to meet
the requirements of ASTM C 465. Further, at the option of the manufacturer,
suitable set-modifying-agents may be interground or blended during manufacture.
This product is intended for use under conditions of high temperatures and
pressures. Available in moderate sulfate-resistant (MSR) and high
sulfate-resistant (HSR) Grades.
Intended Application: This cement is intended for use from 10,000 to 14,000
feet, or from 230F to 290 deg F BHST, where high temperature and pressure
conditions are present. This cement is also classified as one of the manufactured
slow-set cements and is not generally available. Lignosulfonate retarders are
commonly used in the manufacture of Class E cements. Class E cement has
been replaced by Class G and Class H cements.
Class F
Specification: The product obtained by grinding Portland cement clinker,
consisting essentially of hydraulic calcium silicates, usually containing one or
more of the forms of calcium sulfate as an interground addition. At the option of
the manufacturer, processing additions may be used in the manufacture of the
cement, provided such materials in the amounts used have been shown to meet
the requirements of ASTM C 465. Further, at the option of the manufacturer,
suitable set-modifying agents may be interground or blended during manufacture.
This product is intended for use under conditions of extremely high temperatures
and pressures. Available in moderate sulfate-resistant (MSR) and high
sulfate-resistant (HSR) Grades.
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Intended Application: Class F cement is intended for use from 10,000 to 16,000
feet, or from 230F to 320F BHST where extremely high temperature and pressure
conditions are present. This cement is also classified as one of the manufactured
slow-set cements and lignosulfonate retarders are used in its manufacture. Class
F cement was used primarily in overseas markets but it has been largely replaced
by Class G and Class H cements.
Class G
Specification: The product obtained by grinding Portland cement clinker,
consisting essentially of hydraulic calcium silicates, usually containing one or
more of the forms of calcium sulfate as an interground addition. No additions other
than calcium sulfate or water, or both, shall be inter- ground or blended with
clinker during manufacture of Class G well cement. This product is intended for
use as a basic well cement. Available in moderate sulfate-resistant (MSR) and
high sulfate-resistant (HSR) Grades.
Intended Application: Intended for use as a neat cement from the surface to
8,000 feet, or to 200F BHST, without additives. When modified with additives, this
cement can be used for most well applications both shallow and deep. This
cement is manufactured under stringent requirements for chemical content and
physical performance tests.
Class H
Specification: The product obtained by grinding Portland cement clinker,
consisting essentially of hydraulic calcium silicates, usually containing one or
more of the forms of calcium sulfate as an interground addition. No additions other
than calcium sulfate or water, or both, shall be inter-ground or blended with the
clinker during manufacture of Class H well cement. This product is intended for
use as a basic well cement. Available in moderate sulfate-resistant (MSR) and
high sulfate-resistant (HSR) Grades.
Intended Application: Intended for use as a net cement from the surface to
8,000 feet, or to 200F BHST, without additives. When modified with additives, this
cement can also be used for most well applications both shallow and deep.
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More on Classes H and G: The API Class G basic cement was developed in
1964 and was specifically tailored for use in California. It was successful and the
use of it spread to the Rocky Mountain area. This success led to the development
of API Class H basic cement in 1967 and was designed for use in the Gulf Coast
area where higher slurry densities were required.
The purpose of the development of these two classes of cement was to provide
basic (neat) cements without additives, which would not vary in composition
among manufacturers. They would be standard products that could be
interchanged in various slurries.
Class G and Class H cements are both manufactured to the same chemical and
physical requirements. The only difference is in the grind. Class H is ground
more coarsely than Class G and, therefore, requires less mixing water, resulting in
a higher slurry density. The water ratios for these cements are 38 percent for
Class H and 44 percent for Class G. It should be noted that in many applications,
Class H Cement is mixed at 46 percent water as though it was a Class A cement.
This excess water can increase the thickening time, decrease the compressive
strength development, and result in excess free water within the cement column.
This practice requires that careful laboratory testing be performed with the cement
and additives prior to the job to make sure that the slurry and set cement possess
the required properties.
Other Commonly Used Cementitious materials
Pozzolans
Pozzolans (poz) are the oldest truly cementitious material. It is known that the
Romans used natural (volcanic ash) pozzolans as a binding product in their
structures. Pozzolans normally do not possess cement-like properties of their
own. However, when mixed with lime and water, they form compounds that do
possess cementitious value. Since lime is found in Portland cements and it is also
liberated during the setting of cements, if pozzolans are combined with Portland
cements, the lime will react with the pozzolan. The pozzolan reaction depends on
time and temperature. It occurs slowly at temperatures below 140F, and faster
above that value. Straight poz and lime slurries (no cement) have been use at
elevated temperatures.
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It has been found that the addition of poz to cements is beneficial in reducing
shrinkage, improving sulfate resistance, and in helping stabilize strength
developments to temperatures near 270F. In addition, the inclusion of pozzolans
reduce slurry density and cost. Cement slurries containing poz have other good
characteristics such as good rheologies, usually easy to mix, have low heat of
hydration (in situations like permafrost, high heat of hydration is not a desirable
property), and can possess low permeability. Pozzolans slurries are good filler
type slurries due to their relatively low densities and high yields, They can also be
used as completion cements (across the pay).
Artificial pozzolans are derived from the burning of coal and are called "fly ash".
The oil industry uses fly ash almost exclusively over natural pozzolans. Variability
of the material can cause difficulty in slurry design and so many of the advantages
are outweighed.
When making calculations for the weight per sack of poz-cement blends, the API
guidelines and nomenclature need to be followed to avoid confusion and errors.
In these blends, the content of pozzolan is based on the absolute volume of
cement replaced by the poz. Absolute volume is the volume of the material per
unit of mass without voids. This should not be confused with bulk volume, which
includes the air around the particles of the material. Bulk volume is used to
calculate storage requirements for bulk materials.
For example, a 35-65 blend means 35 % by absolute volume of poz and 65% by
absolute volume of Portland cement. In the API recommended nomenclature, the
first number always refers to the poz, and the second to the cement. In this
example, if the absolute density of the cement is 26 lb/gal (absolute volume:
0.0384 gal/lb) and the absolute density of the poz to be used is 20.5 lb/gal
(absolute volume: 0.04878 gal/lb), then the equivalent weight of a "sack" of the
blend is calculated as follows. Notice that the API defines one sack of Portland
cement as weighing 94 lbs.
Absolute volume of one sack of cement: (94 lbs/sk)/(26 lb/gal) = 3.62 gal
35% absolute volume occupied by the poz = 1.267 gal
65% absolute volume occupied by the cement = 2.353 gal
Equivalent weight of a sack of the blend = 1.267 x 20.5 + 2.353 x 26 = 26.97 +
61.18 = 87.2 lb/sk
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Notice that the calculations shown above define an equivalent sack of the blend
as the weight of the blend in pounds that occupies the same volume as 94 lbs of
the Portland cement being used.
Once the equivalent weight of a sack of the blend is calculated, the concentration
of additives included in the slurry design is based on that weight. For example, if
0.2% retarder will be used, the weight of retarder per sack of the blends is 87.2 x
0.2 = 0.174 lb.
For laboratory and for filed bulk blending calculations, it is important to
re-calculate the weight of the cement and the poz needed per sack of the blend:
Weight of poz per equivalent sack of blend: 1.267 gal x 20.5 lb/gal = 25.97 lb
Weight of cement per equivalent sack of blend: 2.353 gal x 26 Lb/gal = 61.18 lb
Manufactured Light Weight Cements
These cements are a good alternative to fly ash-cement blends. They minimize
several of the quality control issues associated with the use of poz systems, and
have similar or improved properties over field blended fly ash slurries.
Trinity Lite-Wate
This high sulfate resistant cement is manufactured by the Trinity Division of
General Portland, Inc. It is a blend of Portland cement and calcined shale. The
material is finely ground. Water content of the formulations can be varied from
about 65 - 115 percent to generate high strength, lightweight slurries within a
range of densities of about 11.9 - 13.7 lb/gal. The cement is available in bulk or
packaged in 75 pound sacks (1 bulk cubic foot).
Trinity Lite-Wate cement can be used in wells with temperatures up to 300 deg F
(150C) without significant strength retrogression.
TXI Lightweight
This is also a high sulfate resistance, low-density cement that allows formulations
of slurries in a density range of about 11.9 to 14.2 ppg, using water rations of from
55% to around 109%. It is a blend of Portland cement and calcined shale. The
cement is available in bulk with a density of 75 pounds per sack (1 cubic foot).
Like Trinity Lite-Wate, this cement can be used at elevated temperatures, and
develops good levels of compressive strength.
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thickening time schedules. For example, the length of time to pump the leading
edge of the cement slurry from the surface to the bottom of the hole (from the
surface temperature to the bottom hole circulating temperature), needs to be
calculated using the capacity of the casing to be cemented and the expected
average job pump rate.
Below is an example calculation of a job-tailored
thickening time schedule. The job-tailored schedule is compared to the API
"average" schedule for the same depth and temperature gradient.
Well depth: 16,000 ft
Liner to be cemented: 7 in., 34 lb/ft, 0.0354 bbl/ft., 2,000 ft long
Drill pipe: 5-1/5 in, 24.7 lb/ft, 0.02119 bbl/ft
Drilling fluid density: 13.5 lb/gal
Spacer fluid density: 14.5 lb/gal
Spacer length in the annulus: 500 ft
Assumed pressure of the cement slurry as it leaves the cementing head: 300 psi
Expected average pump rate during displacement: 5 bpm
Temperature gradient: 1.7F/100 ft
BHCT: 284
Note: to be able to compare the calculated vs. the API schedule, we will assume that
the well BHCT is the same as the one given by the API. In an actual case, this
temperature would be refined using a numerical simulator and maybe log information. It could be different than the API BHCT.
Pipe capacity: 14,000 x 0.02119 + 2,000 x 0.0354 = 296.66 + 70.80 =367.46 bbl
Calculated time to bottom: 367.46/5.0 = 73.49 minutes
API suggested time to bottom: 55 minutes
Calculated heat-up rate (rate of heating of the slurry in the consistometer from the
surface temperature, normally assumed to be 80F to the BHCT): (284 - 80)73.49
= 2.78 F/min.
API suggested heat-up rate: 3.71 F/min.
Calculated bottomhole pressure above the cement slurry: 0.052(15,500 x 13.5 +
500 x 14.5) = 0.052(209,250 + 7,250) = 11,258 psi
API suggested final pressure: 11,400 ft
Well-tailored initial test pressure: 300 psi
API suggested initial test pressure: 1,200 psi
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practice to control fluid loss from cement slurries across permeable zones. A poor
mud cake will do little to control cement filtrate loss, but it will also hinder mud
removal and lead to poor isolation. Good fluid loss control in the cement will not fix
that!
Cement slurry filtration under pressure against a permeable medium is normally
measured in the laboratory under static conditions with a high pressure filter
press, using API (RP-10B) established test procedures. The press is essentially
the same used to measure fluid loss of drilling fluids. The significant difference is
that the filter medium is a No. 325 U.S. standard sieve series wire screen instead
of filter paper. Normally, the slurry is placed in a HPHT consistometer and the
appropriate thickening time test schedule is followed. Upon completion of the
schedule and an additional 30 minute conditioning period, the slurry cup is
removed from the consistometer and the slurry is poured into the pre-heated
high-pressure filter press. The filtration is maintained for 30 minutes at 1,000 psi
differential and at the BHCT. For slurries that dehydrate in less than 30 minutes,
estimated 30-minute fluid loss values are obtained either by plotting the results on
log-log paper and extrapolating to the 30-minute value or by using the following
formula:
Q30 = 2Qt x 5.48/(t)1/2
Where:
Q30 = Extrapolated 30 minutes filtrate
Qt = Measure volume of filtrate at time t
A better way to measure the fluid loss of cement slurries is to use the apparatus
known as the Stirred Fluid Loss Cell This is specialized equipment that combines
the functions of a conventional, static fluid loss test cell, with the slurry
conditioning capabilities of a consistometer. With the Stirred Fluid Loss Cell, the
slurry is placed in the test cell and brought to bottom hole temperature conditions
(there is a 2000 psi testing pressure limitation) while stirring. The slurry is
conditioned at bottom hole conditions for an additional 30 minutes. After the
conditioning period is completed, stirring is stopped, the cell is inverted, and the
1000 psi pressure differential is applied in the normal manner for conducting a
fluid loss test. A procedural advantage of using this apparatus is that there is no
need to cool the slurry in the consistometer, to be able to remove it from the
device, if the test temperature exceeds 190F.
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The main advantage of this device is that it simulates the cementing job
conditions more closely than when using the static cell. One disadvantage (the
same as for the static cell) is the limitation on working pressure, as mentioned
earlier. Another shortcoming is that in reality, this is still a static, rather than a
dynamic test, because stirring of the slurry ceases prior to the application of the
differential pressure, and the filtration test is run with the slurry under static
conditions.
Testing of the cement fluid loss at the BHCT is critical since fluid loss additives are
temperature sensitive. Normal range of concentration for fluid loss materials,
based on weight of cement, is about 0.5% to 1.5%. Levels of fluid loss normally
used throughout the industry are 50 to 300 milliliters/30 minutes for squeeze work
(depending on the injection test), around 150 to 250 for cementing casing
(depending on the annular clearance, permeability exposed, etc), and as low as
50 - 20 milliliters for cementing of liners, particularly if potential for gas migration
existent.
Viscosity (Rheology)
Rheology is the technical term used to describe the shear rate - shear stress
behavior of a fluid.
The rheology of a cement slurry needs to be measured to allow predictions of the
pressure drop and the flow regime of the slurry at projected job flow rates. These
calculations are normally performed using computers. In addition, the rheology of
the slurry can help the experienced engineer decide if the fluid will be easy to mix
in the field, and/or if the slurry will tend to segregate (settle).
The API document RP-10B contains two detailed chapters dealing with the
determination of the rheological properties of cement slurries, and with methods
for calculating pressure drop and flow regime in pipes and annuli.
Cement slurry rheology is normally measured using a portable, atmospheric
pressure rheometer. Two different instruments are available. The Fann V-G
meter and the Chan V-G meter. The two devices function in essentially the same
way. The maximum temperature than can be used with these rheometers is
about 190F.
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A few HPHT instruments are available throughout the industry. For critical wells,
HPHT instruments need to be used to better estimate the behavior of the slurry
and of the cementing job.
As an example, the Fann V-G Meter is a direct-indicating rotational-type
viscometer powered by a two-speed synchronous motor to obtain rotational
speeds of 600 rpm, 300 rpm, 200 rpm, 100 rpm, 6 rpm, and 3 rpm. The outer
cylinder or rotor sleeve is driven at a constant rotational velocity for each rpm
setting. The rotation of the rotor sleeve in the cement slurry produces a torque on
the inner cylinder or bob. A tension spring restrains the movement. A dial attached
to the bob indicates displacement of the bob.
The tension spring most commonly used is known as a "number one" spring. The
#1 spring was designed for studying drilling mud. The higher rheologies of a
cement slurry may cause a viscometer fitted with a #1 spring to "peg out". A
spring with a constant twice that of the #1 spring is available and is called,
appropriately, a "number two" spring. If a #2 spring is used, the viscometer dial
readings are doubled to convert them to the readings that would have been
obtained using a #1 spring. In effect, a #1 spring allows readings to be taken from
0 to 300 degrees while a #2 spring allows readings to be taken from 0 to 600
degrees. Viscometers equipped with #2 springs are often used because they
allow more complete data to be collected for slurries that have higher
consistencies.
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Figure 7 shows the rheological behavior of a neat cement slurry measured using a
Fann VG meter. The shear stress - shear rate response was curved fitted using
the Power Law model.
Figure 7: Rheology of a Neat Cement Slurry Curve Fitted Using the Power Law
Model
Gel strength Development
As cement slurries hydrate, they develop gel strength. Gel strength is essentially
the result of the hydrated structure discussed in a previous section. It is also
influenced by the charges on the particles in the mix water. If a cement slurry is
allowed to remain static for a period of time, it will gel to a degree that depends on
the formulation of the slurry, the temperature and pressure, the time since the
slurry was mixed, and the length of time the slurry remains static. A knowledge of
the gel strength development behavior of a cement slurry is important since if, for
some reason, the slurry becomes static in the well and develops high levels of gel
strength, it will take high pump pressures to break the gels. These high pressures
may cause breakdown of weak formations in the well. In addition, static gel
strength development in the annulus causes a pressure drop in the cement
column. Depending on the magnitude of this pressure drop, and the fragility of the
structure in the cement, this may allow invasion of formations fluids into the
wellbore.
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500
450
400
350
300
Gel Strength
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
Time (min)
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In the API operating free water test, the slurry is heated to BHCT (or BHSQT for
squeeze operations) in a pressurized consistometer in accordance with the
appropriate schedule, cooled to 194F (if needed) and then transferred into a
250 ml graduated glass cylinder. If the free fluid test is going to be conducted
above room temperatures (maximum of 176 deg F according to API), the
graduated glass cylinder is placed in a pre-heated curing chamber or water bath
for the duration of the test. The cylinder is sealed to prevent loss of fluid through
evaporation, and then allowed to remain quiescent, on a vibration-free surface, for
the two-hour duration of the test.
In an attempt to determine free fluid under more realistic downhole conditions, the
test is sometimes conducted with the cylinder at an angle, particularly for highly
deviated or horizontal wells. Since the 45 angle is a severe case for free fluid
occurrence, it is often used as a default (all the free fluid tests run at this angle).
Holding the cylinder at an angle simply amplifies the free water by providing a
shorter settling path for the cement particles.
The preferred free fluid content of cement slurries, particularly for critical wells is
zero. This is particularly so for highly deviated or horizontal wells. For near
vertical wells, the maximum allowed free fluid content should be 1.0%, unless
potential for gas or water migration after cementing exists. In that case, the slurry
should be designed for zero free fluid, regardless of the well angle, tested at
conditions as close as possible to those to be encountered downhole.
Strength Development
The conventional way the oil industry has determined strength of cements is by
measuring unconfined compressive strength on 2 cubes cured for different
periods. This approach is borrowed from the construction industry and is a useful
comparative method for different slurry types and designs.
The strength requirement for oil well cements depends on several factors. In
general, the cement must have sufficient strength to secure the pipe in the hole,
exclude undesirable well fluids, and withstand the shock of drilling, completing
and subsequent production loads.
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Some investigators have thought that settling occurs mainly while the fluids are
static in the well. Although static settling occurs, other work indicates that
dynamic settling (while pumping) may be a problem too.
The best way to determine if a fluid will settle is to test it in the laboratory under
downhole conditions of temperature and pressure.
Static Settling Test
API RP-10B describes a static settling test that is widely used throughout the
industry. In essence the test consists in placing a sample of cement slurry in a
tube and allowing the cement to set under downhole conditions. The depth to the
top of hard cement is measured and then the tube is split to allow removal of the
set cement column. The column is then cut into sections and the density of the
different segments measured. From the data, a density profile is constructed,
and the user then decides if the slurry design is acceptable from the point of view
of segregation or settling. The Figure shows a sketch of the API sedimentation
tube.
Settling Test Tube
The main advantage of the API test is that it is quantitative in nature. The user is
able to "measure" the settling or segregation tendencies of the fluid. The other
advantage is that the method is very well known throughout the industry often as
the BP Settling Test.
The main drawback is that it takes time to obtain the results of the test. The
cement is usually allowed to set for 24 hours before removing it from the tube.
This may present a problem if the slurry is being optimized, and the the job is
approaching.
Another test method uses a consistometer to bring the cement slurry to downhole
conditions of temperature and pressure. After a period of conditioning at BHCT,
the motor of the consistometer is stopped, the slurry is kept static for 10 to 30
minutes, and without re-stirring, the slurry is removed from the tests apparatus
and examined for static settling. Measurements of the density of the slurry are
made at several depths in the slurry cup to try to quantify the setting/segregation
tendencies of the slurry. The bottom of the cup is carefully examined looking for
settled/segregated solids. This procedure has been very successful in detecting
static settling/segregation of cement slurries, spacer and drilling fluids.
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The main advantage of this method is time, taking even less than a thickening
time test. Because of the size of the slurry cup, the tests is not affected by wall
effects.
Dynamic Settling Test
Dynamic settling (settling during pumping of the fluid) can be critical especially in
highly deviated, ERD and horizontal wells if the potential for gas or water invasion
exists.
Tests have suggested that it is possible for a cement slurry to show very little static
settling, but have serious dynamic settling. One possible explanation for this
phenomenon is that statically, the fluid is allowed to develop gel strength which
contributes to solids suspension. Under dynamic conditions, gel strength is not
developed, and if the fluid does not have enough viscosity at downhole
conditions, solids may settle out. Low flow rates will exacerbate the problem.
The API RP-10B does not contain a dynamic settling test. However a procedure
which was developed by a major oil company is available. Service companies are
familiar with the test and are capable of performing it.
The laboratory procedure requires a variable speed consistometer equipped with
a special slurry cup paddle that allows detection of dynamic settling. The fluid is
brought to downhole conditions of temperature (BHCT) and pressure using a
thickening time schedule, stirring at 150 rpm (normal rotation speed). Once the
cement slurry is stabilized at bottom hole circulating temperature and pressure,
the rotation speed of the consistometer is reduced to 20-30 rpm. Rotation at the
low rpm is continued for a minimum of 30 minutes then the cup is removed from
the consistometer and opened without turning it over.
The standard cement slurry cup paddle is intended to maintain the entire slurry
agitated and homogeneous. The paddle used to detect dynamic settling likewise
keeps the fluid stirred throughout the entire cup at high rpm, but allows solids
settling at the low rpm
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Once settling starts to take place, this is apparent on the consistency chart. The
solids at the bottom of the cup start to load and grab the paddle and the recorded
consistency starts to increase or to look jagged. The final confirmation of the
existence or nonexistence of settling is after the test, when the slurry cup is
opened and the fluid examined for settling. The height of the cone of solids at the
bottom of the paddle is measured and recorded. A true non-settling fluid will not
form a cone on the bottom plate of the paddle (zero cone height). The maximum
cone height normally allowed is 1/2 in. Another criteria is that for lightweight
slurries, more than 1/2 lb/gal difference from top to bottom of the cup is not
accepted. For weighted slurries, more than 1 lb/gal difference from top to bottom
of the cup is not permitted, particularly in a critical job.
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Strength this may or may not be important. A kick-off plug may need a
high strength.
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However, this cement-water slurry would have the consistency of caulk, or toothpaste, and could not be pumped down a well. On the other hand, high water to
cement ratios reduce slurry density and give low slurry rheologies that facilitate
mixing, reduce frictional pressures and allow pumping with field equipment. Too
much mixing water de-stabilizes the slurry, causing free fluid and settling/segregation of the particles. In addition, high water to cement ratio slurries produce low
strengths. Therefore, one of the primary slurry design issues is the balance
between density (usually determined by the well circumstances) and the fluid and
set properties.
Depending on the concentration, these materials can seriously alter the set and
other properties of the cement slurry.
Density
The well design will normally fix a range for the slurry density. This will be influenced by the height to which the cement is to be lifted, e.g. 500ft MD inside the
previous shoe, and the available pore/fracture pressure window. The slurry density will normally be higher than the mud density. A lead and tail system (a lighter
slurry followed by a heavier slurry) may be used to reduce total pressure at the
shoe and avoid losses.
