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Introduction................................................................................................................3
Introduction
History of Emergence of Clinical Supervision as a professional
development strategy
According to Jeffrey Glanz the field of supervision has been a practical one, concerned
more with administrative and supervisory strategies for school operations than with
analysis and introspection. Glanz also argued that supervision as a field of study has
little by way of history.
In examining the history of supervision, Sergiovanni and Starratt, in their recently revised
textbook on supervision, retitled Supervision: A Redefinition, assert that numerous
changes and understandings about schooling, teaching, and leadership, among other
factors, necessitate a redefinition of supervisory practice and theory. This redefinition
includes the disconnection of supervision from hierarchical roles and a focus on
community as the primary metaphor for schooling. Through the word community the
authors of this comprehensive, up-to-date, and widely acknowledged text on supervision
denote the fact that responsibility for supervision has widened to include not only
supervisors, but teachers, mentors, consultants, and other school and district-based
personnel. Still, Sergiovanni and Starratt maintain that the supervisor's role remains
important but is understood differently.
Generally, though writers on the topic agree that the emphasis has shifted from evaluating
teachers to promoting teacher development and building professional community among
teachers (Sergiovanni et. al., 1998). Indeed, the role of principals and other supervisors
as instructional leaders has given way to supervisors as developers and leaders of leaders.
This changing role has not diminished the reality that supervision continues to emerge as
a key role and function in the operations of schools.
whether this new supervision will result in increased regulation and control of teachers
and teaching or whether it will lead to greater professionalism and improved teaching and
learning in the school system.
Indeed, historical research reveals that supervision routines, beliefs and practices began
emerging as soon as therapists, and not just teachers, wished to train others (Leddick &
Bernard, 1980). The focus of early training, however, was on the efficacy of a particular
theory for example, behavioral, psychodynamic or client centered therapy.
As
supervision became more focused three types of models emerged namely developmental,
integrated and orientation specific.
All in all, the models of supervision point to a safe supervisory relationship, task
directed structure, methods addressing a variety of learning styles, analyzing and
elaboration of pertinent issue. As individuals, Leddick (1980) believes ones personal
model of supervision will grow, change and transform as one gains experience and
insight.
supervision there are other adjoining issues which include curriculum development and
design, awareness of students learning styles and effective learning at the three main
domains. Clinal supervision also ensures effective assessment procedures whether this
evaluation is traditional such as tests or authentic such as practical exercises or field work
and portfolios (Doolittle, 1994).
Clinical supervision is also grounded in benefits which are of a more macro nature.
Among these are higher levels of professionalism, the need to link teaching to the aims of
education, and national developmental goals specifically Vision 2020 which distinctly
talks about developing innovative people (Vision 2020 Draft National Strategic Plan, p
16, 2005).
The key issues of concern here are teacher training, classroom effectiveness, assessment
strategies and technology integration. At present, based on survey data collected by the
researcher, approximately 50% of the teachers possess teaching training certification.
However, whether this is reflective of ones effectiveness in the classroom is an area that
requires further research and investigation.
Based on observation and focused discussions, one can conclude that approximately 30%
of the teachers recognize the need to adapt their teaching and learning approaches to cater
for the students needs and ability levels. It seems as though another third of the teachers
are present in the classroom but very little teaching / learning takes place. The remaining
teachers are either very examination oriented and capitalize on the philosophy that
academic success is a true indicator that effective teaching / learning is occurring in the
classroom.
Another critical area, which is that of assessment, can be viewed from two main angles.
Firstly, assessment may be of a summative nature, primarily at the final examination level
and including coursework assignments namely the School Based Assessment and termly /
monthly examinations. The second main perspective is that of formative assessment
which comprises in-class testing during and at the end of the lesson.
Based on the CXC examination results, the data shows that just about 30% of the students
graduate with a full certificate, with a school population of 1100 students, this amounts to
just about 300-400 students. This statistic whilst being reflective of the overall national
pass rate, is not a true indication of the performance of some schools in the nation, where
pass rates may scale to as high as 99% and as low as 30% or even lower. This therefore
means that there is ample room for improvement in examination results at the school.
At the formative level of assessment, it was widely agreed by academic staff that this
strategy is practiced by an average of 50% of the teaching staff.
There are quite a number of areas where weaknesses and opportunities present
themselves within the school. In terms of weaknesses or problematic areas the following
were discovered as highlighted in the table below.
Figure 1.1
Problems at BSCS
CORE PROBLEMS
SYMTOMATIC PROBLEMS
STUDENT BASED
Indiscipline
Special Students
Gambling
Unpunctuality and Absenteeism
Fighting
Social Problems, Low self-esteem
Lack of Conflict Resolution
Failure to complete assignments
Curriculum
Illiteracy
Student Perception
Lack of Parental Support
STAFF-BASED
Lack of teacher training
High teacher expectations
Low productivity
MANAGEMENT-BASED
Poor communication
Limited methods of discipline
Inert Management Team
Ineffective Dean System
Poor stores and office management
Inadequate Training
MINISTRY-BASED
Student / Teacher ratio
Space and Classroom design
Lack of support staff
Poor staff accommodation
Size of the school / Capacity
Lack of control (quality of intake, funds)*
EXTERNAL
Insufficient Parental Support
Impact of society and media
Inadequate funding
Lack of respect
Deviant societal norms,
Poor expectations
MANAGEMENT / MINISTRY
** denotes secondary data collection
*
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YTEPP)
ALL STAKEHOLDERS
Poor image of the school
The main areas where opportunities and threats facing the school, which also had implications
for the supervisory process, are identified below:
STRENGTHS
WEAKNESSES
Principal is open to ideas and suggestions
Insufficient training for educators and managers
(Heads, Deans, Teachers, Administrators etc)
from staff members
Many multi-talented, committed staff
Low visibility of deans and minimal overall
members
effectiveness of the Dean system
Some members of staff are continuous
Lack of physical resources for HODs
learners
Existence and operation of a management
Some staff members lack commitment whilst
team, including trained heads of
others are overworked, although there is a
departments and deans, and various
reduction in the pupil / teacher ratio
committees and subject planning sessions.