Each API Class of cement has a 'normal' water ratio for a neat (no additives)
slurry. The water-cement ratio for each API class is given in as gallons of water
per sack of cement (94 lbs) and as percent water (pounds of water per 100
pounds of cement).
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The slurry density and yield are also given in the table. The slurry density is
shown in pounds per gallon and the slurry volume (yield) in cubic feet per sack of
cement.
Figure 10: API Normal Cement Slurry Densities
API Cement
Class
Mixing
gal/sack
Water
%
Weight
lb/gal
Volume
cu ft/sk
5.2
46
15.6
1.18
5.2
46
15.6
1.18
6.3
56
14.8
1.32
5.0
44
15.8
1.15
4.3
38
16.4
1.06
D,E,F
4.3
38
16.4
1.06
For a given well application, the density of the slurry required does not always
match that given above. It may be possible to use a tail slurry with the above
weight and use a lighter lead slurry above it. The lighter, lead, slurry can be
achieved by basically two approaches:
Fluidity
The ability to mix the cement slurry on the fly, or in a batch mixer, is obviously
important. In addition, the cement slurry must be placed in the annulus without
excessive friction pressures that may exceed the fracture gradient. Conversely, if
the slurry is too thin, problems with stability/settling and free fluid will develop.
The rheology of the slurry is an important parameter that enters into the displacement/placement efficiency consideration discussed later. When necessary, the
rheology of a thick slurry can be reduced with additives called dispersants.
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Sufficient Strength
Cement needs to develop strength to protect and support the pipe, and to allow
subsequent operations in the well. However, just how much strength is needed for
proper protection and support of the casing is not well understood. It is likely that,
in general, the industry uses cements that develop more strength than is needed.
Cement contamination with well fluids that can dramatically reduce strength so
this is good insurance. However, high strength cements are brittle, and recent
studies have suggested that the industry needs to consider using lower strength
cements (below 2000 psi) across pay zones. Some of these lower strength
cements are better able to withstand casing perforating and loads imposed by
pressure and temperature changes in the wellbore, without damage to their integrity.
The poor understanding of strength requirements is, in part, due to the very simplistic crush test used in the industry. This unconfined 2 cube test is really only of
any use as an indicator of strength development and as a means of comparing different samples. The numbers generated are not useful in design calculations
where complex loading needs to be addressed.
The strength development of cements depends mainly on temperature and the
water/cement ratio.
Low well temperatures tend to cause slow strength development. This can presents a serious design challenge for shallow casing strings and/or low temperature environments like the North Slope and in deepwater locations. On the other
hand, elevated temperatures accelerate the development of strength.
At temperatures above about 230F, powdered silica needs to be added to the
cement to avoid the phenomenon known as strength retrogression.
The compressive strength development of the slurry is normally measured only
after the other properties have been determined and optimised. If the strength
developement is acceptable, the cement slurry formulation is considered satisfactory.
No Permeability
Protection of casing and prevention of fluid migration within the cemented annulus
during the life of the well requires set cements to have very low permeability once
fully set. Fortunately, cements normally develop very low levels of permeability.
The Table below shows examples of permeability values for several neat
cements.
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API H (1)
API A (2)
API C (3)
80
0.00218
0.000167
0.0000000537
120
0.000001
0.000241
0.0000000613
140
0.000175
0.0.0213
0.0000000459
160
0.000983
0.0172
0.0000000915
Set cements, cured at temperatures less than 230F develop very low permeabilities, much lower than those of producing formations and similar to those of
shales. However, the final permeability of a cement is a property over which normally, relatively little control can be exercised. The API RP-10B contains a procedure to measure the permeability of set cements but, under normal conditions, not
much attention is given to the permeability of the set cement, and permeabilities
are not often measured.
Cements subjected to high temperatures higher than 230 deg F which have
not been stabilized against strength retrogression will show increased permeabilities with age due to the chemical phase changes. The Figure illustrates this effect.
Stabilisation with around 35% silica bwoc will prevent high permeability.
Figure 12: Effect of Temperature on Permeability
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No Shrinkage
Shrinkage is perhaps the most misunderstood and controversial property of oil
industry cements. The main reason is that the problem is complex. The API has
published a pamphlet (API Technical Report 10 TR2) on expansion/shrinkage of
cements that attempts to explain the phenomenon and better define the terms.
Shrinkage and expansion of cements results from the formation of hydration products having densities which differ from those of the reacting components. These
hydration reactions can cause:
Changes in pore volume of the cement matrix
Changes in pore pressure in the matrix
Changes in the cement physical dimensions
Changes in internal stresses
The actual behaviour depends partly on whether the cement is able to draw in
extra fluid or gas from the surroundings. When cements are sealed in totally
impermeable membranes as they would be if used in an inflatable packer, ECP,
then bulk volume shrinkage of around 2% is measured. If the cement is against
permeability say a water bearing sand and extra water can be sucked into the
sample as the hydration proceeds, then the total of the inner and bulk shrinkage is
around 6%. This inner, chemical, shrinkage is related to the development of internal porosity and permeability
Not surprisingly, temperature can also influence the resulting behaviour.
One reason for the confusion around shrinkage is related to the time at which
measurement starts. If cement is mixed with water, conditioned, then sealed in a
membrane while it is still a pumpable slurry; then the bulk volume change, measured from this early time, follows the curve shown below. It may never expand
since it will not cross the axis. However, if the sample is allowed to set solid and
then the measurements are started then the cement is seen to be expansive (see
the new origin Time Zero on the curve).
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Expansion
Log time
liquid
solid
Time zero
Contraction
For cement inflated packers, cement shrinks and the sealing has to be compensated for by the rubber. In a normally cemented annulus, early shrinkage may be
compensated for by movement (compaction) of slurry.
The negative pressure developed during hydration of the cement can draw in gas
from the formation. This effect, coupled with other properties of the slurry, can
lead to gas migration and an incomplete annular seal.
So-called expanding cements should only be used in extreme cases and where
their behaviour is understood in detail. When an unrestrained annular ring of
cement expands, the hole in the centre gets bigger not smaller. In a weak formation, cement expansion can produce a micro-annulus.
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Cementing Additives
Methods to Adjust the Slurry Density
There are basically just two ways to adjust cement slurry density,
Cement Manual
Percent
Bentonite(1)
Mix Water
gal/sk
Slurry Weight
lbs/gal
Slurry
Volume
cu ft/sk
5.0
15.8
1.15
6.3
14.8
1.34
7.6
14.2
1.52
8.9
13.6
1.71
10.2
13.2
1.89
10
11.5
12.8
2.08
12
12.8
12.6
2.26
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Mix Water
gal/sk
Slurry Weight
lbs/gal
Slurry Volume cu
ft/sk
1.5
7.3
14.2
1.46
2.0
8.4
13.7
1.61
2.5
10.8
12.8
1.94
3.0
12.7
12.3
2.20
3.5
13.5
12.1
2.31
4.0
15.5
11.8
2.58
4.5
19.5
11.2
3.13
Sodium Metasilicate
Sodium Metasilicate is available as a dry powder for dry blending or as a liquid for
mixing in the cement mixing water. Most of the Sodium Metasilicate used by the
industry is in the liquid form. This material is capable of taking-in large volumes of
mixing water, allowing slurry densities down to 11.5 lbs per gallon to be mixed with
little to no free fluid separation. Although the additive is a mild accelerator, at the
low densities, the strength development of the cements is quite poor. This material should not be used at temperatures above about 150 F because conventional
retarders needed at high temperatures tend to destroy the effectiveness of the
additive. In addition, salt concentrations about 5% by weight of water (bwow)
should not be used with this material. Some slurry formulations using Sodium
Metasilicate are shown in the following Table.
Figure 15: Class H with Liquid Sodium Metasilicate - Fresh Water
Silicate
gal/sk
Weight
lb/gal
Yield
cu.ft/sk
0.563
11.5
2.74
16.93
0.338
12.7
1.96
11.05
0.225
14.0
1.51
7.68
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1.
High Strength / Low Density: Foam cements have the highest strength at a given
(low) density of any cement system available. This is due to the fact that the base
slurry (unfoamed) is typically a conventional high strength cement. The addition
of nitrogen (gas typically used to generate foam cement) does not reduce the
overall strength of the system to the extent of other lightweight additives used in
cement (excess water, microspheres, etc.). Foam cements can be generated at
densities much less than conventional lightweight cements with sufficient strength
for completion purposes. Because of this, foamed cement can be placed in a single stage without loss of circulation in situations where conventional cements
could not.
2.
High Viscosity: When a fluid is foamed it typically develops significantly higher viscosity than the unfoamed base fluid. Because of the highly energized nature and
viscous nature of foam cement fluids, better mud displacement can be expected
with foam cement in comparison to conventional cement systems. Better mud
displacement can ultimately mean better protection of the casing and sealing of
the annulus, helping to eliminate costly squeeze cementing operations and other
repair work.
3.
Ductility: Set foam cements have been found to be significantly more ductile than
conventional cement systems. This ductility can help improve the durability of the
cement sheath over the life of the well. Successful applications of foamed
cements in wells with the potential for stress-induced failures due to temperature
and pressure cycling have been reported in the literature.
4.
Compressibility and Fluid Loss Control: The gas phase of the foam cement
causes the unset slurry to have significantly more compressibility than conventional cement slurries. Also, foamed fluids by nature have a degree of built-in fluid
loss control. Both of these properties can help prevent gas and/or fluid migration
into a cemented annulus. Gas migration can occur when overbalance pressure
across a gas and/or fluid bearing zone is lost. Overbalance pressure is lost due to
the combined effect of fluid loss, gel strength development, and the compressibility of the cement slurry. Because foam cement is compressible (i.e. minimal pressure loss with a given amount of fluid loss) and has built-in fluid loss control, the
loss of pressure in the annulus is minimized while the cement is setting up. This
minimization of pressure loss aids in the prevention of annular gas and/or fluid
invasion.
5.
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Strength (psi)
8 lb/gal
24 Hour
10 lb/gal
72 Hour
have low water requirements (do not need much extra water to maintain
Hematite
Hematite, an iron ore, is the most widely used slurry weighting material. Even
though it has a relatively high specific gravity, (5.02), the small particle size of the
ground additive helps keep it suspended in the cement slurry. Hematite high density slurries also contain some dispersant to maintain a good solids-suspending
consistency without having to add much water to the formulation. Slurries weighing up to 20 lbs per gallon have been mixed and pumped with this additive.
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Water
Gal./Sk.
Weight
Lbs./Gal
Yield
Cu. Ft./Sk.
4.29
16.47
1.05
10
4.50
17.00
1.11
20
4.60
7.68
1.16
30
4.66
18.15
1.20
40
4.75
18.70
1.24
50
4.81
19.15
1.28
60
4.90
19.60
1.33
Water
Gal./Sk.
Weight
Lbs./Gal
Yield
Cu. Ft./Sk.
5.86
16.04
1.46
10
5.95
16.50
1.51
20
6.00
17.00
1.55
30
6.10
17.45
1.59
40
6.20
17.71
1.63
50
6.30
18.25
1.68
60
6.40
18.60
1.73
70
6.50
18.91
1.77
80
6.60
19.25
1.82
Barite
Barite (barium sulfate) has been used for many years as a weighting material for
drilling muds but has limited application in cementing slurries. While its specific
gravity is high (4.23), the material has a fairly high water requirement due to its
fineness. The additive requires about 22% water by weight. This complicates the
design of the slurry since extra water lowers the density. The problem can be
minimized by using dispersants. Slurry weights up to 19 lbs per gallon have been
mixed and placed using barite.
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Manganese Oxide
Recently, manganese oxide (hausmannite) has been used as a cement additive
to help obtain high density slurries. The additive has an specific gravity of 4.9.
The material is ground to an average particle size of 5 microns. Because of its
fineness, the additive can be added directly to the cement mixing water, and it will
remain in suspension. This property facilitates mixing of heavy slurries offshore,
on the fly, without having to dry blend. Combinations of Hematite and Manganese
Oxide have been used to design ultra heavy slurries at densities up to 23 lb/gal for
ultra high pore pressure environments in some areas of Colombia.
Adjusting the Slurry Rheology
Dispersants are chemicals that are included in cement slurry formulations to
improve fluidity. Dispersed slurries exhibit lower viscosities and therefore are
easier to mix and can be pumped at lower pump pressures, thus lowering the
horsepower needed for the job and reducing the chance of damaging weak zones
(lost circulation).
Dispersant are polymeric chemicals normally available in powdered form,
although liquid forms are used offshore. Normal concentrations for dispersants
are in the range of ~0.2% to ~1.5% based on the weight of the cement. In addition to lowering the viscosity, these products impart a low level of retardation to the
cement slurries, particularly at low temperatures. Dispersants are included in slurries to be exposed to a wide range of temperatures, from low conditions (60F), to
very high levels (350F). Often the dispersants are used mainly to allow mixing of
the cement.
In general, dispersants are compatible with most other additives, and can be used
in many slurry formulations, with few problems. One exception is systems containing high concentrations of sodium chloride (above about 15%). With salted
slurries, the dispersants may tend to initially thin the slurries, but after a few minutes, the slurry may flocculate, producing large increases in viscosity.
One caution that must be observed with dispersants if to make sure the slurry is
not over-dispersed. Excessive amounts of dispersants de-stabilize the slurry,
causing large levels of free fluid and increased slurry settling tendencies.
Adjusting the Slurry Thickening Time
As previously indicated, the slurry thickening time is adjusted with the use of
retarders or accelerators, depending on the well temperatures.
Accelerators are normally inorganic chemicals that speed up the reactions of
hydration of the cement. Since acceleration of the set time of cement slurries is
normally not needed unless the well temperatures are low, these additives are
normally not used at temperatures above about 100F. Slurry acceleration is usually needed for the cementing operations of conductor and/or surface pipe to
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reduce WOC time and rig time costs. The most commonly used and effective
accelerator is Calcium Chloride. Many other inorganic materials can accelerate
slightly. Sodium Chloride is a good example and seawater another.
Retarders are usually organic chemicals that retard or slow down the reactions of
hydration of cement systems. Extension of the set time is normally needed for the
deeper casing strings. Retarder materials include lignosulfonates, some organic
acids and sugar derivatives. Cellulose derivatives used to help control the fluid
loss of cement slurries also perform as retarders at low to moderate temperatures.
At elevated temperatures, lignosulfonate retarders are stabilized by the addition of
borax.
Controlling Slurry Fluid Loss
Low fluid loss cement formulations have application in squeeze cementing operations, and during primary cementing across narrow annuli, under high differential
pressures, and particularly for controlling gas migration after the cement job
across gas and water zones.
Many fluid loss additives are cellulose based. Because of this, they tend to
increase the consistency of the slurry, and in addition, they also increase the
thickening time of the formulation. The degree of retardation depends on the concentration of the additive, and the well temperatures. Often dispersants need to be
added to adjust the fluidity of the system. Dispersants tend to enhance the effectiveness of cellulose base fluid loss control additives. Latex materials are also
used to control fluid loss in cement slurries. .
Imparting fluid loss control to slurries containing calcium chloride or sodium chloride for low temperature applications is a difficult task. Fortunately, there are
some fluid loss control additives available that are compatible with sodium chloride up to a concentration of around 18% by weight of the mixing water.
Controlling Slurry Stability
Cement slurry stability is particularly critical in highly deviated, extended reach
and horizontal wells, and in any situation with potential for gas/water migration
after cementing. For these applications, designing for slurry stability becomes
extremely important.
The conventional way to control this slurry property is by designing the slurry with
very low to zero free fluid with a rheology that facilitates mixing and placing. At the
same time, the rheology needs to promote suspension of the solids at static and
dynamic conditions, and under downhole temperatures and pressures. Conventional materials such as bentonite that can be used to help suspend solids but the
industry has developed additives that do not increase viscosity at the surface
thus facilitating mixing - but that 'yield' under temperature, as the sluury is going
downhole.
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granular materials;
flakes;
fibrous materials
Granular Materials
To enhance their effectiveness, granular materials generally contain a distribution
of particles ranging from coarse (1/4 in.) to a fine powder. The coarser particles
bridge the fracture and the smaller particles then pack in around and over the
larger particles to complete the shut-off. The most commonly used granular additive is Gilsonite. Another granular material available is ground walnut shells sold
under the trade name "Tuf Plug". The shells are sold in three size grades: coarse,
medium, and fine, and should be used in combination to again augment the efficiency of the additive. Normal concentrations of walnut shells used range from 1
to 5 lbs per sack of cement.
A third lost circulation additive containing granular materials is sold under the
name of 'Kwik Seal'. It contains fibers in addition to granular material and is also
available in three grades, coarse, medium, and fine. Normal concentrations used
in cement slurries range from 1 to 3 lb/sk. Higher of concentrations of 5+ lb/sk
have been used in specific instances across depleted zones in Trinidad. As for all
lost circulation materials, at the higher concentrations, it is important to make sure
that the float equipment is not plugged by the additive and that mixing and surface
equipment can cope.
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Flaked Materials
The lost circulation control additive most commonly used in cement slurries is cellophane flakes. The flakes perform better when used across unconsolidated or
highly permeable zones where the lost circulation material can plaster over the
thief zone. The flakes are not as efficient across fractured zones as the granular
or fibrous materials. Cellophane flakes are usually used in concentrations ranging
from of 1/8 to 1/4 lb per sack of cement.
Fibrous Material
These lost circulation additives are usually short nylon or polypropylene fibers
used in concentrations of 1/8 to 1/4 lb per sack. These materials are best suited to
bridge off narrow fractures. Normally these additives are used in combination with
granular or flake materials. Bulk handling of the dry cement with fiber added is
troublesome, and special handling procedures for adding the fiber at the mixing
tub are often needed. Fibers can also be used to keep the cement together in
case it is damaged (cracked) downhole.
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Silica fume should be used in small amounts (<10% bwoc) to reduce permeability.
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This practice allows better control of the slurry properties, and has produced good
results. In addition, many of the cement recipes are designed with potassium
chloride instead of sodium chloride. Lower concentrations ( 3 to 5%) of KCl can
be used with similar results, and KCl slurries are easier to design. The problem
has also been helped by the development be the service companies of special
polymers (for example Schlumberger's Saltbond).
Another benefit of using a salted system across salt formations is that the design
is relatively immune to effects of salt contamination during placement. In general,
thickening times are reduced when cement slurries contain up to about 7 to 10%
salt, essentially unchanged at concentrations up to about 18%, and then increase
with increasing concentrations of salt. The time required to develop adequate
compressive strength also generally increases with increasing salt concentrations. Because of this strength retardation effect, when designing slurries to be
placed across fast moving salts, the overriding consideration is to design the
slurry such that it will develop adequate compressive strength as fast as possible.
Often in these fast moving salt situations, heavier/thicker casings are used, along
with accelerated cement slurries, with minimum thickening times and lower safety
factors, to get the cement to set fast, before the formations have time to contact
the casing string, to minimize damage to the pipe.
A few years after starting to use salt in slurries across salt formations, it was also
observed that remedial squeeze cementing operations were improved (fewer
squeeze stages required) when produced salt water was used for mixing cement
in the western areas of the State of Texas, U.S.A. Investigators determined that
the salt in the mix water was less disruptive and damaging to bentonitic sands and
to shale beds, and produced a better cement bond to the shale. It was also
observed that salt concentrations less than saturated, 10% to 18% based on
weight of the mix water, were sufficient to protect freshwater sensitive formations.
Later, 3% to 5% potassium chloride was found to be equally effective, and again
these lower concentrations of KCl were less destructive to the effectiveness of the
fluid loss control additives and facilitated the design of the slurry formulations.
Finally, a word of caution. High concentrations of salt in cement slurries need to
be used only when necessary (KCl is preferred over NaCl because of the lower
concentrations and reduced negative effects). It has been shown that the use of
salted cement slurries across fresh water formations can be very detrimental to
the long term stability of the cement. Due to the differences in ion concentrations,
dissolution/osmotic forces can eventually destroy the integrity of the cement.
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The downhole brines which contain magnesium and sodium sulfates react with
calcium hydroxide (precipitated during cement hydration) to form magnesium
hydroxide, sodium hydroxide, and calcium sulfate. The formation of magnesium
hydroxide (brucite) causes expansion as mentioned earlier. The formation of
sodium hydroxide increases the porosity of the cement since it is more soluble
than calcium hydroxide. The calcium sulfate reacts with aluminates (present in
the cement) to form secondary ettringite, a tri-calcium aluminate (C3A) product
which causes expansion. Large calcium sulfo-aluminate crystals are also formed.
The calcium sulfo-aluminate crystal contains 31 molecules of water; thus, the
product is a large molecule that requires more pore space than the set cement
can provide, causing excessive expansion. The effect of all these reactions can
be uncontrolled expansion leading to loss of compressive strength and eventual
complete deterioration of the set cement
Temperature influences the sulfate resistance of a hardened cement. From investigation conducted at both low and high temperatures, it was concluded that sulfate attack is most pronounced at temperatures between 80F to 120F. At
temperatures of 180F and above, the attack is negligible. This conclusion is supported by observation of actual wells. Cement failures due to sulfate attack are
more common in shallow wells where temperatures are lower than 200F.
The API classifies cements as moderately sulfate resistant (MSR) and highly sulfate resistant (HSR) on the basis of the tricalcium aluminate (C3A) content. A
MSR cement contains 3-6 weight % C3A; and a HSR one 0-3 weight % C3A. API
HSR cements , are less susceptible to sulfate attack after setting, and should be
used whenever downhole brines may exist which contain magnesium and sodium
sulfates. Sulfate attack can also be substantially reduced by the addition of pozzolanic materials, such as fly ash, to the cement system.
Effect of CO2 Carbon Dioxide
Laboratory and field studies have shown that carbon dioxide in the presence of
moisture, can destroy the structural integrity of set Portland cements. The reaction
involves the formation of carbonic acid which attacks the alkaline constituents
(Ca(OHfavouredcium carbonate into soluble calcium bicarbonate. This begins a
chain reaction. The dissolved calcium bicarbonate reacts with the alkaline constituents forming calcium carbonate and water. The water dissolves more calcium
bicarbonate. The net result is a leaching of cementitious material from the
cement matrix, increasing its porosity and permeability and decreasing its compressive strength. Downhole, this can result in a loss of casing corrosion protection and a loss of zonal isolation.
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In the real world, under downhole conditions, the best that can be hoped for is for
the slurries to develop high levels of gel strength once pumping is stopped. The
true gel strength properties of these systems need to be measured, at downhole
conditions of temperature and pressure, using devices such as the MACS or the
retrofitted UCA.
The primary advantages of thixotropic slurries are:
Improving fill-up by reducing loss of slurry into weak formation, vugs, caverns, etc.
Deepwater Situations
We already reviewed under Special Considerations, the complicating factors
associated with cementing operations in deepwater locations. Here we will review
slurry design considerations for this type of application. The main emphasis as
can be expected is on the slurries used to cement the shallow casing strings, particularly if the potential for shallow water flows exist. Once these strings are successfully cemented, design of the slurries for cementing of the deeper casings can
be handled similarly as for land operations.
The following are the requirements for cement slurries to be used to cement the
shallow (conductor, surface) strings in deepwater applications.
Good bonding
Ductility
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Both conventional and foam cement systems are available to cement the shallow
strings. However, after carefully examining the list above, it is easy to see why
foam cement slurries are used most of the time when potential for shallow water
flows exist. Foam systems present the following advantages over conventional
systems:
For deepwater applications, one advantage that the conventional systems have
over the foam formulations is cost.
Cementing Slurries for Situations of Gas/Water Migration After Cementing
Note: Transition time cannot be obtained from the consistometer thickening time
curve. Transition time needs to be measured using an apparatus like the
MACS or the retrofitted UCA, under static conditions, and at downhole temperatures and pressures. It is normally accepted that if gas can be prevented from
invading the cement during the transition period, the chances of severe gas
migration problems in the well can be substantially reduced. Short transition
times are desirable. As a rule of thumb, less than hr. transition time is considered a short transition time.
2.
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3.
Fluid loss. Fluid loss must be low. The lower the better. Without good fluid loss
control, chances of controlling cement column invasion are very poor. "If nothing
can leave the matrix of the cement, nothing can get in. From successful field
applications, less than 50 mil API (less than 20 mil API preferred) is the recommended design criteria across zones with flow invasion tendencies. The fluid loss
must be measured under downhole conditions.
4.
Thickening time. TT must not be excessive. Cement behind the pipe needs to
set up as soon as possible after the cement job. Leaving unset cement behind the
pipe for extended periods of time is an invitation for potential problems. Thickening times should be designed whenever possible for the job placement time plus a
reasonable safety factor (1 to 1-1/2 hr.).
5.
Laboratory testing. The gas migration control properties of the cement slurry
should be tested in the laboratory under simulated downhole conditions. An industry available procedure called the Scale-Down will be discussed below. The use of
the Halliburton flow potential concept represents a good effort in the right direction and should be used as a screening tool, but exclusive use of this and other
selection criteria fall short of the necessity of actually testing in the laboratory, the
selected recipes under simulated downhole conditions before the final selection is
made. In cases where gas invasion/migration is a serious concern, testing a
cement formulation for gas migration control in the laboratory should be considered as important as testing the thickening time and compressive strength of the
recipe.
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At the end of the test, it is possible to tell if the proposed slurry formulation will
control the gas migration problem in the given well across the zone of interest.
Several service companies and independent laboratories have gas flow cells, and
thus can conduct Scale-Down tests.
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Introduction
A knowledge of sampling and blending techniques and quality assurance issues
with cements is vital to avoiding serious cementing problems. These techniques
are needed to ensure that the cement slurries pumped down-hole closely match
the cement slurries as designed in the laboratory.
In many on-shore areas of the world, dry blending of the cement with dry additives
is the method of choice. Most off-shore operations will use liquid additives and
neat cement. However, even off-shore, there is often a blend of cement used at
some stage of the well, e.g. Class G +35% silica.
The methods described here are the result of many years of accumulated industry
experience.
Sampling of materials to Use for Pilot Testing
The absolute necessity of conducting all the slurry design testing using the exact
materials (cement, additives, field water) to be used in the actual cement job cannot be overemphasized. In order to have representative samples of the cement
and additives to be pumped downhole, good sampling techniques need to be
used.
A sample of the field water needs to be collected in clean, sealed containers,
properly marked and taken to the laboratory as soon as the source of water is
secured at the well location. If the water is in a tank at the rig, the sample needs
to be taken from a valve, after flushing enough water from the line to make sure
the sample is representative of the water in the tank. However, if there are settled
particles at the bottom of the tank, and the discharge line is close to the bottom,
the sample should be taken from the top, dipping the sampler container into the
water to try to collect the sample from the center of the tank.
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The additive lots to be used need to be put aside for the job. Under no circumstances should several lots of an additive be mixed for the job. The same consideration applies for cement manufacturing runs. Samples of the additives for lab
testing need to be taken from the lots to be used, from un-opened, undamaged
bags. The materials need to be placed in clean bottles or containers and sealed.
Bulk cement sampling can be done using devices shown in the Figure below,
taken from API Spec-10B. Silos may be equipped with one of the sampling
devices shown below. Lines need to be purged long enough before taking the
cement sample to make sure the sample is representative of the cement in the
tank and not just what is trapped in the line. If the cement is in a transport
equipped with an upper hatch, samples can be taken using a special tube (auger)
that allows small samples to be taken simultaneously, at different depths, when
pushed into the cement from the top. The same techniques and devices can be
used to sample cement blends from tanks and silos.
Pilot testing by the lab will establish a suitable slurry design on which dry blending
will proceed. Once blended, the cement blend will have to be confirmed by repeating the lab tests and assessing any variation.
Cement is a very reactive material and will chemically react with moisture in the
air. This will change physical properties like thickening time and compressive
strength development. The extent to which this happens can vary widely. Some
cements are particularly sensitive, others not so. In any case, small quantities,
e.g. a cement sample, are particularly vulnerable to exposure and, if not adequately protected, exposure of just a few hours can make several hours difference
to the thickening time generally lengthening it. the consequences of testing
such a samples and designing the retarder concentration can be disastrous! The
following guidelines should be adhered to:
Cement container:
-
Note: it is better to label the body of the container, not the lid.
Additive containers
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Note: roll drums, or circulate LAS, to ensure active components of liquid additives are
in suspension
Labeled to show date, location, type (sea or drill water). Do not use
soft drink bottles.
Figure 20: Bulk Sampling Devices
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Meeting
Step 2. Isolation
Step 3. Planning
Step 4. Inspection
Step 5. Calibration
Step 6. Blending
Step 7. Sampling
Step 8. Confirmation
testing
Cement Manual
Final calculations of the slurry volumes and bulk blend volumes need to be made,
to help finalize the selection of the equipment (size and number of transports,
etc.). It is a good idea at this point to add to the location diagram, the position
(spotting) of the different pieces of equipment. to be used.
Bulk Plant Considerations
Locations throughout the world vary in layout, capacity and capabilities. For
example, does the bulk plant have a scale tank and a blending tank, or is it
equipped with only a scale tank? This is very important because the blending
practice that consists of loading the cement and additives into the scale tank and
percolating air through the blend does not completely blend the cement and
should not be used alone. This practice is particularly ineffective when materials
like sand, hematite, salt and silica flour are part of the cement formulation. Air
percolating may actually de-blend the mixture, with the heavy and the larger particles ending up at the bottom of the batch.
To properly blend cement, the blend must be pneumatically transferred a minimum of three times before it leaves the service company yard. So, if the plant is
equipped with only the scale tank, it may be necessary to hook up a clean transport to the bulk plant, to use it as a blend tank. Often the use of a transport as a
blend tank considerably extends the length of time that it takes to blend, due to
the difficulty of moving the cement blend from the transport back into the scale
tank while blending the cement recipe. This must be done, particularly for critical
jobs. Percolation of air through the blend should only be used as part of the
blending operation, and with some bulk plant configurations can be substituted for
one of the moves (transfers) as will be seen below.
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Four pneumatic transfers: The cement blend is transferred from the scale tank
to the blend tank, from the blend tank to the scale tank, from the scale tank
back to the blend tank, and from there to the bulk transport. Notice that the
transfer to the bulk transport is counted as a transfer. Experiments have
shown that this number of transfers generates a good blend. Some in the
industry prefer moving the cement six times.
2)
Three pneumatic transfers: The cement blend is transferred from the scale
tank to the blend tank, from the blend tank to the scale tank, and from there to
the transport. Some plants are constructed in such a way that the four transfers described above cannot be performed (cannot transfer from the blend
tank to the transport), forcing the use of the 3 transfer method.
3)
Equivalent to three pneumatic transfers: The cement is percolated with air for
10 to 15 minutes in the scale tank. From there it is transferred to the blend
tank, and then to the transport. If this procedure is used, the percolating pressure should not exceed 10-15 psig in order to minimize gravity segregation
within the blend. Notice that the percolation is counted as one transfer.
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4)
Some locations throughout the world like to move the blend only twice before it
leaves the yard, and count on the last transfer on location, from the transport
to the batch or recirculating mixer to complete the blending operation. This
practice is not recommended. The cement blends should leave the service
company location fully blended. In addition, if this practice is used, the operations of sampling of the blend and confirmation testing will be negatively
affected. Sampling and confirmation testing will be discussed later on in this
section.
Blend Size
The blending of the decided amount of cement formulation is done in "batches" at
the bulk plant. The selection of the size of the batches is affected by the capacity
of both, the scale tank and the blending tank. It has been found that the if the
tanks are over-filled, then the effectiveness of the blending operation is negatively
affected. To properly blend the cement recipe, the bulk volume of each batch
should not exceed about 40% of the capacity of the smaller of the scale and the
blend tanks. This is to allow plenty of empty space in the tanks for the cement
blend to move freely and blend as it is being transferred from tank to tank. If
needed, the batch size can be increased to up to 50% of the capacity of the smallest of the tanks, but this is not a good practice if the blend contains large particle
additives such as silica sand, calcium chloride, hematite, salt, etc. When large
particle materials are present, the 40% number mentioned above is the recommended batch size.
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Concentration
(BWOC)
Weight
(lbs)
Bulk Density
(lbs/cu.ft.)
Bulk Yield
(cu..ft..)
Cement
100%
94.00
94
1.00
Silica flour
35%
32.90
70
0.47
Hematite
50%
47.00
193
0.24
Dry retarder
0.5%
0.47
36
0.01
Dispersant
0.5%
0.47
36
0.01
For the example case given in the Table, the calculated dry bulk yield of the particular recipe is 1.73 cu.ft./sk. So, for a blend of the cement recipe of say 450 sacks,
the total dry volume would be 778.5 cu.ft. The number and size of the batches
which will be required are determined, based as indicated before, on the need to
stay at 40% of the capacity of the smallest of the scale and blend tanks. If for
example the capacity of the smallest tank was 280 cu.ft., then the maximum batch
size would be 112 cu.ft., and seven batches would be required to blend the 450
sacks of the cement recipe.
Following, the weight of the cement and additives to be used in each batch are
determined based on the concentrations of the recipe and the pre-selected size of
the batch. A blending schedule is prepared. In the schedule, half of the cement is
added first, followed by all the additives which are then "sandwiched" by the second half of the cement. This sandwiching approach has been proven effective in
numerous blending applications. Some in the industry like to use several layers:
cement, additives, cement, etc. This is time consuming and, in general, does not
generate better results than the single layer approach.
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Concentration
(gal/sk)
Latex
3.5
393.75
Stabilizer
0.35
39.38
Antifoamer
0.05
5.63
Liquid Retarder
0.5
56.25
Water
1.50
168.75
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Transports hatches must be opened and the inside of each tank inspected to
make sure it is completely clean. Clean equipment, free of possible contaminants, is a must to achieve a successful blending operation.
Blending Equipment (Bulk Plant) General Inspection
Blending procedures need to be discussed in detail with the bulk plant operator.
Sandwiching of additives, number of transfers of the blend, sampling methods,
etc, need to be discussed and agreed. It is not uncommon to find that following
quality controlled blending procedures like the ones discussed here often takes
longer than other less rigorous methods. However, the methods suggested
should produce quality blends closely matching the slurry formulations designed
in the laboratory.
It is important to become familiar with the location of the scale tank, blend tank,
bulk equipment tanks, lines, valves, etc. A free-hand diagram drawn with the
assistance of the bulk plant operator will help in understanding of the equipment
layout. It is important to question when any load devices were last inspected and
calibrated.
At this poin verify that the additives to be used in the blending operation have the
same lot numbers that were used to run the pilot tests. This is a critical point during the bulk plant inspection. It might not be possible to confirm the lot numbers
of bulk materials such as hematite, silica sand, etc, but many of the critical additives such as retarders, fluid loss additives, etc. have lot numbers stamped on the
bags. If the additives are not of the same lot numbers, the blending operation
should not start until a repeat of the pilot testing is done with the actual materials
to be used to blend the cement formulations.
Cleaning of the Blending Equipment
It is imperative that the scale tank, the blend tank, the additives hopper and all the
lines (from the bulk storage tanks and exiting the scale and blend tanks and the
hopper) be completely clean of potentially contaminating materials. In the same
way, the "socks" (dust collectors) often installed on top of the scale tank need to
be free from all material possibly accumulated in them from previous jobs. The
cleaning procedure needs to be performed prior to commencing the blending
operation and it is carried out as follows:
All the lines are purged into the scale and blend tanks several times. The socks
are then shaken for several minutes to allow discharge of materials into the scale
and blend tanks. The scale and blend tanks are then purged with air (30+ psig)
into a discharge tank. The operation is repeated three or four times or until there
is only dust coming out of the discharge lines of the scale and blend tanks.
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With very dirty bulk plants (sometimes found in more remote locations of the
world), or in situations were it seems that the plant is not "coming clean", 10 sacks
(about 1,000 lbs) of silica sand can be run through the lines and tanks to help
scrub the walls. After the sand, the cleaning operation outlined above needs to be
repeated from the first step. Some scale and blend tanks are equipped with
hatches that can be opened to inspect the inside of the tanks. When available,
they need to be opened to confirm cleanliness at the end of the cleaning operation.
Some plants have socks on top of the scale and the blend tanks. Others only
have one set of socks. In any case, sometimes the socks are found to be
non-operational. Every effort must be made to fix these devices before the start
of the blending operation. Socks are used as dust collectors, but they are also
very useful in putting back into the blend, the fine particles that tend to be carried
out by the air during the blending operation. Non-operating socks prevent the
operator from restoring the fine particles back into the blend, by periodically
"shaking the socks" while blending. At the end of the cleaning operation, the bulk
plant (scale, and blend tanks, hopper and all the lines) must be completely empty
of materials from previous operations.
Blending Equipment Calibration
As previously indicated, it is important to note the last time the scales were calibrated by a calibrating entity. A certification should be available for inspection.
Scales that have not been calibrated at least once in the last year can possibly be
out of calibration and need to be checked. The following "quick and dirty" test of
the accuracy the scale tank can be run before a blending operation starts: after
zeroing the scale of the scale tank, two or three people of known weight climb on
the scale tank (on top or on the frame) and a weight reading is taken on the scale
tank. The weight recorded on the scale should be within 10 to 20 pounds of the
sum of the weights of the individuals on the tank. If safety considerations, or
doubt about the weight of the individuals, prohibit this quick and dirty" calibration
approach, 5 to 10 bags of silica sand or barite on top of the tank can be used for
the same purpose. Again, the reading of the scale should be within 10 to 20
pounds of the actual weight. If an error greater than 20 pounds is measured, the
amount of weight in the tank should be varied (above and below the original
weight used), and the scale read again. This should allow a determination if the
error is constant or if it varies with changing weights. This procedure should be
repeated several times, looking to see if a reliable, consistent and repeatable calibration trend line can be developed. If a calibration line cannot be developed for
the scale tank, the blending operation should be suspended until the problem is
fixed by the service company.
Similarly, the additives scale needs to be checked using a known weight. Several
sacks of additives of "known" weight (one bag at the time) can be used to check
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this scale, or any other available material of known weight can be used. The additives scale must be within a 1/4 of a pound or less of the known weight. It is recommended that the additives scale be calibrated before the scale tank. By doing
this, the additives scale can be used to weigh the individuals or sacks of additives
to be used to help calibrate the scale tank.
Zeroing of the Scale Tank
Another critical step in the process of proper blending of cement is the correct
zeroing of the scale tank. Zeroing means exactly that. It means to force the scale
tank to read "zero weight" at the start of a blending operation. The bulk plant
operator makes the scale tank read "zero" by turning a knob on a beam type
scale, or by pressing the zeroing button on an electronic read-out scale. Once the
scale is zeroed, this same zero must be maintained during the blending operation.
In addition, every time a weight is taken (read) on the scale tank, the same set of
conditions present when the scale was originally zeroed must be repeated or the
weight read will be in error. This set of conditions are the following:
1)
All the lines leading to the scale tank must be purged and therefore completely
free of materials. When the tank is zeroed or when a weight reading is taking
during the blending operation, the goal is to read the weight of the materials in
the tank. So, the lines must be free of materials for two reasons. The first one
is that if material is left in the lines, the weight of this extra material is not fully
recorded when a weight reading is made. This material left in the lines will
then be pushed into the tank the next time the line is pressurized. This can
easily add several hundred extra pounds of the material present in the lines to
the scale tank. The second reason is that lines full of material, because of the
way they are connected to the scale tank, can add an undetermined amount of
stress to the tank, causing the load cell on the tank to record a certain (undetermined) amount of extra weight over the true weight in the tank.
2)
The scale tank must be under a preset vacuum level, a preset pressure level
or under atmospheric conditions (no pressure or vacuum). Some operators, to
help facilitate the blending operation, prefer to zero the scale tank and make
weight readings either under vacuum or with pressure in the tank. This has to
do with the way the particular plant operates. For example, if materials are
"sucked" into the tank by pulling a vacuum in the tank (say 10 inches of vacuum), the operator might prefer to read how much material is in the scale with
vacuum in the tank. On the other hand, when transferring material out of the
tank, it might be easier to read the weight in the tank with pressure (say 30
psig) in the tank. Either method is acceptable but again, once the scale is
zeroed under a given set of conditions (vacuum or pressure), the same
amount of vacuum or pressure needs to be present in the tank when a weight
reading is made, or the reading will be in error.
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The best method is to zero the scale tank, and to make all weight readings at
atmospheric conditions (with no vacuum or pressure in the tank). This is the most
accurate and trouble-free way to know the weight of materials in the tank. This
method should be the one used, unless the particular plant design prohibits its
application. Some plant operators resist this method due to the extra time
required to bleed the pressure or release the vacuum from the tank before taking
each weight reading.
Proper zeroing and weight reading of the scale tank is so critical to the blending
operation that its importance cannot be overemphasized. For example: If the
scale tank has been zeroed at atmospheric conditions, and a weight reading is
taken either under vacuum or with pressure in the tank, the weight read can be
several hundred pounds below or above the true weight in the tank, depending
among other reasons, on the way the tank is plumbed.
Dry Blending of Cement and Spacer Recipes
Just prior to starting blending, it is recommended to drain the moisture sump of
the air compressor to reduce the chance of moisture contacting the blend. This is
particularly important in high humidity areas of the world. In high humidity areas,
purging of the water in the compressor should be done several times during the
blending operation.
Important note: Even after draining the moisture from the system, highly hygroscopic additives may tend to absorb water from the air and therefore cause problems during blending. With these materials, the particles may tend to ball-up,
and/or stick to the tank and line walls. Because of this, it is better to add highly
hygroscopic materials (e.g. calcium chloride), particularly in areas of high humidity
(for example Trinidad), to the mix-water whenever possible. Highly hygroscopic
materials dissolve rather easily and in this way, it is ensured that the material will
be present in the slurry formulation when pumped downhole. It is recommended
that this procedure (adding the material to the mix-water) be used also during the
pilot testing of the slurry.
During blending, approximately 10 inches of vacuum are used to "pull" material
into the scale tank. The storage tanks holding the bulk materials generally can be
pressurized to help in transferring materials to the scale tank. The general procedure is to introduce first into the scale tank, half of the required cement. This is
followed by other "bulk" additives such as silica flour and hematite. Next, the
"sacked" additives are introduced through the additives hopper. This is then followed by the rest of the needed cement. Each time the operator needs to strive
to get a weight on the scale tank, that is as close as possible to the cumulative
weight target. The "socks" must be shaken regularly during the blending operation to minimize accumulation of materials in them.
The maximum acceptable deviation between the actual cumulative weight read on
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ence that trained operators, when required, can stay within this window. One
common reason that causes many operators not to be able to accurately transfer
materials into the scale tank, is not properly accounting for the material in the lines
between either the bulk storage tank or additives hopper and the scale tank. An
estimate of the weight of material which the lines will hold must be made before
commencing blending (the bulk plant operator normally has a good "feel" for this
weight). This will allow the operator to "fine tune" his operation so that a weight as
close as possible to the target value is obtained for the material being introduced
into the tank. Since the lines are full of material while transferring into the scale
tank, the operator needs to aim for less than the target weight by the estimated
weight of material in the lines. He must then shut off the valve feeding material
from the bulk storage tank into the line, and purge the material in the lines into the
scale tank. This purging of the lines may have to be repeated if it is suspected
that material remained in "dead" spots of the lines. This can occur between shutoff valves and line sections which are not in the direct path of flow. After ensuring
that all of the material has been introduced into the scale tank, the reading of the
weight in the scale tank must be made under the same conditions as the "zero"
reading (see Scale Tank Zeroing).
The procedure described above needs to be repeated for each of the materials
introduced into the blend. It should be noted that density differences between
materials can significantly alter the weight of material in the lines. The operator
must therefore not assume that the same "adjustment" can be made for the different materials being blended.
If during a given transfer operation the operator does not bring into the scale tank
enough of a given additive, causing the scale tank to read more than 50 lbs below
the target weight, he needs to bring more additive into the scale tank. If on the
other hand, he transfers too much of a given additive (more than 50 lbs over the
target cumulative weight), proportional additions of the other additives and cement
may need to be made at the end of the transfer operation to keep the correct proportion of components in the blend.
Another common area where errors are made in dry blending is in not accounting
for the weight of the sacks or bags when adding sacked additives at the hopper.
Each bag of additive should be individually weighted, and the empty sacks should
also be weighted to determine the rest of additive that is needed. Sacks usually
weigh around 1 lb. Therefore for a 50-lb sack of additive, an error of about 2%
can be introduced into the operation by neglecting to account for the weight of the
sack. Small amounts of additive must be weighted into a clean container, and the
weight of the bucket itself must be accounted for.
When introducing additives through the hopper, the sacks must be carefully
inspected to ensure that no "rocks" of material are present and that the materials
have not absorbed moisture or have otherwise become contaminated. If any
doubt exists, the particular bag of material should not be used. Large "chunks" of
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additives might not break during blending. If small "lumps" are observed in the
material being introduced into the hopper, these must be " broken-up" before
being included in the blend. Some service company locations use a screen over
the hopper to reduce the chance of adding large lumps into the tank. In addition,
previously opened sacks of additives must not be used.
When all of the materials have been introduced into the scale tank, the pressure in
the tank should be increased to around 30 psig to perform the first transfer. If
extremely light additives are being used to blend "light-weight" cements, for example ceramic "bubbles", the transfer pressure should be reduced to about 6-8 psig
in order to minimize blend segregation and large losses of these light additives
through the vents. In many cases this pressure is sufficient to transfer these
light-weight blends at rates similar to those of the heavier blends. In all cases,
during the transfer process, the "socks" must be shaken regularly to restore the
light additives back into the blend. After each transfer process, the scale tank
must be "pressured-up" and "blown-down" several times to maximize the amount
of material transferred. It is normal to end up with 50 to 100 lbs of weight in the
scale tank, even after several "blow- downs". This is likely caused by material that
remains stuck to the walls, socks, etc.
After the first transfer of the blend into the blend tank, the blend is normally
"pulled" back into the scale tank, returned to the blend tank and finally transferred
to the "transport". After the final transfer has been made from the scale tank, after
several "blow-downs", and after the pressure in the tank has been bled down to
atmospheric, the weight of material left in the scale tank needs to be recorded.
This weight will need to be added to the actual cumulative weights of the next
batch of blended materials.
During the actual blending process, the "target" and actual cumulative weights
should be documented and compared after each addition of additive or cement to
the blend. This information is very important not only in "keeping track" of the
weights added but also in ensuring quality control at each stage of the operation.
The "target" cumulative weight for any particular additive is determined by adding
the theoretical weight of the additive to the actual cumulative weight present in the
scale tank (recorded after introducing the previous additive to the blend). Since
scale tanks normally can only read weight in increments of ten (10) pounds, target
cumulative weights are rounded off to the nearest multiple of 10 lbs.
As mentioned before, The maximum acceptable deviation between the target and
the actual cumulative weight after each addition of bulk material to the blend is
around 50 lbs. If the actual cumulative weight exceeds the target value by more
than 50 lbs, proportional adjustments need to be made to the weights of the additives and cement to compensate for the excess. Extra amounts of materials are
generally added on top of the second half of the cement. It should be mentioned
here that small differences in the concentration of critical additives (retarders, fluid
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loss, dispersants, etc.) can significantly alter the final properties of the blended
product.
While transferring the blend to the "transport" for delivery to the rig site, a sample
must be taken for performing confirmation tests on the blend. Sampling procedures are discussed in more detail later (see Sampling).
Important note: When extremely light additives (e.g. ceramic bubbles) have been
blended in the cement, re-blending on location may need to be done to ensure the
homogeneity of the blend. This is particularly critical offshore. Extremely light
additives tend to "gravity segregate" during transport to the rig, and while being
blown to the rig tanks from the boat on offshore jobs. A clean, empty tank of adequate capacity should be used on location to transfer the blend at least twice to
re-blend it. Samples of the reblended material should be taken after the re-blending operation and if time allows it, sent to the lab for testing prior to the job.
The dry blending procedures discussed above should also be applied to
dry-blending of additives for spacers.
Liquid Blending When Using Batch-Mixers
After determining the total volume of mix-liquid to be blended and the minimum
mix-liquid to be blended in each batch-mixer tank (when batch-mixing is used), an
excess mix-liquid to be blended must be decided upon. This excess mix-liquid is
needed to allow for extra volume required to fill lines and prime pumps, etc. In
addition, some extra volume is needed to be able to effectively "fine tune" the
slurry density during batch-mixing at the rig-site. The procedure normally used on
location is to mix the slurry 0.2 to 0.5 ppg heavier than planned by transferring
some of the mix-liquid to another clean tank containing the excess mix-liquid,
then slowly adding some volume of the mix-liquid to the mixed slurry, while stirring
and making measurements with a calibrated pressurized mud balance, until the
target slurry density is obtained.
Prior to commencing the liquid blending operations, all blending equipment must
have been cleaned and inspected. The first critical operation in liquid blending is
ensuring that
the correct amount of water is added to the blender (batch-mixer tank). The
source of the water must be checked to make sure is the same as was used during the laboratory testing. Batch-mixer tanks normally have barrel markers (volume indicators) to be able to tell how much volume of liquid is in the tank. These
markers are sometimes not accurate, can be affected by the leveling of the tanks,
etc. and therefore, should not be used as the only mean for measuring the water.
However, they can be used to double-check the volume of water placed in the
tank. One good method is to use a clean pump truck and to pump the water into
the batch-mixer tanks from the truck's displacement tanks. The pump truck must
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be well leveled, and all the lines, valves and connecting hoses to the batch-mixer
must be completely full of water prior to measuring the water into the batch-mixer.
After the correct volume of water has been added to the blender in accordance
with the blend size design, the correct volumes of liquid additives are then introduced directly into the tank.
Important note: liquid additives often need to be added to the mix-water in a
pre-determinated order to maximize their effectiveness and to avoid some incompatibility problems. This order of addition must be followed during the liquid
blending operation. This sequence should be the same that was used in performing the pilot tests.
Liquid additives often come in 55 gal drums or 5 gal pails. It is important to make
sure that all the containers are full (have not been partially emptied). Often it is
assumed that a 5-gallon pail or a 55-gallon drum actually contain those volumes
of liquid additives. This practice can potentially result in blends that do not contain
the correct proportion of additives. A good way is to used a graduated container
like a 5 gal bucket. The graduated pail can be used to check the volumes contained in the "5-gallon" pails. If measurements on several randomly selected
5-gallon pails indicate that they indeed contain 5 gallons of liquid, the contents of
the pails can then be added directly into the mix hopper. Again the graduated
bucket can be used to spot-check the volume in the 55 gal drums. This is normally done at the service company yard. One drum can be emptied using the
bucket, and the volume checked. If it checks fine, the thing that needs to be done
next is to make sure all the drums to be used are filled to the same height.
When all of the additives have been introduced into the blender, the blend must
be stirred for a minimum of 15 minutes to ensure that a homogenous mixture is
obtained. A sample must then be taken for performing confirmation tests on the
blend. Sampling procedures are discussed elsewhere.
On the Fly Mixing Using Liquid Additives
Cement slurries can also be mixed "on the fly" using continuous addition of liquid
additives to the mix water. This technique is most often used in off-shore locations. Liquid additives may be dumped from gauge tanks into the mixwater tanks
or more sophisticated computerized injection devices may be used. One important issue with this type of cement slurry mixing is the maintenance of the correct
slurry density. Thus, calibration of the equipment and proper coordination of density measurement with the rate of addition of cement, mixing water and liquid
additives is absolutely critical. Once the cement slurry leaves the mixing tank,
there is nothing that can be done. It must be mixed correctly.
Industry experience with liquid additives has been mixed mainly because of problems with dispensing systems and maintaining good control of slurry density. Ideally, the density of cement slurries needs to be controlled within +/-0.1 lb/gal.
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This is not always achieved even with the latest computerized equipment. Below
is an example of a field experience illustrating mixing on the fly vs. batch-mixing.
During the job, about 70 bbls of slurry were mixed on the fly. The following 100
bbls were mixed in a batch-mixer at the desired density of 15.8 lb/gal. The slurry
in the batch-mixer was stirred in the tank while the first 70 bbls were pumped
downhole. As seen in the figure, the density of the initial 70 bbls varied from 15.1
to 16.3 lb/gal.
Figure 24: Slurry Density Variations While Pumping
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The following list contains other best practices and precautions when using liquid
additives:
The slurry mixing system must be capable of slurry density control of +/0.1 ppg.
The liquid additive metering system should be tested for uniform and constant delivery of liquid additive.
A constant inventory of required and actual usage of mix water and liquid
additives should be maintained through the job.
The dispersion of liquid additives throughout the mix water should be verified.
Slurries should be tested in the lab, 0.5 ppg (59.9 kg/cu m) above and
below the designed density to see the effect of density variation on properties.
The cement, additives, and mix water used for design and testing should
always be the same materials used on the actual job.
Sampling of the Blended Cements
The process of sampling a blend is as important as the process of blending since
the samples are used to run confirmation tests on the blend. The success of the
blending operation is measured by how well properly taken samples of the blend
compare with the pilot tests of the lab slurry, within acceptable tolerances.
Automatic Sampling
One efficient method of achieving this is through the use of automatic sampling
devices such as Halliburton's Accu-sample Dry Bulk material collector. Comparable devices are available from the other service companies. Many service company locations are equipped with these types of collectors. The devices enable
samples of the blend to be automatically taken from the "stream" while the blend
is being blown to the "transport".
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The sampling frequency of the "stream" can be adjusted from once every four
seconds to one sample every 1.5 minutes. If needed, two different sample rates
can be pre-selected and the two rates can be used at will during the sampling
process. The following are "ball park" sample settings for the device for different
blend sizes:
Figure 25: Example of Sample Taking for Typical Automatic Samplers
Batch Size Sks
Sample Rate
Seconds
50
0.5
150
20
0.5
250
20
0.75
For blends containing only fine materials such as cement, retarders, etc., the collector is assembled with four collecting holes (0.234 in. dia.) spaced across the
width of the discharge pipe. For blends containing granular materials like silica
sand, lost circulation materials, etc, a single hole (0.375 in. dia.) is used to collect
the samples from the center of the stream. It should be noted that if the single
hole arrangement is not available for sampling the coarser blends, plugging might
occur if the four-hole arrangement is used. Under these conditions it will be better
to sample manually (see below). Prior to taking the sample, the device must be
set at the desired sampling rate, and it must be checked to make sure that it is
operating properly and that it is free of material from previous jobs.
Manual Sampling
Many locations do not have automatic sampling devices. In these situations,
manual sampling needs to be used. This practice, if done correctly, can also be
very effective. It consists of taking the sample by using a discharge valve located
on the line going from the scale tank or the blend tank to the transport. Prior to
taking the sample, the valve must be purged of material from the previous batch.
While sampling, small amounts (surges) of material must be taken by opening and
closing the valve, throughout the transfer of the batch to the transport (usually
sampling is started a few minutes after the start of the transfer operation, to make
sure that the sample is representative of the current batch and it is not being
affected by material left in the lines from the previous batch. A well taken sample
needs to contain from 20 to 50 lbs of blended material.
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Confirmation Testing
The "composite" samples are used by the lab personnel to run the confirmation
tests on the blends. To run the confirmation tests, the dry and liquid blends are
combined in the same ratios as used in the pilot tests. The confirmation tests
must be run using the same industry proven testing procedures that were used
when running the pilot tests.
First, the slurry density should be verified with a calibrated pressurized mud balance and then a thickening test should be run. Simultaneously, settling tests
should be run. Next, free water, fluid loss, rheology, spacer compatibility and
finally compressive strength tests are run. Following are some guidelines for tolerances to help decide the acceptability or rejection of the blended cement formulations.
Slurry Density
The pressurized mud balance density of the slurry needs to be within 0.1 ppg of
the target density (as designed during the pilot testing). The same for the density
of the blended spacer.
Thickening Time
The thickening time must not be less than the minimum required thickening time
for the job. The minimum required thickening time for the job is computed as the
estimated job placement time plus at least one (1) hour safety factor to account for
unplanned events. Any preconditioning time which was used in the pilot test (to
simulate surface batch-mixing) must also be simulated in the confirmation test.
The thickening time should not run in excess of about 3 hours over the estimated
job placement time. However, thickening times that run long may be considered
acceptable as long as the WOC time (see compressive strengths) is adequate
(see also important note below).
Settling Test
The slurry needs to pass the settling test. The blended spacer must also pass the
settling test.
Free Fluid
The free fluid must be essentially the same as the one obtained during the pilot
tests. For slurries designed to prevent gas migration, the free water needs to be
zero (0) ml.
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Fluid Loss
The API fluid loss must be within about 10 ml of the pilot test result, with slurries
designed to have "good" fluid loss properties. Larger variations can be accepted
with slurries designed with higher fluid loss values (see important note below).
Rheology
The consistency of the "composite" blend should allow surface mixing of the slurry
without difficulty. In addition, the rheological properties of the "composite" field
blend should produce similar pressure drop losses as those predicted from the
pilot testing.
Spacer Compatibility
The "composite" cement blend and spacer system must exhibit similar compatibility characteristics as observed during pilot testing.
Compressive Strengths
Compressive strength is perhaps the most difficult test to reproduce even during
pilot testing. As a guideline, WOC times (particularly at liner tops) should be reasonably close to the WOC times determined during pilot testing. In addition, the
compressive strengths of the composite blend should be reasonable close to the
values obtained during pilot testing.
Important Note
All of the confirmation test results must be considered in assessing the quality of
the blend. Some results may be more critical in a particular case, and this must
influence the decision as to use or reject the blend.
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Section 4: Displacements
Displacing Cement
Aims:
understand the overall process of replacing drilling mud with cement slurry in
the casing-formation annulus
highlight the factors which influence success
review the use of spacers and flushes and the importance of mud properties
review flow rates during hole conditioning and mud displacement.
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To be able to remove as much as possible of the mud in the annulus, the industry
has developed a variety of methods and techniques. Some of them are purely
mechanical such as pipe movement (with or without scratchers), casing centralizers, turbulators. Others depend on hydrodynamic effects such as fluid turbulence,
fluid stress at the formation wall, filter cake erodibility. A frequent complicating factor in the displacement process is that cement slurries and drilling fluids are chemically incompatible. When mixed, chemical components contained in the fluid
formulations react with each other, generating undesirable viscosity increases and
loss of fluid loss control. The formation of viscous fluid in the annulus can seriously jeopardize the displacement. Channeling of the cement slurry can bypass
the mud. To reduce the chance of cement slurry and drilling fluid contacting each
other, the industry has developed fluids known as spacers (and/or flushes) that
are chemically friendly with both cements and the muds. These fluids are
pumped ahead of the slurry.
The simplest flush or spacer is water.
Fluid Incompatibility
Basically, mud systems belong in one of two categories oil based or water
based. Oil based systems are formulated with a variety of 'oils', ranging from diesel to more sophisticated, more environmentally friendly chemicals such as
esters, LAOs.
In general, cement slurries are not compatible with water base muds, but they
tend to be even less friendly with oil based systems. Incompatibility problems
generally manifest themselves by viscosity increases (in some cases forming
almost solid masses). However, mixing can also degrade fluid loss control, free
fluid and compressive strength.
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Incompatibility
Downhole surfaces are oil-wet
Some OBMs contain high concentrations of salts which can impact slurry
setting
However, there are significant advantages with OBM:
holes drilled with oil based muds are normally are closer to "gauge" than
holes drilled with water base muds. This helps because good mud displacement is easier with minimum washouts.
they do not tend to build excessive gel strengths downhole. This also
helps in the displacement process.
Good fluid loss control of OBM will reduce the potential for thick, "mushy
filter cake, again aiding the displacement process. OBM filter cakes are
usually thin, tight and plastic.
So, drilling with OBM or synthetic OBM - often facilitates good cementing. Again,
recognizing the importance of the mud in obtaining a good cement job and the
need to integrate all aspects of the well planning.
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One aspect of the placement process that needs special attention with oil base
muds is the spacer design. In wells drilled with OBM, the surfaces are normally
left oil-wet. Since cements do not bond to oil-wet surfaces, every attempt needs
to be made to render the surfaces water-wet before they are contacted by the
cement slurry. (In fact, cements do not bond well to water-wet surfaces either but
there is better adhesion). Spacer fluids used with oil base muds must contain surfactants capable of water wetting the surfaces. Many spacers and flushes are
available from the service companies. Since every well situation is different, it is
not possible to make "blanket" statements as to which systems are the best. Field
successes, or failures, should always be analyzed to assist in determining the
degree of effectiveness of a given system. The make-up and chemistry of the mud
system will influence the choice of surfactants so it is important to use samples of
the actual mud.
An example of laboratory data collected showing some viscosity incompatibility
between an oil based mud and a cement slurry is given below in Table IV-1. Compare, for example, the readings for the mud and the neat cement slurry (100%)
with the mixtures of 75/25 and 50/50 (OBM/Slurry).
Figure 2: Example of Some Viscosity Incompatibility Data - an Oil base Mud and
a Cement Slurry
Fann Viscometer Readings
OBM/Slurry
%/%
Temp
F
600
300
200
100
100/0
72
209
131
102
70
30
28
100/0
150
95
66
55
43
24
22
95/5
72
252
160
128
88
37
35
95/5
150
118
85
73
58
32
30
75/25
72
390
262
232
178
78
74
75/25
150
280
206
178
141
84
79
50/50
72
254
130
96
64
10
10
50/50
150
296
290
206
68
56
40
25/75
72
62
32
22
13
25/75
150
70
40
28
18
5/95
72
42
22
15
5/95
150
36
20
14
10
0/100
72
35
17
12
0/100
150
24
12
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Rheological Properties
Rheological Models
Detailed procedures for rheological measurement are contained in the document
API RP-10B. In addition, methods and equations for the calculation of pressure
drops and flow regimes are given in the same document. Here we will only briefly
review these topics.
To be able to characterize the flow behavior (friction pressures, flow regime) in
any geometry (pipe, annulus), a rheological model that best represents the viscometry data must be selected. The data obtained using a rotational viscometer
is converted to shear-rate and shear-stress data. A rheological model for the fluid
is then selected by regression analysis or by plotting the shear-rate/shear-stress
data, and deciding on the model that best represents the data.
Rheological models describe the relationship between shear-stress and
shear-rate of a fluid. The most commonly used models of drilling fluids, spacer
systems and cement slurries are the Bingham plastic and the Power Law models.
However, three parameter models are being used more and more throughout the
industry.
Newtonian Fluid Model. When plotting shear-stress versus shear-rate on Cartesian (rectangular) coordinates, a fluid behaving as a Newtonian fluid will generate
a straight line through the origin with a positive slope (Figure Curve A). This is a
model that often represents preflushes (un-weighted fluids) pumped ahead of
spacer fluids during cementing operations.
Bingham Plastic Model. When plotting shear-stress versus shear-rate on Cartesian (rectangular) coordinates, a fluid behaving as a Bingham Plastic will generate
a straight line with a positive shear-stress at zero shear-rate (Figure Curve D)
Power Law Model. When plotting shear-stress versus shear-rate on Cartesian
(rectangular) coordinates, this model will produce a curve with zero shear-stress
at zero shear-rate (Figure Curves B and C).
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In a well, the temperature varies up and down the casing and the annulus. Strictly
speaking, the rheology should be measured at several representative temperatures covering the range anticipated. Rheology measurements are affected by
sedimentation tendencies, chemical reactions and other time and shear effects.
Calculations using rheology data should be expected to contain a degree of
uncertainty and need to be handled accordingly.
Pressure does not affect the rheology of water base fluids (cement slurries and
spacers) as much as temperature. However, for oil base muds, pressure as
well as temperature - can have a marked effect on the rheology.
Some of these tasks should occur while still drilling to section TD.
The condition of the mud is the most important factor in obtaining good displacement and a successful cement job. Thus, one of the issues is how long to circulate?
Traditionally, rules of thumb such as circulating bottoms-up twice or circulating
the open hole volume have been used. Displacement studies have shown, not
surprisingly, that rules of thumb can be unreliable.
More quantitative method have been used such as the tag or dye tracer methods. The technique involves adding a dye or other marker (e.g. a carbide slug) to
the drilling fluid and circulating the well at a constant pump rate. When the dye or
marker is detected in the return line, the percentage volume of mud circulating
can be determined based on the well geometry and the open hole caliper log.
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The use of such tracers, however, is time consuming and subject to gross errors
in poor hole conditions exactly those which most need the assessment. At best,
the return is not a sharp peak but extends over a considerable time. Analysis is
difficult.
A possibly more reliable method continuously estimates the circulatable hole (the
percentage of open hole mud volume that is actually moving during conditioning).
This provides knowledge of when circulation at a given rate is no longer providing
additional benefit. With this information, the circulation rate can be increased
and/or other techniques can be applied (pipe movement) to improve the percent
of circulatable hole. A knowledge of how much openhole mud is circulating is of
particular importance in highly deviated/horizontal holes, due to the potential presence of solids beds on the low side of the hole.
The continuous monitoring technique uses a software package, and it is based on
very accurate measurements of wellhead pressure and flow rate of the drilling
fluid while conditioning. The wellbore geometry, including an accurate caliper log,
and the drilling fluid rheological properties must also be known to predict the percentage of circulatable hole. The calculation is simply based on the pressure drop
that should occur in the openhole section of the annulus. If the hole has 100% of
the drilling fluid circulating, a certain pressure drop for the openhole section can
be calculated at a given flow rate. If less than 100% of the drilling fluid is moving,
the annular flow area will be smaller and the pressure drop across that annulus
will be higher.
The software used calculates the percentage of circulatable hole based on the
actual hole size (caliper). An example of the use of this technology in an actual
well is shown in the following figure.
Again, as with the tracer approach, this technique is difficult to apply, time consuming and subject to some error. However, just monitoring pressure against time
for a couple of flow rates can help establish whether mud is being brought into circulation or not.
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10
100
Efficiency
80
Rate
60
6
Pressure
4
40
20
Designates Pipe Movement
0
0
30
60
90
Pseudo-Displacement
Efficiency (%)
Cement Manual
0
120
Time (min)
LOW
MOBILITY
MUD
MOBILE
MUD
FILTRATE
CEMENT
FILTRATE
FILTER
CAKE
CASING
FORMATION
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Several investigators have conducted research on hole conditioning, mud properties and displacement.
Example, ideal drilling fluid properties to be achieved before cementing a vertical
well are given in the Table below together with suggested downhole Yield Point
(YP) for drilling fluids used in highly deviated and horizontal wells.
As seen, the suggested YP for deviated wells is higher than for vertical wells.
This higher YP is necessary to minimize solids settling from the mud on the low
side of the hole (barite settling known as sag). If solids settling from the mud is
not prevented, a solids channel can form. These solids channels are very difficult
to remove. Also, barite sag can lead to loss of well control due to the resulting
effective reduction in mud density (hydrostatic head). To achieve the properties
given at downhole conditions, the properties may need to be higher at the surface.
Alternatively, if the properties are adjusted at surface to be close to the values
given in the tables, the properties downhole may not have the desired values due
to temperature and pressure effects.
Recommended
Preferred
10 or less
Plastic Viscosity
(PV)
(cp)
20 or less
15
15
Gel Strength
(10 sec/10 min)
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45
15
60
20
85
28
90
30
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To adjust drilling fluid properties prior to cementing, the muds may be treated with
additives (dispersants, etc.) in the mud pits prior to circulation and/or during circulation (conditioning). The properties that are normally adjusted are the rheology
(PV, YP and gels) and the fluid loss of the drilling mud.
Filtercake thickness is related, among other things, to the fluid loss of the mud. A
thick mud filtercake is not desirable because it is hard to remove, does not bond to
cement and can lead to poor long-term zone isolation. To minimize soft thick filtercake a low fluid loss is needed. Mud cake can easily be checked by the mud engineer and the thickness will be reported on the Mud Reports.
Gel strength development is another property that should be checked and
adjusted as needed. Muds with 'flat' get strength profiles - those that do not
increase much with time - are desirable. WBMs in poor condition need to be
avoided.
Again, the mud properties will affect the success of the cementing. Poor mud
poor cement job.
Minimization of Channeling
Research work has shown the following practices will help minimize channeling:
The viscosity of the fluid doing the displacing needs to be higher that the
rheology of the fluid being displaced.
In cases where the pore/frac window precludes density differences then a rheology hierarchy should be used to minimize channeling.
An improved technique over conventional concepts of density and rheology hierarchies is to use a pressure drop hierarchy of the mud, spacer, and cement slurry.
This means that each fluid should have a higher pressure drop in the annulus at
the given pump rate, and at the given annular location, than the fluid above it.
Pressure drop is a more comprehensive way to approach minimization of channeling and relates to the shear stress at the wall developed as the fluid moves.
When using such a pressure drop hierarchy, the rheology (and if possible the density of the fluids) needs to be adjusted for the given annular configuration and
pump rates to be used. These calculations are normally performed using a
cement job simulator.
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Erodibility Technology
Wellbore Condition
The outcome of a primary cementing operation is greatly influenced by the condition of the wellbore at the time the cement slurry is pumped. The Figure shows
the condition in a wellbore across permeability, at the end of drilling with a poor
WBM after running casing.
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It has been found through large scale experiments that the level of hole cleaning,
and the efficiency of the cementing job, is controlled by the degree of mud dehydration across the openhole permeability. Tests have shown that displacement of
the MG mud is not the real problem during primary cement jobs. The real difficulty
is the removal of the PDG mud from the wellbore. The Figures below illustrate
this. They show PDG mud and filtercake trapped between the cement and the
permeable formation after large-scale laboratory cement jobs.
Vertical Hole
Inclined Hole
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Calculations
The shear stress (w) needed to remove the PDG mud is: 600/12 = 50 lbf/100 ft2.
The needed pressure drop in the open hole is:
P = 4 x L x w /De
Where L is the length of the open hole, and De is the equivalent diameter (hole
diameter minus casing O.D.).
If we calculate the pressure drop in the open hole in psi/ft using the shear stress in
lbf/100 ft2 and the equivalent diameter in inches, then the previous equation can
be written as:
P = 0.00333 x w/De
Going back to our example well:
P = 0.00333 x 50 /(8 - 5.5)
P = 0.067 psi/ft (pressure drop per linear foot) is the pressure drop that is needed
in the open hole to erode the PDG mud and filtercake.
The next step is to design spacer systems and to calculate their pressure drop per
foot of open hole configuration for this well to see if they are capable of developing
the needed pressure drop of 0.067 psi/ft at reasonable pump rates.
Spacer Design
For our imaginary example, three spacer systems were designed for this well.
The systems were designed to be compatible with the mud in the hole and the
cement slurry to be used, and when tested for settling, the spacers did not settle
statically or dynamically. All the spacers had a density of 15.5 lb/gal, and they all
had good fluid loss control. The table below gives the rheology of the spacer systems.
Figure 12: Spacer Rheology
Spacer
Rheology Readings
600
300
200
100
29
17
13
11
70
40
30
20
10
120
70
53
36
15
Using a computer program, the pressure drop for each of the three spacers was
calculated for this well's open hole configuration. The pressure drop for water was
also calculated. The following table summarizes the results obtained:
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Hole Size
Pressure Drop
BPM
in.
psi/ft
12
0.0636
12
0.0219
14
0.0831 *
14
0.0286
Rate
Hole Size
Pressure Drop
BPM
in.
psi/ft
0.0404
0.0181
12
0.0713 *
12
0.0238
14
0.0936
14
0.0313
Rate
Hole Size
Pressure Drop
BPM
in.
psi/ft
0.0549
0.0251
0.0728 *
0.0333
14
0.1027
Spacer 2
Spacer 3
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14
0.0466
Rate
Hole Size
Pressure Drop
BPM
in.
psi/ft
12
0.0375
12
0.0120
14
0.0498
14
0.0160
Water
From the table above, spacer 1 would have to be pumped at 14 BPM, spacer 2 at
12 BPM and spacer 3 at 8 BPM to erode the PDG mud and filter cake in this well.
Notice that none of the spacers developed the needed pressure drop in the 9 in.
hole (washout zone) even at the higher rates. This indicates that there is a great
chance that PDG mud will not be removed from the washout zone. This example
helps explain why it is so hard to get good cement jobs in holes with large washouts.
The water did not develop the needed pressure drop even at 14 BPM in the 8 in.
hole, but reactive flushes should not be discarded from the screening of spacer
fluids. Certain spacers and flushes can increase the erodibility of PDG mud by
chemical means.
ECD Calculations
Again a computer program was used, this time to see if the selected flow rates for
each of the spacers would allow the job to be pumped without fracturing the well
(without exceeding the 17.0 lb/gal equivalent fracture gradient). For each set of
calculations, it was assumed that 1,000 ft (in the annulus) of spacer would be
used in the job.
Maximum ECDs at the Selected Rates
Rate BPM
14
16.4
12
16.3
16.1
Spacer
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As can be seen from the table, the three spacers at their engineered rates would
work (maximum ECD's were below the 17.0 lb/gal fracture gradient).
Final Testing With the Erodibility Cell
To fully utilize the erodibility technology, the final selection as to which spacer and
flow rate combination to use for the job would be determined using the erodibility
cell. Each spacer would need to be tested (pumped at the cell rate equivalent to
the field rate selected), over a PDG mud and cake bed deposited with the same
mud, to confirm the design (removal of the PDG mud bed). Based on those tests,
the best spacer would be chosen. Reactive chemical flushes would also be
tested at this stage.
Obviously, this is a very time consuming and labour intensive exercise which will
always be subject to the difficulty of having a mud sample truly representative of
that in the well at section TD. The best that can be expected is to be able to
bracket the likely properties of the type of mud in use. If it looks poor, replacement
should be considered.
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surface eventually lands on top of the free-falling column and has an added direct
effect on the free-fall phenomenon.
The frictional pressures generated by the flow of the fluids have a strong effect on
the free-fall phenomenon. Frictional forces resist and slow down the rate of
free-fall of the fluids. At a given time during free-fall, the flow rate of the fluids is
dictated by the difference in density of the fluids, by the length of the column of
each fluid in the well, and by the frictional forces which in themselves are a function of the free-fall rate. During free-fall, the fluids move at flow rates which
change constantly and are not equal to the surface pumping rate. Initially, the
free-falling column of fluids moves faster than the surface pump rate. Eventually
this rate reaches a maximum value and then slows down as the heavy fluids get
close to the bottom of the well or even "turn the corner," and the lighter displacement fluid is pumped behind them. During the deceleration stage of free-fall, the
fluids in the well may move at rates below the desired minimum rate for the job.
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ing that the surface pressure is essentially equal to zero while an "empty" gap
exists in between the free-falling column of fluids and the wellhead.
The development of free-fall models has substantially improved the industry's
understanding of the phenomenon of free-fall. With the use of the mathematical
models, job designs can be performed for specific cases. Some general conclusions have been reached through the use of simulators:
It is possible to estimate the free-fall rate of the fluid column at any time during the job. Since the column of the fluid is continuous throughout the entire
annulus, the rate of free-fall is equal to the annular rate of returns at the surface, assuming the fluids are incompressible.
In general, equivalent circulating densities (ECD's) during the accelerating
stages of free-fall do not appear to be excessive enough to cause lost circulation problems during most typical jobs. Simulation runs indicate that even
during highly accelerated free-falling periods, ECD's are less than the ECD's
after the cement is in place behind the pipe, at the end of the job.
It is apparent from computer runs using simulators that many previous jobs
pumped "under turbulent flow" were, at least during the decelerating stages
of free-fall, not in turbulent but very likely in laminar flow.
It is possible to get a good approximation of the time (or volume needed) for
the displacement fluids to "catch up with the plug" when a well is on a vacuum during cementing.
When the fluids catch up with the plug, it is possible to estimate the rate at
which the free-falling column of fluid is moving. This can prevent "running
into the plug" at rates too different from the rate of the free falling column in
order to avoid damaging the well.
It is possible to design surface pumping schedules to control the rate of
free-fall above certain minimum limits, for example to be able to use the
erodibility technology.
It is possible to simulate shutdowns and obtain a good estimation of free-falling rates during pump shutdowns. The time needed for a free-falling column
of cement to come to a complete stop and its position in the well at the end of
a shutdown can also be estimated.
Experience with simulators indicates that shutdowns from 15 to 20 minutes
are often enough to cause the free-falling cement column to come to a complete stop.
Free-fall can be prevented by choking the annular returns
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tates running in hole easily without hanging up (for pipe rotation, the pipe should
be free to turn inside the static centralizers). However, this type of installation is
not good if reciprocation is used because the pipe cannot be rotated.
Reciprocation requires the centralizers to be placed between collars, or between
stop rings that are installed far enough apart to accommodate the reciprocation
stroke without moving the centralizer. This installation, however, may cause the
centralizers to be subject to damage while being run in very tight or high angle
holes. When using stop rings, the set screw style, and/or set screws with 'dogs',
have been found to produce the highest holding forces. Nail, or pin, type have
been found to produce the lowest holding forces.
For low deviation (say less than 20 - 30 degrees), bow spring centralizers are normally used as long as the design calculations (computer program simulations)
show that they are adequate to provide the desired standoff.
Semi-rigid (including double-bow) centralizers are often the next choice. Positive
stand-off centralizers (straight vanes, turbulators, etc.) are used when the bow
and semi-rigid types are not adequate. In any case, it is very important to try to
maintain high levels of standoff (80+%) whenever possible. In some high angle
holes, the 'turbulator' type centralizers have been found to plow their way into
soft formations, making running of the casing difficult. For very narrow annuli,
positive standoff centralizer subs may be needed, but they are expensive.
For highly deviated and horizontal holes, the semi-rigid (double bow) type centralizers are often considered due to their potential higher standoff over the semi-rigid
vane type.
Double-bow centralizers generate less starting and running forces
than typical bow centralizers, but better restoring forces than conventional bow
spring centralizers under lateral forces. Some operators have used combinations
of rigid and semi-rigid centralizers in highly deviated and horizontal holes to help
enhance the chance of getting a good cement job. In all cases, standoff needs to
be calculated at the lowest point of casing sag, in between the centralizers.
Recently, roller blade type centralizers have become available. These solid type
devices can greatly help running of casing in extended reach wells. The rollers
dramatically reduce the drag and torque in these wells. Below is an example of
the use of these centralizers in an extended reach well, comparing the drag forces
to an offset well where the centralizers were not used.
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Figure 14: Example of Drag Reduction by the use of Roller Blade Centralizers
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movement methods. The correct type of scratchers need to be used with each
technique.
For reciprocation, it is necessary to use the reciprocating (horizontal) cable loop
type. For rotation, the rotating (vertical) cable loop scratchers should be used.
The open wire type scratchers have been found to bend easily (the wires), and it
is doubtful that they can perform downhole. In fact, the integrity of scratchers and
centralizers is a very important aspect. These items have to be extremely robust
to survive running into the well. Experience has often indicated that, in practice,
these items are not robust enough and provide a source of junk in the hole rather
than performing their intended function. This does not detract from the philosophy
that centralisation, pipe movement and mechanical disturbance of the mud cake
will all enhance the quality of the cement job.
Pipe Movement vs. Displacement Efficiency
Conditions: 16 lb/gal Drilling Mud, 16.7 lb/gal Cement Slurry, 4 bbl/min Pump
Rate, and 60% Pipe Standoff
Pipe Movement
None
65
20 rev/min
97
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the job design. Re-runs can be made very easily with the latest data, to optimize
the job. Pre-job simulations will help with, among other things:
Optimization of the flow rates during well conditioning and cementing, for
maximum mud removal.
Ensure that the fracture gradient in the openhole is not exceeded during the
job. A very critical issue in some well conditions - tight liners, slimholes, etc.
Maintaining sufficient overbalance pressure across pressurized gas and/or
fluid-bearing formations to maintain control of the well and prevent fluid invasion during pumping and shutdowns.
Optimizing spacer and cement properties (rheology, density) to maximize
mud displacement.
Minimize the chances of channeling by properly designing a pressure drop
hierarchy in the annulus for the fluids, from the top to the bottom of the annulus.
When performing a pre-job simulation, the following information is needed among
other data:
Accurate well geometry (including deviation)
Density and rheology of all the fluids (often rheologies need to be estimated
from previous lab information until the slurry and spacer designs are completed)
Fracture pressures or gradient vs. depth
Pore pressures or gradient vs. depth
Accurate Geometry
A good caliper log (four or six arm) is needed to help simulate the openhole geometry as closely as possible to the real situation. This is of particular importance in
slimholes, since relatively minor changes in hole geometry may make large differences in friction pressure (ECD) calculations.
Fracture Pressure (Gradient) vs. Depth
To be able to optimize the job without danger of breaking down weak formations,
the fracture pressures (gradient) at different depths must be accurately known for
the openhole section. Job pump rates are designed to stay below rates that may
initiate lost circulation. Often the job is pumped fast at the beginning and then the
pump rate is slowed to prevent the ECDs from exceeding the fracture gradient
across weak zones.
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12,600
16
ECD lb/gal
11,800
15
Fluids Pumped
Dual Spacer
Lead Cement
Tail Cement
Drilling Fluid
11,400
11,000
0
400
800
1,200
1,600
2,000
2,400
Volume In bbl
Plot shows total annular pressure and equivalent circulating density
vs. liquid volume pumped into the well.
Figure 15: Example of Job Pump Rates Reduced Toward the End, to Avoid Lost
Circulation
In highly deviated and/or horizontal hole situations, chances of exceeding the
fracture gradient may often be more affected by the fluid rheology than by the
density. This is because the contribution to the total pressure from the hydrostatic component is smaller in these types of wells than in vertical holes. Again
simulators need to be used to optimize these situations.
Pore Pressure vs. Depth
Breaking down zones during placement of a cement slurry is always a concern,
and so is maintaining sufficient wellbore pressure across gas and other fluid-bearing zones during the job, during potential shutdowns, and after placement of a
cement slurry.
To properly simulate the job, the depth and formation pressure (pore pressure) for
each liquid and gas-bearing zone must be known. If zones are not properly considered, the result may be annular flow during or after cementing or even a blowout.
When using preflushes, it is critical that the whole job be carefully evaluated
because of the loss of hydrostatic head which may be generated by these fluids,
particularly if channeling occurs. This is important in narrow pore/frac window
wells, where low overbalance and the potential for gas migration is greater than in
more conventional wells.
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Bottom
Hole
Casing Size
Depth ft
Depth ft
Length ft
in
OD in
Angle deg
1500
1500
6.1540
3.5000
.0
1500
12500
11000
4.7500
3.5000
.0
Bottom
Hole
Casing Size
Depth ft
Depth ft
Length ft
in
Angle deg
12500
12500
3.00
.0
2420 ft MD
6000 ft MD
12500ft MD
12500 ft MD
The Figure below gives the preliminary data for the fluids to be pumped. The top
of the cement slurry will be at 6,000 ft to cover a gas zone located at 7,500 ft. The
gas zone has a pore pressure of 11.0 lb/gal equivalent and a fracture pressure of
13.4 lb/gal equivalent. The fracture gradient equivalent at TD is 13.8 lb/gal for this
hole.
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and mud films should be removed by the fluids ahead of the cement. Leftover
mud will contaminate the
cement slurry. On the other hand, if the PDG films are removed by the slurry without drastically affecting the set properties of the cement, this would still provide
zone isolation. But again, this is not the ideal situation, and an effort should be
made to have the fluids ahead of the cement slurry do the removing of the PDG
mud films.
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Again, looking at all the simulation data, this is a case where good mud removal
(and thus a good cement job) would be expected based on the optimization.
However, there is danger for wellbore invasion after the cement job. The next
step would be to design and use a good gas migration control slurry, and to try to
do the job at the designed rates and with the optimized fluid properties, to obtain a
good job.
Let us now look at the effect of erodibility. The Figure below shows the effect that
a different mud with an erodibility of 5 could have on the outcome of this job (PDG
mud films with erodibilities of 5 or less are very hard to remove). Notice that with
that erodibility, the spacer would have to be pumped at over 6 bpm to erode the
PDG mud films. With that erodibility, none of the fluids would be capable of
removing the PDG mud films. We already know, however, that those high rates
would be prohibitive in this hole due to great potential for lost circulation. With the
lower erodibility, if the job was done at 3 bpm, thick PDG films would likely be left
against the permeable zones (great potential for poor zone isolation).
Figure 22: Lower Mud Erodibility Data for the 4-3/4"x 3-1/2" Annulus
Erodibility Technology 4-37
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One thing that helps with this situation is that normally the length of time these
reactive formations are contacted by the water base spacer and the cement slurry
is very short when compared with the time needed to drill the hole section (a few
hours vs. days). However, there are cases where the TOC places the spacer in
open hole forever.
Fluids Left Behind the Casing
One issue associated with cementing of wells that is often ignored is the effect of
the fluids left behind the casing after the cement job. Often cement is not circulated all the way to the surface, particularly when cementing the deeper strings in
a well.
Depending on the well conditions and the properties of the fluids in the annulus
above the cement column, the fluids may tend to segregate, and potentially corrode the casing. Segregation/settling may lead to annular flow during the life of
the well (loss of hydrostatic), if the fluid is across zones with potential for invasion
of the annulus. Corrosive effects may eventually cause casing leaks at some
point during the productive life of the well. Thus, all fluids left behind the pipe
need to be examined to make sure they will not negatively affect the integrity of
the casing strings during the life of the well.
If WBM is to be left behind casing, the pH should be raised and, perhaps, an oxygen scavenger used.
Fluid Contamination in the Casing
A bottom plug has two main functions. One is to wipe the mud film from inside the
casing wall ahead of the cement to prevent slurry contamination. If not used, the
mud film may be wiped by the top plug, potentially displacing that volume of mud
and contaminated cement into the shoe track. As an example, a 1/16" mud film in
15,000 ft of 7" casing amounts to 22.5 bbls of mud!
Another function of the bottom plug is to separate the cement from the spacer to
prevent mixing due to gravity effects while the fluids are going down the casing.
Bottom cement plugs are available that use a rupture disk rather than a rubber
diaphragm, to reduce concerns when using loss circulation materials. Under
pressure differential, the disk breaks into small pieces.
The potential for fluid contamination is greater with the larger casing strings. The
larger the casing, the greater the potential for contamination in the casing if bottom plugs are not used. In practice, when pumping a large volume of lead slurry
on a surface casing string, the bottom plug can be omitted. Plugs for large casing
strings eg 18 5/8 and above can be insufficiently robust to adequately perform
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the job. Bottom plugs should be used whenever possible. Best cementing practices call for the use of several plugs. For example, one separating the mud from
the spacer and another in between the spacer and the cement slurry.
Shutdowns During the Cement Job
Shut-downs are very detrimental to the success of cementing operations. The
longer the shutdown to release plugs, switch lines or tanks, etc, the higher the
potential negative impact on the job. Shutdowns cause gelation and dehydration
of the drilling fluid in the hole. Therefore, every effort needs to be made to minimize or eliminate shutdowns during conditioning of the hole and during the
cement job. To eliminate shutdowns to drop plugs, the industry has developed
several versions of cementing heads that allow dropping of plugs "on the fly.
Displacement Volumes
Quite often the service company's job monitoring devices (see On Site Data Collection below) are not connected to the output of the rig pump. One serious effect
of this is that no permanent record of the job is collected when displacement is
done with the rig pumps. In addition, if the assumed efficiency of the rig pump is
not correct, the displacement volume may be in error. Where accurate displacement volumes are needed then the cementing unit should be used.
Job Monitoring
Proper monitoring of the job, comparing the measured against the predicted
behavior, can assist tremendously in deciding if the well is experiencing loss circulation. Additionally, a permanent, continuous job record is essential to be able to
perform a valid post-job evaluation to determine the causes of job failure.
Cementing in Narrow Annuli
Cementing in narrow annuli (slimholes) is not inherently different from conventional hole, primary cementing processes.
Cement Slurry Design - The cement slurries used in slimholes must have some
very special properties. For example, the slurries must have rheologies low
enough such that they can be mixed and pumped at reasonable rates without
causing breakdown due to excessive ECDs in the narrow annuli, but without
exhibiting stability problems. In addition, the slurries need to contribute to properly displacing the drilling fluid from the annulus without dropping solids, particularly in deviated configurations. The narrow configurations generally dictate that
the slurries need to have good fluid loss control and, in many instances, good gas
migration control properties.
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Not possible to clearly tell when the job is finished (since there is no top plug,
there is no clear pressure increase at the end of the job)
Concerns about the quality of the cement around the shoe.
Hole conditioning in the reverse circulation mode
Mud Displacement Efficiency
Well control issues
Casing collapse
Main advantages of reverse circulation cementing:
Lower placement pressures across the lower weak zones during hole conditioning and cementing.
Lower placement pressures allow faster placement rates
Shorter cement jobs because the cement slurry is pumped down the annulus
instead of being pumped down the casing and up the annulus.
Not all of the cement slurry sees high well temperatures found near the bottom of the well. In addition, placement times are shorter as indicated above.
This may lead to cheaper cement slurry designs.
Careful computer simulation is required to investigate the pressure drops and
pressures likely to be seen during such jobs. The effect of geometry must be
investigated.
Liner Cementing Considerations
Aspects that differentiate liner cementing from conventional primary cementing
include:
Hole/annular size
Frequent requirement for good cement all the way into the lap
Often deeper and hotter
Equipment issues
Frequently need good mud removal & isolation productive zones exposed
Hole Size
Annular clearance impacts the success of cementing operations. Studies have
indicated that the best results are obtained with annular clearances of 1 to1
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inches. Depending on well configuration and mud properties, large annular clearances may be detrimental to success, if at reasonable pump rates, not enough
stress can be applied to remove gelled mud.
With liners, annular clearances are normally small. In many liner applications
annular clearances are " or less. Many successful liner operations have been
performed with clearances of " (for example 7" casing in 8 " hole) but in
many cases caliper logs shown holes larger than 8 ".
When annular clearances fall below ", the cementing success ratio falls. Even
getting the liner to bottom within the pore/frac window may be difficult. Centralization is a challenge and the use of very expensive centralizer subs may be necessary. An alternative is to under-ream the hole.
Temperature Considerations
In cementing full strings of casing, the cement performance concerns are mainly
across the producing zones near the shoe. On liners, the cement must also set
and seal at the top of the liner, which may be several thousand feet up the hole.
The static formation temperature at the top of the liner may be much lower than
the circulating temperature at the bottom. Therefore, an accurate understanding
of the well temperatures is necessary for designing the cement slurry.
Mud Removal
Mud removal and avoidance of channeling are vital. Experience has shown that
the chance of sealing the overlap is improved if excess cement, sufficient to fill
about 500 ft of the drillpipe/casing annulus, is used. This excess volume can contribute to removal of the mud from the overlap and is normally sufficient to ensure
all the contaminated cement slurry is out of the overlap.
Sufficient spacer volume should be used to give a contact time of about 10 minutes. Another rule of thumb is to use enough volume to provide about 800 ft of
annular length to assist with mud removal. Weighted spacer should be mixed at a
density between that of the cement and the mud. If the mud is oil based, the
spacer formulation must contain surfactants to water wet the pipe. The spacer
should not exhibit settling which could cause the drill pipe and running tool to get
stuck above the liner top.
It the liner is to be hung prior to cementing, it is a good practice not to set the liner
hanger until bottoms-up have been circulated above the liner top. Setting the liner
can reduce the flow path by as much as seventy percent. Debris can bridge this
restriction and cause loss of returns.
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Liner Equipment
Detailed equipment information is given in another section of this manual. Here
we will only briefly review this topic. In most liner cementing operations, a float
shoe, a float collar and a landing collar are used. The use of redundant floats is to
provide backup to prevent flow back of the cement slurry into the liner at the end
of the job (U-tube effect). Some liner shoes incorporate multiple floats as an
added safety measure. At least two joints of casing should be used for the shoe
track, so that any contaminated cement slurry will be left in the liner rather than
around the shoe.
Liners should be centralized whenever possible. The difficulties in obtaining adequate cement coverage in liner applications due to narrow annuli is tremendously
aggravated if the liner is not centered in the hole. Expensive solid blade or bow
centralizer subs may be the only way to centralize the pipe in very narrow configurations (3/4 inch or less). These sub-type centralizers are made up as part of the
casing string.
Job Execution
Movement of the pipe should be incorporated whenever possible. If it is not feasible to move the pipe during cementing, the pipe should be moved while conditioning the mud.
Overlap Length
In shallow, low pressure well situations, relatively short liner overlaps (300-400
feet) may be adequate to provide an effective seal. In deep, high pressure gas
wells overlaps of 450 to 800 feet may be required. It has been reported that overlap lengths of less than 300 feet require more remedial cementing than overlap
lengths of more than 450 feet.
More on Liner Overlap Seal
Two methods are used by the industry to obtain an hydraulic seal at the liner top
with cement:
single stage
planned squeeze
When using single stage cementing, the cement slurry is circulated around the
shoe, up the hole and through the liner lap. If a planned squeeze is used, the
slurry is circulated to a pre-determined point below the liner top and the liner top is
then squeezed during a second operation. This approach is used when the formaErodibility Technology 4-47
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tion cannot support the ECD developed during placement. Squeezing the liner
top may require another trip. Whenever possible, the single stage method should
be preferred. The advantages of the single-step method are:
A continuous sheath of cement may be placed all around and along the
entire length of the liner.
No length of uncemented casing is exposed, in the life of the well, to high formation pressures, potentially corrosive fluids, point loading, etc.
The technique is normally less costly. Eliminates the need for another trip,
longer rig times, etc.
Post Job Testing and Evaluation
The integrity of the cement seal in the overlap needs to be verified before a liner
job can be considered a success. Before this overlap seal can be tested, the
cement inside the previous string above the top of the liner must be cleaned out.
In the ideal case, hard cement is drilled above the liner top. It is possible to obtain
an overlap seal without encountering hard cement above the liner top. Normally,
however, this is the exception rather than the rule.
Many operators clean the liner out to the float collar prior to pressure testing the
liner top for fear of collapsing the liner during liner top testing. If the liner top is to
be tested before the liner has been cleaned out, the maximum load to be applied
to the liner should be calculated and compared against the liner collapse rating.
Testing of the overlap seal should not be done until the cement at the top of the
liner has set and developed a predetermined amount of strength (normally about
500 psi). Compressive strength tests in the cement laboratory prior to the job will
indicate the waiting time necessary for the cement to attain the desired strength.
On long liners where the circulating temperature at the shoe may be much hotter
that the static temperature at the liner top, extended WOC times may be necessary. Operators on expensive offshore rigs sometimes attempt to shorten these
long WOC times by reentering too soon, only to lose several days to squeeze
operations. To decide on the test pressure of the liner overlap, several
approaches and considerations are available:
The maximum test pressure must not exceed the burst strengths of the
affected casings.
Pressures to be used during the leak-off test at the liner shoe need to be
considered.
It may be necessary to exceed the fracture limit of the zones near the previous casing shoe in order to determine if there is a seal.
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Sufficient test pressure should be applied to make sure further drilling operations are not impaired.
When drill stem or other testing is to be performed on lower zones, the overlap test pressure needs to be above the pressure needed in the annulus to
operate the downhole test tools.
Pressures encountered in production or stimulation operations must also be
considered.
The permeability of a formation and micro channels in the cement sheath allow, in
many cases, the flow of fluids in one direction, while restricting flow in the opposite
direction. This may also be caused by debris in the overlap that may act like
flow-check valves. If this conditions exists, it is possible to obtain a sufficient positive pressure test and still have gas flow into the wellbore. For this reason, it is
always prudent to also conduct a negative test. This test is sometimes called a dry
test or a differential test. It involves the relief of a portion of the well hydrostatic
pressure in the wellbore.
A retrievable squeeze packer is generally used for a negative test but a drillable
packer can also be used. The packer is run in the hole on a work string (usually
drillpipe), to a depth above the top of the liner. After setting the packer and conducting a positive pressure test, the bypass circulating valve on the packer is
opened and drill water or diesel is pumped into the drillpipe, displacing the well
fluid until a sufficient differential pressure is obtained. With the valve closed and
the packer set to isolate the well fluid in the annulus, the differential pressure is
bled off leaving the hydrostatic pressure of the fluid contained in the drillpipe on
the liner top. Flow back is monitored to determine if a leak is present. After 15 to
30 minutes with no flow, the drillpipe is then re-pressured to the amount of the differential. The packer valve is opened again and the light fluid in the drillpipe is
reversed out and again replaced with well fluid. The expansion of cool water after
placement in a hot well will cause some flow and this should not be confused with
actual well flow.
A sufficient amount of differential would be the equivalent to the expected lightest
hydrostatic to be incurred during subsequent drilling and eventual production
operations. If this value is unknown, a 2000 psi differential is usually adequate. In
all cases, compliance must be made with all local regulatory bodies in the running,
cementing, and testing of liners.
Liner Tiebacks
Liner tiebacks to surface or liner stubs may be necessary at some point in the life
of the well. Thus a tieback receptacle or sleeve is often run with the liner hanger.
When running a tieback string of casing to the surface, a float collar and two plugs
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should be used. Only one plug is used probably 80 percent of the times when
cementing tieback strings to surface. As pointed out before, in large casing
strings, if a bottom plug is not used, severe channeling inside the casing can
occur, and a large portion of the cement slurry can become contaminated.
A fluted mill should be used to dress the tieback sleeve prior to running in the hole
with the tieback casing string. Many operators want to make sure the tieback
stem is stabbed into the tieback sleeve prior to cementing. However, it is possible
that the stem is pumped out during the cementing process due to the cooling
effect of the circulated fluids. In order to protect the seals on the tieback stem, the
pressure should be released and the surface left open when lowering the stem
into the tieback sleeve. If the tieback stem seals fail, pressure needs to be held on
the casing until the cement sets.
Cement Manual
Schlumberger
CemCADE
Computer-Aided Design and Evaluation for Cementing
CemCADE simulates a set of pumping conditions in a given well, but it is much
more than a mere U-tube simulator. CemCADE is fully integrated software containing different modules where all aspects of a cement job are accounted for.
Dynamic graphics are automatically updated with any change of data and a number of independent calculators further help the user selecting the appropriate
cementing job parameters.
U-tube and placement
The U-tube simulator is an analytical tool, which calculates free-fall and ECD
using the rheology of fluids at the temperature selected by the user (see Laboratory database). This is normally the temperature output by the temperature simulator. This U-tube simulator has been validated against field measurements where
return flow was measured.
The user inputs the different fluids, either by volume, or height (fill-up), or dynamically on the graphics. A comprehensive set of graphs is selectable.
Pauses in the pumping schedule can be included at any stage in order for the
U-tube simulator to realistically simulate the movement of fluids during events
such as dropping plug, switching tanks or silos Output can be selected versus
time or volume.
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The user is then able to easily verify that the well is kept under control at all times
during the cement job (no loss-no gain situation).
CemCADE simulates any kind of cement job: primary casing, liner, 1st, 2nd or 3rd
stage, stab-in, offshore with or without riser (and air gap), tie-back liner, tie-back
casing
In the case of a liner, CemCADE also simulates circulation of excess cement
above the hanger, after the cementing operation, if a liner packer does not exist to
prevent transmission of applied annular circulation pressure through the
cemented annulus.
Input data
In order to achieve this first objective of well control, CemCADE is fully integrated
in the Drilling Office software suite. Not only can CemCADE read full survey and
caliper data (imported as ASCII files), but this well data can be automatically
downloaded from the Drilling Office database. Hence these caliper and survey
tables can have several hundred lines of data.
A pipe database is available, but the user can define his own casing and drill pipe
strings.
Formation description (rock and fluid types, pore and frac pressures) is also
described in a table containing as many lines as information is available. This data
is used for the pressure checks made whilst simulating the cementing operation,
as well as for the temperature simulator and the Post-Placement analysis.
Fluid database
CemCADE is fully coupled to the LabDB fluid laboratory database, where fluid
data can be searched locally as well as through the network. All tests for given
slurry are automatically retrieved. Rheology is measured at different temperatures. The user then selects the rheology, which will be used in the simulations: he
would particularly choose the rheological parameters measured at the temperature closest to the one given by the temperature simulator.
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Centralizer
CemCADE contains a centralizer database, but the user can define his own centralizers. Different types of centralizers (rigid, bow, semi-rigid) can be combined
at will. Centralization is calculated for a given distribution of centralizers, or the
simulator proposes a distribution in order to achieve a given minimum desired
standoff. The standoff is calculated not only at the centralizer, but also between
centralizers, in order to account for the deflection of the beam under its own
weight. Drag force while running the casing with the selected distribution of centralizers is calculated in order to verify that the casing will run to bottom.
Mud Removal
Design
A number of independent calculators help the selection of the proper properties
for the fluids pumped, so that each fluid will effectively displace the preceding one
in the chosen flow regime, as a function of eccentricity, deviation, hole size The
criteria must fulfill the WELLCLEAN eccentered mud removal technology.
Once the fluid properties have been selected, the U-tube simulator and the centralization calculations are run. The Mud Removal simulator will then output the
efficiency (versus depth, and time for turbulent flow or volume for Effective Laminar Flow) at which the preflushes displace the drilling fluid, and the slurries displace the preflushes.
Aids for Design of Effective Laminar Flow Displacement
This module helps the user selecting dynamically and graphically the optimum
properties for the displacing fluid for efficiently removing the displaced one, as a
function of annular geometry, deviation and pipe standoff.
Evaluation of the Mud Displacement Process
A 2-D numerical simulator visualizes the fluid displacement. Channels and films
on walls are identified. Primarily an evaluation tool, this simulator can be used in
design mode.
Cement Job Evaluation
CBL Adviser
The CBL Adviser module helps in evaluating cement bond logs, accounting for all
well parameters and outputs the referenced CBL amplitude for the given cementing operation.
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Post-Job Evaluation
CemCADE uses the recorded job data to simulate all the operation using these
job parameters. This simulation of the operation using the execution data allows
to identify problems that occurred during the operation, by comparing the Job Signature with the simulated curves. Typical problems are hole instability and annular
closure, fluid channeling and losses. Subsequent cementing operations can
therefore take into account the occurrence of such events, and the design can be
modified accordingly.
Temperature Simulator
In addition to handling multiple temperature gradients, this analytical tool accounts
for well deviation, annular geometry, type of formations, fluid rheologies and flow
regime. Above all, pump rate and time are key factors in these heat transfer phenomena. CemCADEs temperature simulator was validated by field measurements made in the early 1990s in onshore and shallow offshore wells. CemCADE
temperature simulator has now been validated in deep water conditions and
requires the input of the temperature profile and the current profile in the column
of sea water.
Temperature simulators are therefore recommended when well conditions deviate
from vertical or when a particular pumping schedule is planned to cool the well, or
in deep water wells, as the API schedules cannot handle these situations.
The output of the temperature simulator is used for the laboratory to optimize the
fluid properties. It is used also to recommend, particularly in HP-HT wells, a minimum circulation period prior to cementing not only for cleaning the wellbore, but
also for establishing a flat temperature profile versus depth. This ensures that all
the fluids pumped will keep their properties as designed.
Plug Cementing
A plug cementing module helps designing the conditions for increasing the effectiveness of placing cement plugs off bottom. This tool recommends a certain rheology for the fluids in order to prevent the instability of the plug after placement,
due to both fluid swapping in vertical and deviated wells and to slumping in highly
inclined wellbores.
The placement of the cement plug is also carefully considered in order to optimize
mud removal and avoid overdisplacing the fluids, particularly when using tapered
strings. Recommendations are for fluid volumes and rates in order to keep stable
interfaces between each fluid, inside and outside the drill pipe, and after having
pulled the pipe.
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NOTE ON MUDPUSH:
MUDPUSH XL applies the Effective Laminar Flow (ELF) technique, which combines several criteria to achieve optimum mud removal at low flow rates. For a
long period of time, the oil industry has considered only two suitable flow regimes
to achieve proper mud removal: Turbulent Flow and Sub-Laminar Flow (also
called Plug Flow). The reason very often put forward for promoting Plug Flow and
avoiding Laminar Flow is based on the confusion between the velocity profile of a
given fluid and the interface profile between two fluids. Although the exact
description of this interface is not yet fully known, it is recognized that, under certain conditions, the interface profile can be quite flat even in Laminar Flow. One of
these conditions, which is also our first criterion of the Effective Laminar Flow
technique, is the well-known Density Hierarchy between the Displaced and Displacing fluids. In other words, the slurry density must be higher than the spacer
density, and in turn the spacer density must be higher than the mud density. As
the density differential between the displaced and displacing fluids increases, their
interfaces become flatter and more stable. A minimum density difference of 10%
between the displaced and the displacing fluids is recommended.
The second criterion that must be met concerns the Friction Pressure generated
by the flow of the Displaced and Displacing fluids. To increase the stability of the
interface, this criterion recommends that the friction pressure generated by the
displacing fluid be greater than the friction pressure generated by the displaced
fluid. This is equivalent to having, for a given annular geometry and flow rate, the
apparent viscosity of the displaced fluid lower than the apparent viscosity of the
displacing fluid.
The third criterion, often referred to as the MPG (Minimum Pressure Gradient) criterion, verifies the mobility, in an eccentric annulus, of the displaced fluid providing
this fluid exhibits a yield stress. The fourth and last criterion is called the Differential Velocity criterion. In an eccentric annulus, a single fluid will always flow faster
on the wide side (the path of least resistance) than on the narrow side. This criterion imposes that the displacing fluid does not flow faster on the wide side of the
annulus than the displaced fluid on the narrow side.
These four criteria have been implemented within the CemCADE program and the
acceptable range for annular flow is the output. For a given set of conditions, the
minimum annular rate calculated by the CemCADE program equals the highest of
the following values:
Minimum rate for MOBILITY on the narrow side of the casing for fluids exhibiting a yield stress (MPG criterion)
Beginning of the 20% friction pressure hierarchy
Arbitrary lower limit of 1 bbl/min
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Beginning of the stable front between the large and narrow sides of the casing (velocity criterion - optional).
The calculated maximum annular rate equals the lowest of the following values:
End of the 20% friction pressure hierarchy
Full establishment of turbulence by the displacing fluid (turbulent-flow placement should then be used)
Arbitrary upper limit of 40 bbl/min
End of the stable front between the large and narrow sides of the casing
(velocity criterion - optional).
The main parameters affecting these boundary rates are fluid rheologies and their
densities, pipe and openhole geometry, pipe eccentricity, and well deviation.
Within the MUDPUSH family (XT for Turbulent, XL for Laminar and XS for Salt
Systems), the viscosifiers used are special products that enhance each systems
characteristic. The D149, for instance, allow a wide range of PV and Ty under different concentrations on the XL spacer, this behavior is not exactly found on other
viscosifiers.
Halliburton
OptiCem
A Primary Cement Job Simulation Program
OptiCem - is a primary cement job simulation program. Any type of primary job
can be simulated. OptiCem takes into account all known cementing factors. Mud
channeling, eccentricity, freefall, mud compressibility (inthe works), temperature
dependant rheology, gas expansion and compression,change in viscosity with
changing foam quality, Tuned Spacer, hookload, etc.
Mud channeling
OptiCem calculates the forces required to remove mud and then compares the
required forces to the force present under the planned job scenario and predicts
whether the mud will be removed or not based on these relative forces.
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Eccentricity
OptiCem can calculate frictional pressure losses based on concentric pipe or
eccentric pipe. The standoff of the pipe for these pressure calculations can be
entered as a single fixed number or be dynamically calculated based on the
planned centralizer program. Thus the level of eccentricity is allowed to vary up
and down the entire wellbore, if the design requires that level of accuracy.
Freefall
Freefall is important with the larger surface and conductor strings when cement
enters the annulus, these strings may become buoyant. Prior knowledge of this is
critical for the success of the job and the safety of those present on location. If the
rig is near capacity do to string weight, knowing the maximum weight when the
casing is full of cement is also critical for the success of the job and the safety of
those present on location. Pressures acting on all shoulders, lateral forces, and
drag stresses are all considered.
Mud compressibility (in the works)
Many of the new mud systems are compressible enough that there changes in
both volume and density become significant. The next release will contain PVT
correlation's for a minimum of 6 different base fluids and the algorithms that will
change there volumes and densities as they move through the well-bore.
Temperature dependant rheology
OptiCem can use anything from a basic straight line temperature profile to the
most sophisticated WellCat simulation as input. If a single rheology data point is
entered that rheology will be applied to the entire wellbore. If rheology data is
entered at two or more temperatures, OptiCem will thin the fluid on the way down
the casing and then thicken it as it cools on the way up the annulus. These continually adjusted rheological parameters will be used to calculate the frictional pressure drops.
Tuned Spacer
OptiCem's Tuned Spacer wizard allows the user to tune the spacer's rheological
properties to the given well conditions. If the properties are entered to match the
well conditions, the tuning process will provide sufficient levels of shear at the wall
to remove the gelled mud.
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BJ
CMFACTS
Primary Cement Design, Analysis and Real-time Monitoring
Program
The following is intended to be a brief overview of the simulator methodology and
features. The simulator calculations make some general assumptions.
1)
2)
3)
4)
The pipe is concentric and the fluids moves in plug flow with 100%
mobility.
5)
Annular fluid volumes do not change to account for measured and calculated return rates.
The simulator tracks up to 300 fluid segments in the pipe and annulus. Fluid segments account for varying density and/or gas ratio.
Pressure calculations are performed iteratively at certain time intervals. Input
parameters are slurry rate in and slurry density in. Surface pressure at the wellbore is assumed, and pressures along the flow path are calculated, accounting for
diameter changes, down the pipe and up the annulus. Iterations are performed
until calculated return pressure is sufficiently close to the specified or measured
value. If the iterations result in negative surface pressure, this is accounted for by
free-fall. This will cause slurry rate out to be different from slurry rate in.
Calculated pressure and return rate can be compared to the measured values,
and calculated ECD's at critical depths can be studied to gain an insight into the
job.
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Features
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
Free-fall effect.
9)
10)
User can pause or slow down simulator and manually control key
parameters (rate, density etc) for what-if analysis.
11)
12)
13)
14)
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Wellbore Conditioning
While the displacement from mud to cement is critical, the condition of the wellbore in preparation for the cement is also extremely important.
A conditioned wellbore will have been drilled with mud that has an efficient sealing
capacity, which will have left a thin tough filter cake across all exposed formations.
The mud will have been used with adequate flow rates and viscosities to ensure
the hole is clean and all drilled cuttings and cavings have been removed. The
directional drillers will have taken the bit to target leaving the hole with limited tortuosity and minimal doglegs.
The filter cake is the man-made membrane formed behind the bit on the wall of
porous formations. This membrane will contain a sample of all the solids in the
mud and its thickness will reflect the relationship between the rock pore throat or
fracture size and the particle size distribution of the mud.
Formations with a large pore throat size and mud loaded with only very small particles will build a thick cake before the bore hole wall becomes impermeable.
While mud that has a distribution of different sizes will form a seal more quickly,
resulting in a thinner cake. This is applicable to all mud types.
Displacements and cementing can be best achieved when they are featured
throughout the drilling process. In the following table mud characteristics are
explained with regard to the drilling and casing/cementing operations.
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Sealing capacity
Filter cake design
and properties that
go beyond the conventional mud tests
Viscosity
Lower Plastic Viscosity and lower 30
minute gel strengths
Solids Content
Low Gravity Drilled
solids
Poor size distribution and high volume will make viscosity more difficult
to control.
Poor size distribution and high volume spoil filter cake construction.
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Generally, oil-based muds behave as pseudo plastic fluids. They thin with increasing shear in a manner similar to clay-containing water-based muds. However,
absolute viscosities tend to be considerably lower in oil-based muds. A consequence of this is that oil-based muds generally do not suspend solids, such as
weighting materials and drill cuttings, as well as similar viscosity water-based
muds. This property is particularly important at low shear rates and is related to
the low-shear viscosity and elastic properties of the mud.
Drilled Solids
Since there is, as yet, no reliable method of removing colloidal size particles from
oil-based muds, these solids tend to build up in the system, eventually affecting
the mud properties. High plastic viscosity values and elevated low gravity solids
content are indicators that the mud is contaminated. The longer the oil mud has
been in use, the more colloidal size solids will have accumulated. Although
removing solids with solids control equipment, particularly with the centrifuge, may
help, colloidal solids cannot effectively be removed mechanically. In this case,
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As mentioned above, the surfaces in wells drilled with oil-based muds are normally oil wet and cements will not bond to oil wet surfaces. We must do everything
possible to assure that all of these surfaces are water-wet before the cement
slurry contacts them. This factor makes flush/spacer design and placement a critical element in achieving a successful cement job in a well drilled with oil-based
mud.
Functions of Spacers and Pre-Flushes
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The potential for contamination during the displacement must be a prime concern
and time must be allocated for a final treatment of the mud prior to cementing.
This treatment will be to reduce the viscosity, with particular attention to the gel
strengths. The 10-minute gel strengths should not exceed 35-lb/100ft2. If a treatment is required it may take the form of a dilution, but when minimal disturbance
to filtrate control and inhibition is required, a treatment with an approved deflocculant such as:
Chrome free Lignosulfonate (1 to 4 ppb 3 to 11 kg/m3)
DESCO (1 to 4 ppb 3 to 11 kg/m3)
Drill-Thin (0.1 to 0.5 ppb 0.3 to 2 kg/m3)
Other proprietary WBM thinner is advised.
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Viscosity
Freshwater bentonite systems are flocculated by cement, resulting in increased
viscosity and fluid loss. The severity of flocculation depends upon the quantity and
quality of solids present and the solubility of the Ca++ ion.
The major contributor to viscosity will be either hydrated clays and/or polymers.
The suspension will be in either fresh or low to medium salinity brine. In most
cases the suspension will be sensitive to cement as it contains high concentrations of calcium and hydroxide ions, both can be detrimental. Calcium will cause
flocculation of clays while elevated pH (>11.5) will cause the degradation of most
viscosifying polymers.
Drilled Solids
Excess solids are by far the most prevalent and detrimental to all types of muds.
Solids problems are often magnified by the presence of other contaminants such
as cement, because excess solids and contaminant ions can strongly interact to
create a more serious mud problem than either one separately.
High plastic viscosity values and elevated low gravity solids content are indicators
that the mud is contaminated. Although removing solids with solids control equipment, particularly with the centrifuge, may help, colloidal solids cannot effectively
be removed mechanically. In this case, dilution with either water/brine or whole
mud is required. Dilution can be minimised, however, with the use of a good solids
control program to remove as many solids as possible before they degrade to colloidal size (see section on solids control). Unfortunately, water does allow degradation of the solids to occur as rapidly, unlike oil based mud.
The Cement Job
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Cement slurries and water-based muds are incompatible, but unlike OBM where
the two fluids will form a very viscous interface when they come in contact with
each other, most WBMs will not interact so severely. It is only WBMs containing
high clay content and has not been properly prepared which will become viscous.
Such a viscous mass makes the displacement of clay/solids laden mud from the
hole during the cementing operation difficult.
Some water-based mud contain salt, therefore, any mud left in the hole and contaminating the cement slurry may significantly effect the thickening time of the
cement. In a well drilled with water-based mud, the casing and the formation will
remain water-wet and present no problems with regard to wettability.
Water-based muds tend to be run with higher gel strengths which contributes to
poor displacement, and finally, the fluid loss control properties associated with
water-based muds generally produce a thick, soft filter cake which is also unfavourable to the displacement process.
The advantages of being able to displace to a hole filled with water-based are:
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Engineering Recommendations
If the correct pre-emptive actions are taken during each phase of well construction, it
is possible to use mud to optimise both drilling and cementing operations.
The following checklist is designed to help ensure nothing is left to chance.
Planning Phase
When establishing the mud type to be used for drilling, review and itemise
the properties critical for cementing.
Include a section in the Mud and Well Programme that will state the optimum properties needed for the displacement. Ensure that the 30-minute
gel strength is included in the daily mud report.
Monitor and maintain the programmed properties needed for the wellbore
and displacement.
Ensure the reporting process is maintained and those all concerned understand the consequences of any slippage from the predetermined properties.
Establish a contingency plan for the predicted wellbore condition and the
prevailing mud properties. If drilling conditions have required the mud properties to deviate from the programme, priorities for the cementing and casing operations may have changed. Discuss the changing situation with
the mud and cement contractor more frequently and establish a new strategy for the cementing operations.
Inclusion of the Mud & Cement contractors as early as possible when drilling conditions deviate from the plan, will lead to a better prepared cementing operation.
Prepare a plan for the displacement. Ensure adequate pit space for the
spacers, contaminated returns. Arrange transportation for removal from site
of excess or unwanted liquids.
Determine when time will be available for circulating and condition the mud.
Find out
How much scope there will be for circulation and treatment while drilling
the last few feet and prior to tripping to run casing? Will circulation occur
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only prior to running casing or will it be possible to circulate with the casing
on bottom?
Estimate how much time will be needed to condition the mud to optimum
properties for displacement? How much time can be spent circulating
when the bit reaches TD?
Any loss of mud returns that occur during the cementing operations will
effect of the quality of the job. An accurate account of all volumes must be
made at the start of operations, with the anticipated volume gains from the
cement and spacers recorded. The anticipated pump rates used to pump
spacers, cement and the displacement must be known by the mud loggers
and the mud engineer. The mud engineer and loggers must be given the
responsibility of collecting this data. This information will allow any changes
top-of-cement to be calculated and an action plan to be implemented.
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Minimise the delays between the last circulation and the cement job.
If using WBM determine if the mud being used to displace the cement
should be treated in advance of the cementation for possible cement contamination.
Mud left in the hole behind casing may have more value being reused and
it may be viable to displace it and have it replaced by a less valuable mud.
This will need to be determined on a case by case basis.
Mud left in the hole behind casing may be the cause of future corrosion.
Therefore, have the mud contractor treat the mud system during the
final circulation. The treatment could include:
Increase the pH
Reduce dissolved oxygen
Check the proposed Cement Spacer formulation for:
If any of the exposed formations are reactive to uninhibited mud,
they could be sensitive to the spacer.
The exposed formations may be sensitive to small changes in
hydrostatic pressure. Ensure wellbore stability and pore pressures remain unaffected by the spacer density or chemistry.
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Summary
A great deal of effort will have gone into drilling the hole and the mud will have
played a critical role, but this is only its first job. For successful completion of the
well the mud will have to make way for the cement and protect the casing. To construct the well, the properties needed for a good cementation must be part of the
daily assessment of mud performance.
The API low and high pressure fluid loss tests performed as part of the mud engineers tests, will detect variations in the capacity for the mud to seal, but uses a
low porosity filter paper, which may or may not reflect the muds true sealing
capacity. It is recommended that a Permeability Plugging Test (PPT) be incorporated as part of the mud testing and that an aloxite disk of the required permeability be used when high permeability and/or high overbalance are predicted.
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Design Process
Aims:
Optimising the cementing process by addressing:
People competency
Learning
Cementing Program
Introduction
Much has been said elsewhere in this manual about the need for planning, for
achieving good mud properties, for a slurry design with the optimum properties.
This section will look at assurance processes and how to engage, not just the
cementing contractor, but also others who can make a difference to the success
and quality of the job.
The importance of the mud contractor as been repeatedly stressed. Mud, unlike
cement, is run as a dynamic, continuously changing process. The properties are
monitored, adjusted and the fluid is re-run around the system. Cement is a
one-shot process with no second chance. At best, a squeeze job is a time
consuming exercise. Often, it is less than satisfactory on a life of well basis.
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Everything, therefore, needs to be done to ensure that the first attempt is the very
best possible job. You cant fix it on the run. The planning has to be of the very
highest standard.
Traditionally, the cementing service company has supplied the cement,
chemicals, pumping equipment and personnel. Their main responsibility used to
be seen as providing the slurry and the capability to pump it into place. Poor
quality cement, poor quality additives and a casual approach to lab. testing led to
train-wreck jobs, junked wells and considerable frustration for the operators
drillers.
You will have seen throughout this manual the multidisciplinary aspects involved
in getting the best quality job. The best slurry available, with the very best cement
and chemicals, will not give good zone isolation across a washed-out hole section
full of gelled mud. Nor will an eccentered casing string in a gun-barrel hole, if the
spacer and cement are not pumped in an engineered manner which specifically
addresses the complexity of the fluid rheologies.
Some surprisingly simple steps are often overlooked in the general drilling
engineering planning. Sometimes the service company engineer will not give due
thought to an aspect of the job because he feels that it is out of his hands. He is
sometimes encouraged by the drilling engineer into this thinking because he is
concentrating on other aspects of the well. The cementing engineer asks the mud
company for the mud properties and gets what the mud company thinks they
should be, rather than what they will actually be. The cementing engineer sees no
particular problem with the mud and, anyway sees his job as getting the slurry
design and logistics sorted.
On the rig the cementers see their job as mixing the slurry and pumping it without
mishap. The mud engineer is glad to have reached section TD with the mud in
some reasonable shape and is little concerned about the cement job other than
how it will affect his pit space management. Add to this scenario that nobody has
been particularly concerned about centralization and you can find plenty of
reasons why the job is not likely to be a success.
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Isolate the shoe and allow drilling ahead with a maximum mud weight of xx
Bring TOC to within 500m of the previous casing shoe, but not inside it
Sometimes many objectives will exist together and the objectives of the drilling
team may not always be those of the field production team. For example, the
drilling team may be happy with cement at TOL and a successful liner lap
pressure test. The reservoir engineers may be relying on long term isolation of
several zones across the liner.
It is now more common to have a multidisciplinary team approach to well planning
and a much greater awareness of what the well is trying to achieve technically
and commercially. However, it is good practice to spell out just what the objectives
are and make sure that everyone is aware and agrees. Although this may seem
obvious, very few cementing programs ever lay out the objectives. It is only if
these objectives are stipulated that it is possible to judge performance. If you cant
judge performance, you cant do much to improve it.
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how frequently
what avoidance measures or contingencies can be put in place?
Risk Management is becoming well understood in Well Planning and is often used
at the Drilling Engineer level to identify and handle risk and its implications for well
cost.
The same sort of approach can be used to ensure that planning for cementing
operations on a well is robust and fit for purpose.
When a cementing service company submits a cementing program to an operator
this methodology is rarely apparent. Nothing can go wrong. In practice, you
realise there are risks throughout the cementing process from lab design and
testing, through downhole equipment, mixing the slurry on surface, pumping,
displacing, bumping the plug.
In some cases, in some wells, a particular type of failure may not be too serious.
In other circumstances it can be catastrophic. A particularly good example of this
is HPHT wells. These wells present extreme difficulties in slurry design and
downhole equipment reliability. Slurry designs can be very sensitive to even minor
changes in additives or procedures. Thickening Times can lurch from excessively
long to too short just through some seemingly trivial change in some parameter.
If these risks are identified, quantified and the most important ones addressed in
detail, then the chances of a successful job are significantly increased. If not, then
the chances of a train wreck will remain high.
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Risk Identification
Risks to the well and failing to achieve the objectives e.g. failure to
achieve sufficient leak-off at the shoe
Risk to being able to execute the job as desired (or designed) e.g. failure
to mix slurry to correct weight
The second approach may constitute a second Risk Register developed by the
service company to provide assurance to the operator that it has covered its own
planning and contingencies.
Risk Analysis
Establishes the level of each risk in terms of severity and likelihood. May include
making recommendations based on expected outcome
Risk Reduction
Management of safeguards
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Objectives............................................................................................. 3
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
Spacer design....................................................................................... 5
2.7
2.8
2.9
This document could be considered the Basis of Design and the actual Cementing
Program could be a correspondingly shorter document.
Cementing Risk Register Example
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Cementing Program
Unless the items are adequately covered elsewhere, this document should
include detailed, final recommendations following detailed discussion and
analysis:
Detailed well schematic
Annotated Lithology column highlighting risk zones
Objectives
The cementing method inner string, two plug, single stage, etc
Recommendations for casing hardware, shoes, float collars, etc
The slurry design and properties although these will be subject to confirmatory testing immediately prior to the job(s)
Where applicable, casing or liner running and surge pressure issues
Mud conditioning and displacement mechanics
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Mud properties
Centralisation program selection, placement, stop collars, etc
Spacer(s)
Flow rates
Hydraulics modelling pore/frac window, surface pressures, U-tubing
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Personnel Competency
The competency of the engineering support provided by a cementing contractor is
a vital element for success. Securing experienced, motivated cementing
engineers is increasingly difficult. The format below can be used as a basis for
evaluating engineering support proposed by cementing service company. For
certain types of operation deepwater, HPHT, ERD certain additional
experience may be sought and specified in the assessment form. What is
indicated here is just a guide to a more structured approach.
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Technical
GENERAL / BP
SPECIFIC
REQUIREMENTS
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Competence /
Skill required
Cementing Experience
Overview of Well
Construction Process
Slurry Design
Aware of all API and BP specified test procedures. Understands function and limitations of
cement additives. Can determine design temperatures by
API and computer simulation.
Minimum of 2 weeks laboratory
testing orientation.
Language
Fluent in English
Cement Placement
BP procedures
requirements and
practices
Assessed
Forward Action
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PERSONAL
SKILLS
Presentation Skills
Coaching / Supervisory
Team Skills
Report Writing
Computer Literacy
Commercial Analysis
Risk Assessment
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The aim is to highlight where the candidate is strong and where development is
expected. It is possible that, when the process is complete, it may indicate that a
candidate is not suitable. It may indicate that a candidate is able to do the job, but
that training on, and off the job, will be required to enhance performance to the
high levels required. The selection process for different operations will also take
account of the specific technical requirements of the operation.
Process.
Pages 2, 3 and 4 should be completed within the context of the Scope of Work
provided by BP for this service. The scope provides the outline job requirements
from BPs perspective.
When completing the assessed box, the competence level should first be determined numerically where;
0 is has no experience in this area.
1 is basic only in the assessed area
2 is competent in the assessed area
3 is highly competent in the assessed area.
Narrative should then be used to indicate the reasons for the indicated level.
The forward action box should be used to indicate what development is
suggested to develop and grow the candidate in post.
As an example. The assessed competence for computer literacy may be 1.
Forward action could be to go on an Excel training course followed by
re-assessment in 3 months.
Evaluation
As well as good planning and competent people, continuous evaluation of
performance is essential if improvements are to be made.
There are various ways in which this may approached. One is the end of well
review report and another (in BP) is the Global Well Services Initiative (GWSI)
reporting.
Below is the BP Minimum GWSI reporting format (as of Dec 2001).
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Figure 4: Summary
Job element
Comments
No input.
Hole condition
Usually seen as a Drilling Engineer responsibility. The cementing company will run software,
but not be pro-actively engaged.
They will not usually challenge,
just accept.
Slurry design
Spacer design
Source of revenue.
Pumping schedule
Keeping a Basis of Design document alive through the development and keeping End of Well
reviews up to date so that experience is not solely in the personnel.
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Appendix
Additional Information
Publications
ISO/API Cementing Specifications:
ISO 10426-1 - Cements and materials for well cementing - Part 1: Specification (API
Spec 10 & 10A)
ISO 10426-2 - Cements and materials for well cementing - Part 2: Recommended
practice for testing of well cement (API Spec 10B)
ISO 10426-3 - Cements and materials for well cementing - Part 3: Recommended
practice for testing of deep water well cements
ISO 10426-4 - Cements and materials for well cementing - Part 3: Recommended
practice for atmospheric foam cement slurry preparation
ISO 10427-1 - Casing centralisers - Part 1: Specifications for bow-string casing centralisers (API Spec 10D)
ISO 10427-2 - Casing centralisers - Part 2: Recommended practice for centraliser
placement and stop collar testing (API Spec 10D)
ISO 18165 - Recommended performance testing of cementing float equipment
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Check all feed lines to the cementing unit (water, mud, spacer, cement)
Check that the cementing engineer has prepared the unit (fuel, oil, cooling
system, water, air, pump packings, etc). Check adequate spares available
If using liquid additives in cold conditions make sure they are not too viscous or are heated if needed
Check the liquid additive system has been calibrated, is fully operational
and is loaded with sufficient of the correct additives.
Check all crossovers, subs, etc, have been drifted to allow passage of all
darts, balls, plugs
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Check float equipment to ensure it is correct type for the casing string
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Check any balls and make sure they are in a safe place
Check displacement plugs are the correct size. Clearly identify top & bottom plugs. Be absolutely sure.
Check any bypass baffles and shut-off baffles are compatible with casing
and plug systems
Check casing handling tools are compatible with casing being run
Check centralisers and stop rings size, type, number against program
If using a stage collar, check threads, condition, seal area, ports closed,
etc.
If using sub-sea release, thoroughly check items, threads, seals, plugs, etc
Is there sufficient cement, cement & spacer additives, water for the job,
allowing for contingencies and problems?
Have samples been sent from the rig for lab testing particularly for offshore wells?
Have job simulations been run and sent to the rig check when U-tubing is
expected?
Is the estimated job time plus safety factor consistent with the pumping
time (thickening time) quoted by the lab?
Is the bottom hole depth & temperature consistent with the lab tests? Look
at any new log data and check against lab test temperature (Bottom Hole
Static Temperature).
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Cement is a variable product and different batches from the same manufacturer may give quite different pump times even with the same retarder.
Also, cement chemically reacts with any moisture even moisture in the
atmosphere and the properties (pump time) can change depending on
storage conditions and length of storage. This makes it essential that any
cement samples are fully representative of what will be pumped on the job.
Three methods are detailed below. Methods 1 & 2 are preferred.
If the sample is for a job which will not take place for several weeks, then
the sampling may be deferred and one of the other methods used
Open butterfly valve on the surge tank and take cement sample
Dump cement in surge tank if possible and purge line from silo
Do not take sample from the top few inches of cement as this may contain
excess fines and be unrepresentative
Note:
If different batches are present in the same silo, can samples be secured of
the individual batches or can the cement be homogenized?
Sample Packaging:
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Cement is a very reactive material and will chemically react with moisture
in the air. This will change physical properties like thickening time and compressive strength development. The extent to which this happens can vary
widely. Some cements are particularly sensitive, others not so. In any case,
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small quantities, e.g. a cement sample, are particularly vulnerable to exposure and, if not adequately protected, exposure of just a few hours can
make several hours difference to the thickening time generally lengthening it. the consequences of testing such a samples and designing the
retarder concentration can be disastrous! The following guidelines should
be adhered to strictly:
Cement container:
Large enough for 5 kg, 10 lbs minimum
Air-tight, waterproof and strong enough to remain so during transit
Clean, dry and preferably un-used
Completely filled to exclude as much air as possible
Lined with a clean, previously unused, polythene bag
Labeled to show the cement silo number, date, location, cement
type and blend, sample method.
Note: it is better to label the body of the container, not the lid.
Additive containers
Clean plastic bottles, 0.5 litre, 1 pint, or larger
Water tight lids, sealed with tape to prevent unscrewing in transit
Labeled to show location, date, source (LAS, bags, etc), additive
name, lot number, etc
Note: roll drums, or circulate LAS, to ensure active components of
liquid additives are in suspension
Mix water container
Clean plastic bottle 3-4 litre, 1 gal, or larger
Water tight cap sealed with tape
Labeled to show date, location, type (sea or drill water). Do not use
soft drink bottles.
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Pre-job meeting:
Review communications and who is in charge of what and where they will
be
Use of a T or Y piece to allow a rapid switch from cement unit to rig pumps
Do not use a densitometer as the only density measurement. Check periodically with a mud balance, preferably a pressurized mud balance.
If necessary to open the cement head to drop a plug or ball, minimize any
break in the pumping. Ensure someone is responsible.
Keep track of the estimated downhole position of the cement based on the
volume pumped so that any sudden changes in pressure/rate can be interpreted and understood
1.Communication
a.Foam design
1.
2.
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2.
Pump rates
2.
Pressures
3.
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5.
6.
Formulate base cement slurry for cementing operation with lab/district materials
a. Thickening time
b. Compressive strength - unfoamed and foamed slurries
c. Rheological properties
d. Transition time - unfoamed and foamed slurries
e. Solids suspension
f. Free water
g. Foam stability (Foam half-height/liquid drainage rate)
2. Pilot test base cement slurries with materials to be loaded for cementing operation
a. Isolate cement
b. Isolate additives and record lot numbers
c. Record ID numbers of tanks loaded out for liquid additives (TOTE
tanks, etc)
3. Determine required nitrogen rate for base slurry to obtain desired downhole foam
density
a. Determine if constant gas injection rate method can be used - operationally
simpler
1.
Calculate foam density at top and bottom of column for this method
2.
Calculate average foam density in column and check against fracturing/pore pressures
3.
b If constant gas injection rate method cannot be used due to foamed column
length and fracturing/pore pressure limitations, break job into stages of
constant gas injection
c. Use the minimum amount of stages possible.
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4. Determine minimum and maximum gas rate for nitrogen pumping unit
a. Determine the maximum LIQUID (base cement slurry) rate possible based
upon nitrogen
requirements for foam density and nitrogen pump unit rate limit.
b. Determine the minimum LIQUID rate possible based upon nitrogen requirements for foam density and nitrogen pump unit minimum rate limit.
c Notify all personnel of this cement rate limit and target cement pump rate
for job at 80-90% of this rate (maximum)
d.
Liquid pump rate may be the limiting factor, depending upon cementing
unit capability,nitrogen unit capability, and nitrogen requirements. Please
note if the rate limit on the cementing unit is the rate limiting equipment.
The objective is to operate the nitrogen pumper and cement pumper in the
middle to upper end of their power curves.
5. Consult with rig - foreman and toolpusher on location of nitrogen pumper, nitrogen
tanks, placement of nitrogen injection lines and foamed generator.
a. Ideally, nitrogen unit operator and cement pump operator should be in visual range of each other
b. Nitrogen equipment should be placed, if possible, out of main traffic areas
on the rig/location
c. Nitrogen lines should be run out of high traffic areas and where the line can
be secured at regular intervals to fixed rig equipment (to prevent lines
whipping around if they parted).
d. Foam generator assembly should lay flat on ground, deck or rig floor.
e. Work out contingency bleed-off of pressurized lines if a valve plugs or cannot be opened.
(Have the service company bring extra 1 inch and 2 inch valves)
f. Water and a water hose should be available near all nitrogen equipment
and water should be run on deck to protect steel from cryogenic (-373 F) in
case of nitrogen tank leak.
g. Use plastic barrier tape to mark of restricted or low traffic areas during
the cement job.
6. Arrange for radios and headsets for primary communications during cementing
operation.
7. Arrange for alternative methods of communication in case radios are not available
or fail.
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(blackboards and chalk, etc. like the car racing folks use)
8. Determine method for providing constant density, supply and pump rate of base
cement slurry
a Batch mixing if cement volume is small
b. Averaging or holding tank for continuous mixing operations where the
cement mixing unit DOES NOT have automatic density control.
c. Averaging/holding tanks recommended for cementing units with mixing tub
volumes less than about 8-10 bbls (even if they have automatic density
control)
d. Averaging/holding tank size of 25 bbl (minimum) or larger recommended.
9. Arrange for job monitoring/data acquisition equipment
a. Check calibration of all sensors
b. Check cables\connectors\output devices
10. Arrange for tank straps/gauges to monitor liquid additive usage during the job and
verify correct metering by automated liquid additive system.
a. Prepare table with cumulative cement volume (base, unfoamed cement
slurry) and cumulative amounts of liquid additives that should be consumed
during the job.
b. Gauge or strap all liquid additive tanks at regular intervals during the job
and compare usage with table values.
11. Prepare table of total nitrogen rate (SCF/min) versus base cement slurry pump
rate.
a. Basic requirement for non-automated nitrogen/cementing unit equipment
b. Back-up in case automation units on equipment fail/dont perform properly
c. Increment unfoamed cement slurry rates on 0.1 bbl/min from 1 to 10
bbl/min rates
(upper and lower limits for the table should be the minimum and maximum
pump rate determined in ITEM 4 above and not necessarily 1 to 10 bbl/min)
12. Calibrate all equipment on location prior to the job.
a. Flow meters
b. Liquid additive pumps
c. Densometers
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Appendix-10
Proprietary - for the exclusive use of BP & ChevronTexaco
Cement Manual
d. Pressure gauges/transducers
e. Data acquisition devices
13. For automated equipment, have an electronics technician trained for that equipment on location for the job.
14. Take samples of cement
a. As loaded on the boat/truck
b. At rig during job
15. Check load tickets
a.Verify amounts
b. Verify lot numbers for isolated additives
c. Verify tank numbers for bulk liquid additives (TOTE tank serial numbers)
16. Inform rig personnel of dangers of pumping energized fluids and ask them to
avoid the rig floor and nitrogen equipment areas during the job. Minimize traffic in
these areas.
Appendix-11
Proprietary - for the exclusive use of BP & ChevronTexaco
Rev. 01/2002
Cement Manual
Rev. 01/2002
Appendix-12
Proprietary - for the exclusive use of BP & ChevronTexaco
Cement Manual
Well killing
Transmission
Relief valve
Displacement tanks
Mixing system
LAS/LAP
Surge Tank
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Cement Manual
HSE Considerations
The equipment must:
Be able to mix cement without generating dust beyond that permitted under
legislation
Designed to minimise the risk of oil and chemical spills during maintenance
and operation.
For well kill operations and emergency mud circulation the system shall be
capable of start up and operations without main platform power for XX
hours.
QA/QC Considerations
All materials used in the construction of the unit shall be traceable and
manufacture will be according to ISO9001. All fabricated parts should be sheared
or plasma cut.
Requirements/Desing Criteria
Pressure and pumping
Design must be capable of pumping of acids and base fluid without use of
displacement tanks.
12 bpm @ 11 ppg
6 bpm @ 16 ppg
2 bpm @
Rev. 01/2002
22 ppg
Offshore Platform Cement Unit Specification -14
Proprietary - for the exclusive use of BP & ChevronTexaco
Cement Manual
Rev. 01/2002
Cement Manual
Surge Tank
A surge tank is required to provide steady flow to permit mixing at rated defined
above. Contractor is required to advise size of surge tank recommended for this
system.
High Pressure Manifold
The high pressure manifold shall be configured for dual feed facility of cement to
the drill floor cement manifold. A third line should be teed off this manifold and
routed to the wellhead area for production kill operations.
Optional Equipment
For ADC option equipment must control cement density within +/- 0.2 ppg.
The data logger must record pressure density and flow.
Additional Information
Recommendations are required to permit bulk cement sampling which does not
require transfer to the steady flow bin or sampling from the bulk tanks.
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Cement Manual
Slurry Design
3. Use a heavyweight (17 lb/gal, or more) slurry to get good compressive strength
development. Use a reliable value of static temperature (BHST) at true vertical
depth (TVD), preferably from log data.
4. Estimate job time accurately, including pauses for switching tanks and plug
dropping, then get a Thickening Time with a 1 to 1-1/2 hours' safety factor. Use
API squeeze schedule values of circulating temperature, based on TVD, with a
1 hour initial simulation of batch mixing at 80 F (or surface mix water temperature).
5. Slurry should have minimal (zero) API Operating Free Water and no Settling
Mud Removal
6. Condition mud by circulating at least one hole volume before setting the plug.
7. Use a stinger 30 m or more longer than plug length centralized with solid centralizers.
8. Pump a spacer, weighted half way between mud and slurry density, to fill 300 to
500 ft of drill pipe/open hole annulus ahead of the slurry.
9. If possible, rotate the string while conditioning the hole and until cement is in
place.
Cement Placement
10. Use some sort of bottom barrier for the plug to sit on - either a Viscous Reactive Pill ahead of the slurry or a Para-Bow device or a weighted slug of heavy
viscous mud
Guidelines for Setting Cement Plugs in Horizontal and High Angle Wells -17
Proprietary - for the exclusive use of BP & ChevronTexaco
Rev. 01/2002
Cement Manual
11. To avoid jetting the slurry straight down the hole use a diverter sub.
12. If hydraulic integrity is a priority, use a sacrificial stinger and a top barrier
device.
13. Use a wiper plug to ensure accurate displacement unless incompatible with
barrier devices in the string.
Job Execution
14. Use a batch mixer to prepare the slurry, checking the density with a pressurized mud balance.
15. Pump the spacer round the stinger in turbulent flow unless there is a risk of
exceeding formation fracture pressure.
16. Pump the cement into the annulus at 2 to 2.5 bbl/min.
17. Pump a few barrels of spacer to balance the annular spacer volume behind
the slurry (accuracy is not too important in a high-angle situation). Weight this
spacer 1 to 2 lb/gal higher than the first spacer to induce cement to fall out of
pipe, to pull a dry string.
18. Pull the stinger out of the slurry slowly - 5 minutes per stand, or more.
19. With stinger shoe above calculated plug top, circulate excess cement and
spacer out of the hole.
20. Wait until cement has 3,000 to 5,000 psi compressive strength before tagging
and dressing the plug.
The following are critical aspects:
Keep the Thickening Time to job time plus 60 minutes, not more
Use a support for the plug - viscous heavy mud if nothing else
Slow down when cement is exiting the pipe, especially if using open ended
pipe (use blanked-off pipe with holes in the side if possible - ie a diverter
sub)
Rev. 01/2002
Guidelines for Setting Cement Plugs in Horizontal and High Angle Wells -18
Proprietary - for the exclusive use of BP & ChevronTexaco
Cement Manual
Custodian:
M. Scheuring, L. Wilger, F.
Hernandez, E. Dompeling
Issuing Dept.:
Shared
(SSD)
Issue Date:
Control Status:
Revision Date:
Services
Drilling
March, 1999
Department controlled
document
CONTENTS
REFERENCES
BPX World-wide Plug Setting
BHST/BHCT RP
Objective
Abandonment Plug
Abandon existing open hole to comply with Government Regulations.
Kick-off Plug
Competent base to allow for successful kick off to new target on first
attempt.
Keys to Success
There are many factors that contribute to a successful plug. The chances of
Rev. 01/2002
Cement Manual
Slow down when cement is exiting the pipe, especially is using open ended
drillpipe
Objective
Cement Blend
Required Slurry Properties
Cement Interval
Volume of Cement
Hole Size
% Excess
Batchmixing Requirements
If for any reason one or more of the requirements is not necessary or available,
the deficiency should be noted in the cement program and any necessary explanation given.
Rev. 01/2002
Cement Manual
Verify that AOGCC has been contacted for approval to set an abandonment or kick-off plug..
2.
RiH with workstring, conditioning the mud and hole until optimal conditions are achieved. Flowrates during conditioning should mimic
flowrates anticipated while pumping cement.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
POOH
16.
Wait on cement before tagging or pressure testing (12 hours minimum from plug placement.)
Abandonment Requirements
Well abandonment should proceed according to local regulatory requirements and
conditions (See Article 2 Abandonment & Plugging Section 105 of the Alaska Oil
and Gas Conservation Commission). Verify that AOGCC has been contacted for
approval to set an abandonment or kick-off plug.
Setting a Kick-off or Abandonment Plug in Open Hole -21
Proprietary - for the exclusive use of BP & ChevronTexaco
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Cement Manual
Workstring
Open Ended Drillpipe (Recommended)
It is recommended that open ended drillpipe be used to place cement plugs.
If a tubing stinger is to be utilized, then use the following guidelines for tubing
stingers:
Tubing Stinger
Use a tubing stinger on the end of the drillpipe. The length of the stinger should be
equal to or greater than the length of the cement with drillpipe in the hole. The
length of the cement plug, and therefore, the minimum length of a stinger, can be
calculated using the following equation:
Length of cement plug = S/(D+A)
Where:
S = bbls of cement slurry
D = capacity of tubing stinger (in bbls per foot)
A = capacity of the annulus between the stinger and the hole (in bbls per foot)
Tubing stinger diameter is dependent on the hole size. The smaller OD stinger will
help minimize the disturbance to the cement plug as the drillpipe is pulled up out
of the cement, although use of a stinger that is smaller than recommended will
result in annular flow rates that are insufficient for proper plug placement. Coupling OD's of the tubing should be minimized. If no smaller tubing is available, 3
1/2" drillpipe may be considered.
Use the following as a guide.
Rev. 01/2002
Hole Size
17 and larger
12 to 17
use 5 to 5 stinger
9 to 12
6 to 8
use a 3 stinger
Less than 6
Cement Manual
Rev. 01/2002
Cement Manual
A reactive viscous pill depends upon the reaction between calcium and
bentonite. If the cement plug starts to drop, the calcium in the cement will
immediately react with the bentonite to form a thick immovable barrier.
Ensure the mix water and any fluid remaining in the lines has a calcium
level below 400 ppm with chlorides below 2000 ppm.
Treat the mix water with 0.5 ppb soda ash to remove the hardness and
adjust pH to 9 by the addition of 0.5 ppb caustic.
Water based viscous pills must not be used for temporary suspension in
OH when using OBM/SBM to prevent water wetting of formations.
The pill must not come in contact with any form of calcium on the surface or
while being pumped down the drillpipe.
Volumes/Excesses
Cement volume is critical to the success of a cement plug. Small cement volumes
are consistently lost due to contamination. The minimum length of a cement plug
should be 500. The maximum length of a cement plug to be set in one stage
should not exceed 1500. Plug lengths greater than this increase the risk of the
cement failing to fall out of the drillpipe as the drillpipe is pulled above the cement.
It is preferable to use a caliper log to determine the cement volumes and to help
decide where to set a plug. It is much better to set the plug in a section of the hole
that is near gauge.
The actual excess used should take into account knowledge of the particular area
and hole conditions, e.g. sloughing shales or losses.
If no caliper or site specific field data is available , the following excesses are to be
used.
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Cement Manual
% Excess (WBM)
% Excess (OBM)
36
200
30
100
17
50
20
12
50
20
30
20
30
20
30
20
30
20
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Cement Manual
Wiper Plugs
It is recommended to use a wiper plug to wipe the drillpipe after the workstring has
been pulled above the cement plug and the well is being circulated. Running a
wiper plug between the cement and the spacer is optional, but not mandatory.
Wiper plugs help eliminate cement contamination in the drillpipe and help keep
the cement isolated as it is being pumped down the drillpipe. This is the most
important with small cement volumes. This will help to prevent downhole equipment problems when drilling resumes.
Slurry
Consistent slurry density and slurry volume is critical to a successful cement plug.
Batch mixing of the cement is recommended. An additional 2 bbls of cement
slurry should be mixed to make up for volume lost due to manifold piping in the
batch mixer. The density should be checked using a pressurized mud balance.
If a Recirculating Cement Mixer (RCM) is used, the cement should be brought up
to weight before pumping. The mixing rate should be controlled at 2 - 4 bbl/min.
For small cement volumes, less than twice the volume of the RCM, it can be used
as a batch mixer.
If the cement is mixed using a jet mixer, the cement should be dumped until a consistent slurry is obtained, then begin pumping calculated volume downhole.
Slurry Design
The design of the cement slurry is based on several factors. A slurry design
must satisfy the following specifications:
Thickening time Calculated time to batch mix cement + pump the cement
+ displacement time + time required to pull drillpipe above the cement plug
+ 1 hr at BHCT.
The cement blend varies depending on whether the plug is to be set for
kick-off (17 ppg) or abandonment (15.8 ppg). Temperature of the well will
determine how much retarder will be used to give the required amount of
pump time and set up time.
Fluid loss is only required in plugs set across permeable formations in hole sizes
of 8 1/2" or smaller, a fluid loss less than 150 ml is adequate for abandonment/suspension. However, less than 75 ml for squeeze slurries (coiled tubing
Rev. 01/2002
Cement Manual
slurries are special cases and in house experience should be consulted), is recommended.
Increased thickening times adversely affect compressive strength set times.
When kicking off or tagging cement plugs it recommended to wait at least 12 hrs
from plug placement or until a compressive strength test shows at least 3000psi.
A cement dispersant should be used with care to maintain a minimum slurry yield
point of 5lb/100 sq. ft.
Cement Tests
All cement blends must be tested. The following tests are recommended:
Static Cup Set - A Static Cup set will be performed to on the cement slurry.
This will reveal unacceptable Thixotropic characteristics.
BHST/BHCT
The bottom hole circulating and static temperatures must be determined accurately. Reference the BHST/BHCT RP to calculate BHST/BHCT.
Overestimated temperatures are a critical factor in plug failure. Temperatures
should be included in the written plug procedure to avoid confusion when calculating slurry pump times and performing lab tests.
Minimum thickening time should be job time plus minimum 1-hour safety margin.
Temperature should be selected based on deviation and operation; it should also
take into account local experience.
Displacement Rates
Maximum annular velocity is critical to successful plug placement. The minimum
annular velocity should be 200 ft/min. These higher velocities will enhance mud
removal and reduce contamination and channelling. In general, the cement plug
should be displaced with the cement unit to ensure accurate control over displacement volume. The displacement can be accurately determined using a indicator
sub. When an indicator sub is not used a slight under displacement is desired in
Setting a Kick-off or Abandonment Plug in Open Hole -27
Proprietary - for the exclusive use of BP & ChevronTexaco
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order to pull a dry string, typically 80 of the workstring. For plugs deeper than
13,000 feet (~4,000m), the average ID of pipe should be determined to ensure
correct displacement volume.
In the larger hole sections where the cement pump is not sufficient to pump the
minimum annular velocity, the slurry may be displaced with either the rig pumps or
the cement unit pump. Rig pumps have a higher capacity, but are substantially
less accurate than the cement unit pump. If placement is more important than
rate, use the cement unit pump. Conversely, if the rate is more important than
placement, use the rig pumps.
Circulation
Circulate hole until the mud is properly conditioned and the hole is free of cuttings,
gas, etc. This may take 2 bottoms up or more. A clean hole will increase the
chance of obtaining a successful plug.
Pipe movement is one of the most influential factors in mud removal. Reciprocation and/or rotation, when feasible, will mechanically break up gelled mud and will
greatly improve flow patterns in the annulus. Move the pipe when conditioning the
hole and when placing the cement plug.
Reciprocation
This is the better method in straight holes and when the pipe is well centralized.
Rotation
This is the better method in deviated holes and when the pipe is poorly centralized. After setting the cement plug, pull back at least 300 above estimated TOC
and circulate at maximum rate. In addition to circulating at a high rate, either.
dropping a wiper dart or pumping 50 bbl of 50 ppb Nutplug in active mud to clean
pipe from cement rings is recommended.
Tagging/Pressure Testing
Plugs should not be tagged until they have at least 1000-psi compressive strength
and 1500-psi compressive strength is required to pressure test the plug.
Kick-off plugs will require a compressive strength of 3000 psi. Deep kick-off plugs,
>12,000 feet (~4000m), across hard formations will require 4000 psi compressive
strength.
Compressive strength should be determined at a temperature mid way between
static and the temperature used for designing the pumping time. Where a plug is
being tagged with a kick off assembly, use minimum flow rates.
Do not run back into a cement plug until cement has set. When tagging, do not run
back into cement without any circulation.
Rev. 01/2002
Cement Manual
Drilling
It should be assumed that the top and bottom 75 feet (~26 m) of a cement plug will
be contaminated with the spacer and appear to be green cement.
If large quantities of cement are observed when circulating well above top of
cement, then it is likely that cement channeling has occurred, with even more contamination by the spacer. This will increase the chance of failing to tag the plug
and/or obtaining a pressure test.
When kicking off of a cement plug, care should be taken that the entire cement
plug is not drilled up. If cement integrity is not there, leave the lower portion of the
cement plug in place and place another plug above it using the other plug as a
bottom.
Rev. 01/2002
Cement Manual
Rev. 01/2002
Question
Directed at:
Operational
Phase:
See text
at:
what experience does the Service Company have locally with HPHT
wells?
What experience do the individual engineers have with HPHT?
ServCo Engineer,
lab staff, rig site
cementers
Planning
2.1 - 2.3
ServCo Engineer,
lab staff, rig site
cementers
Planning
2.2
How can the lab demonstrate that it has the expertise and resources that
it needs for this type of job?
Lab staff
Planning
2.3
Drilling Engineer
and Serv Co Engineer
Planning
2.4
Question
Directed at:
Operational
Phase:
See text
at:
What are the roles and responsibilities of those who will provide input?
Drilling Engineer
and Serv Co Engineer, including others, eg mud co.
Planning
2.5, 2.10
Is the rig equipment good enough and how will this be assured?
How and when will the issues be addressed?
Drilling Engineer,
Serv Co Engineer,
rig site cementers,
Drilling Contractor,
bulk operator
Planning
2.6
Drilling Engineer,
Serv Co Engineer,
rig site cementers,
Planning
2.6.2
What are the limitations imposed by the rig, logistics and weather?
Drilling Engineer,
Serv Co Engineer,
rig site cementers,
Planning
2.6.3
Question
Directed at:
Operational
Phase:
See text
at:
What are the most likely temperatures, how are (were) they obtained,
what confidence can be placed on them, what can be done while drilling
to enhance confidence and reduce uncertainty? Who owns the issue and
understands it?
Drilling Engineer
and Serv Co Engineer
Planning
2.7, 3.3,
3.6.1
Drilling Engineer
and Serv Co Engineer, including others, eg mud co.
Planning
2.8
How will the mud company and the cementing company work together to
understand what can be done to optimise the cementing process?
Drilling Engineer
Planning
2.4, 2.10
Drilling Engineer
Planning
2.9, 5.7
Is everyone clear what the process is and how it relates to them? Are the
interfaces satisfactory?
Drilling Engineer
Planning
2.10
Question
Directed at:
Operational
Phase:
See text
at:
Are there proper prcedures in place for sampling, sample protection and
shipment
Serv Co Engineer,
Company Rep.
Planning/
execution
3.1, 3.2
Are tests on rig samples consistent with tests on other lab samples.
Serv Co Engineer,
Lab Engineer
Execution
2.3, 3.1
Execution
3.2, 5.3
Serv Co Engineer,
Lab Engineer
Execution
2.7, 3.3,
3.6.1
Company Rep.
Execution
5.5
Company Rep.
Execution
5.7,
Company Rep.
Execution
5.12
Execution
5.
CementManual
Index
General Index
A
Adjusting the Slurry Rheology,
3-49
Adjusting the Slurry Thickening
Time, 3-49
Automatic Sampling, 3-81
B
Best Practices, 1-34, 1-75
Centralization, 1-76
Displacement Procedures, 1-75
Hole Conditioning, 1-75
Use of Erodibility Technology,
1-76
Use of Plugs, 1-75
Use of Spacers, 1-75
Blend Size, 3-69
Blending, 3-63
On the Fly, 3-79
Blending Equipment, 3-72
Blending Procedure, 3-68
Bulk Cement Equipment, 2-13
Bulk Equipment, 3-71
C
Carbon Dioxide, 3-57
Casing Centralization, 2-25
CemCADE
Cement Job Evaluation, 4-53
CBL Adviser, 4-53
Plug Cementing, 4-54
Post-Job, 4-54
Temperature Simulator, 4-54
Centralizer, 4-53
Fluid database, 4-52
Input data, 4-52
Laminar Flow Displacement, 4-53
Mud Removal, 4-53
Design, 4-53
Evaluation, 4-53
U-tube and placemen, 4-51
U-tube and placement, 4-51
Cement, 3-1
API Specifications, 3-11
Class A, 3-11
Class B, 3-12
Class C, 3-12
Class D, 3-13
Class E, 3-14
Class F, 3-14
Class G, 3-15
Class H, 3-15
History, 3-10
Light Weight, 3-18
Limitations, 3-9
Other Used, 3-16
Pozzolans, 3-16
Testing Slurries, 3-19
Dynamic Settling Test, 3-33
Fluid Loss, 3-21
Free Water, 3-27
Gel strength, 3-25
Settling Test Tube, 3-32
Strength Development, 3-28
Thickening Time, 3-19
Viscosity, 3-23
Trinity Lite-Wate, 3-18
TXI Lightweight, 3-18
Cement Blending, 3-66
Cement Heads, 2-15
Cement Hydration, 3-6
Cement Job Evaluation, 1-71
Cement Slurry Design
Important Properties, 3-35
Cement Slurry Mixing Water Ratio,
3-35
Cementing
Objectives, 1-66
Cementing Additives, 3-42
Cementing Equipment Selection,
1-33
Cementing in Oil Based Mud, 4-63
Cementing Program, 1-69
Channeling
Minimization, 4-11
CMFACTS, 4-59
Features, 4-60
CO2 Carbon Dioxide, 3-57
Common, 1-49
Composite Sample Preparation,
3-83
Confirmation Testing, 3-84
Controllable Setting Time, 3-37
Controlling Slurry Fluid Loss, 3-50
Criteria for the Surface Casing,
1-66
D
Data Collection, 4-50
Density of all Fluids Pumped, 4-50
Pump Rate, 4-50
Surface Pressure, 4-50
Data from logging tools, 1-77
Deep, Long Liners, 3-52
Deepwater, 3-59
Design Process, 5-1
What constitutes success?, 5-3
major risks, 5-4
What is success?, 5-3
Displacement
Job Simulation, 4-29
Displacement Modeling, 4-29
Accurate Geometry, 4-30
Fracture Pressure, 4-30
Pore Pressure vs. Depth, 4-31
Using Simulators, 4-29
Displacements, 4-1
Incompatibility, 4-2
Problem in a Nutshell, 4-1
Rheological Models, 4-5
Rheological Properties, 4-5
Dry Blending, 3-75
Dry Blending Calculations, 3-70
Dry Cement, 3-63
Durability, 3-41
E
Effect of Magnesium Salt, 3-56
Engineering Recommendations
Cementing Phase, 4-70
Drilling Phase, 4-69
Planning Phase, 4-69
Summary, 4-72
Equipment, 2-1
Automated Mixing, 2-5
Batch Mixing, 2-5
Bow Spring, 2-31
Casing Centralization, 2-25
Cement Heads, 2-15
Cement Mixing, 2-1
Cumulative volume pumped, 2-10
Float Shoes and Collars, 2-18
Flow rate, 2-9
High Pressure Lines, 2-11
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Cement Manual
F
Fibrous Material, 3-52
Flaked Materials, 3-52
Flash Setting, 1-63
Float Shoes and collars, 2-18
Flow Migration Control, 3-60
Fluid Incompatibility, 4-2
Fluid Loss, 3-85
Fracture Pressure, 1-35
Free Fluid, 3-84
Free-fall, 4-21
Functions Of Spacers and
Pre-Flushes, 4-68
G
Geothermal Wells, 3-53
Granular Materials, 3-51
Guidelines for completion of the
assessment, 5-13
H
Halliburton, 4-56
HPHT, 1-1
I
Increase Slurry Weight, 3-47
Adjusting the Slurry Rheolog,
3-49
Barite, 3-48
Hematite, 3-47
Manganese Oxide, 3-49
Information Transfer, 1-68
Interaction with Service
Providers, 1-70
Isolation, 2-37
Standoff, 1-28
Manual Sampling, 3-82
Manufacture of Portland Cement,
3-2
Mud Conditioning
Different Mud Types, 4-63
Engineering Recommendations,
4-69
Mud Conditioning and Hole
Monitoring, 4-7
Mud Preparation, 4-61
MUDPUSH, 4-55
Job Evaluation
Acoustic Logs, 1-74
Temperature Survey, 1-73
Job Simulation, 4-32
Example, 4-32
Fluid Properties, 4-33
Slim Hole Situation, 4-32
Wellbore Geometry, 4-32
No Permeability, 3-38
Non-Centralized Pipe, 2-26
L
Less, 1-59
Liner Overlap Seal, 4-47
Liner Tiebacks, 4-49
Liner Top Packers, 4-44
Liquid Blending, 3-71, 3-78
Log Interpretation, 1-80
Combination of poor and good
bond, 1-81
Continuous good bond, 1-80
Continuous poor bond, 1-81
Low side/high side, 1-81
Loss Circulation Control
Additives, 3-51
M
Magnesium Salt, 3-56
Major Factors Influencing
Success, 1-25
, 1-25
API schedules for Thiickening
Time, 1-31
Casing Centralization, 1-28
Flow Regime, 1-29
Mud Condition, 1-26
Mud Displacement Practices,
1-25
Pipe Movement, 1-27
Slurry Design, 1-30
Spacers and Flushes, 1-29
O
OBM
Drilled Solids, 4-63
Low-Shear-Rate Viscosity, 4-63
Viscosity, 4-63
OptiCem, 4-56
Change in viscosity, 4-58
Eccentricity, 4-57
Freefall, 4-57
Gas, 4-58
Mud compressibility, 4-57
Temperature dependant
rheology, 4-57
Tuned Spacer, 4-57
Overview, 1-1
Deep Water, 1-3
Estimated job time, 1-20
Extended Reach Wells, 1-10
Highly Deviated and Horizontal
Wells, 1-7
HPHT, 1-1
Multilateral Junctions, 1-12
Special Considerations, 1-1
P
Particles to Lower Slurry
Density, 3-45
Hollow Spheres, 3-45
Nitrogen - Foam Cements, 3-45
Personnel Competency, 5-11
Pilot Testing, 3-63
Pipe Movement, 4-27
Highly deviated and Horizontal
Holes, 4-28
Liners, 4-28
Pore Pressure, 1-35
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Proprietary - for the exclusive use of BP & ChevronTexaco
CementManual
Portland Cement
Manufacture, 3-2
Post-Job Information, 1-76
Cement top, 1-76
Pressure Drop Across Liner
Hangers and Polished Bore
Receptacles, 4-43
Pressure Recording, 2-9
Problems
Annular Pressure, 1-52
Cement "Flash Setting", 1-63
Failing to Bump the Top Plug, 1-49
Flow After Cementing, 1-59
Flow Through Unset Cement, 1-60
Gas Flow, 1-59
Gas Flow Through Microannulus,
1-60
Gas Migration, 1-59
Lack of Zone Isolation - Cross
Flow, 1-51
Liner Tops that Fail Pressure
Tests, 1-57
Low Leak-Off Test (LOT), 1-54
Low Top-of-Cement, 1-55
Soft Kick Off Plugs, 1-55
Q
Quality Control, 3-63
Quality of the Mixing Water, 3-36
Controllable Setting Time, 3-37
R
Reduce the Risk of Sticking the
Casing, 2-25
Reverse Circulating, 4-44
Hole Size, 4-45
Job Execution, 4-47
Liner Cementing Considerations,
4-45
Liner Equipment, 4-47
Mud Removal, 4-46
Overlap Length, 4-47
Temperature, 4-46
Rheological Model
Factors Affecting, 4-6
Selecting, 4-6
Rheological Models, 4-5
Risk Assessment Process, 5-5
Risk Register, 5-8
Roles and Responsibilities, 1-65
Planning, 1-66
Well design, 1-65
T
Temperatures, 3-52
Thickening Time, 1-32, 3-84
Free Fluid, 1-32
Settling Behavior, 1-32
WOC Time, 1-33
Thixotropic, 3-58
Tools Available
Sonic bond tools, 1-78
Ultrasonic Tools, 1-78
U
Ultralow Temperatures, 3-54
Use of Cement by the Oil Industry,
3-42
Rev. 01/2002
Proprietary - for the exclusive use of BP & ChevronTexaco