Established structures and standard
Need for upgrading of certain areas of plant
operating procedures in the school.
Warm, and energetic students with many
Inadequate space for school activities
talents
Heterogeneous nature of school community
Lack of control or authority over critical areas
eg: funding, recruitment and entry / exit of
staff.
A wide range of courses and certification
Ineffective management of the CVQ
are available (CXC, CAPE, CVQ)
programme in the technical / vocational
education
Avenues for creative expression exist
Poor parenting of some students
Improving laboratories (language,
The problems of some students are outside the
VARIABLES
OPPORTUNITIES
POLITICAL
Implementation of position of
deans
and
heads
of
departments as a permanent
part of the school management
structure.
Creation of an additional post
of Vice Principal
Secondary
Education
Modernization programme re: ongoing projects
Programmes provided by UTT
to school graduates
THREATS
Intake of students who score
from as low as 40% at the
SEA
(Secondary
Entrance
Assessment)
etc.
Increase in the number of
national scholarships
Safety
VARIABLES
OPPORTUNITIES
THREATS
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ECONOMIC
Possible
funding
and sponsorship from the local
business community
Potential resource persons are
available in nearby industries,
including past students who are
even business owners
Light industries in
the community provide
employment opportunities for
graduates
SOCIAL
TECHNOLOGICAL
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ENVIRONMENTAL
3. Curriculum unsuitability for quite a large number of students who are unable
to meet the minimum pass mark for examination purposes. ( To what extent
can we say that this area has been sufficiently addressed? Re: CVQ
(standardized and student based qualification)
4. Literacy and Numeracy problems among special students which comprises
approximately 50% of the student population
5. Student Council and Prefect System is not functioning effectively
6. Insufficient Extra and Co-curricula activities as avenues for students to explore
and display their aesthetic, sporting and leadership skills.
7. Different learning styles of students which are not catered for, causing
psychological withdrawal and / or indiscipline of some students.
8. Indiscipline and infraction of rules among student population without stringent
penalties enforcement. (Gambling, Fighting, poor resolution of petty conflict,
Unpunctuality and Absenteeism, Failure to complete homework assignment
9. Demotivated students who are not performing to the best of their ability
10. Poor perception of the school by many students
MANAGEMENT ISSUES:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
MINISTRY
1. Infrastructural constraints re: Space and Classroom design (URGENT need for
school upgrade. This has become a major issue especially since schools that
were built at the same time as our school are now being upgraded / rebuilt.
To add insult to injury it was communicated that such a project was to take
effect, now there is absolutely no word on when such will materialize. Thus,
a high degree of uncertainty and a sense of hopelessness has overshadowed
the staff)
2. Poor staff accommodation lack of storage space, adequate office furniture
etc.
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3. Lack of support staff / substitute teachers to fill in for teachers who are on
short term leave.
4. Effectiveness of the Student Support Services Unit at the MOE is questionable
5. Lack of control quality of intake, funds
6. Poor / unclear systems and procedures
7. Archaic information systems
8. Untrained employees
9. Disciplining of teachers occurs at snail-pace
10. Lack of accountability as a result of sharing of premises with other bodies
such as YTEPP and continuation classes
EXTERNAL ISSUES:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
15
properly trained personnel, human resource documents such as the Job Specification and
relevant and updated Performance Appraisal instruments ought to be prepared and
accepted by all relevant stakeholders. To date, some of these crucial elements have been
completed in principle only.
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Head of Department. The Business Department is one of eight departments within the
school.
Despite the initial hesitation of Ms.Charran to engage in the exercise after much moral
suasion, she eventually succumbed to the idea. Ms. Charran was reminded of the benefits
of being a participant in the programme which includes:
1. The opportunity to engage in a planned and reflective approach to teaching and
learning
2. Assistance in the overall goals of the department
3. Preparatory work for teaching and learning at the post graduate level.
4. The opportunity to explore greater reach in the form of greater understanding and
application of the content by the students.
Experience: The teacher selected has been teaching at the school for the past six years.
She has not taught at any other school in the system. I am yet to find out if she has
worked at any other establishment besides the teaching service.
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Commitment: Based on observation and feedback from the Head of Department, Ms.
Charran displays a fairly high level of commitment to her work and the teaching of the
subject area. She is, however, not involved in any other aspects of the school.
Personality: Ms. Charran can be described as a warm and friendly teacher who is well
liked by students and teachers alike. She is 33 year old female who enjoys being a
teacher.
Methodology
Description of the clinical supervision procedure for development of
the teacher (stages)
The literature on Clinical Supervision identifies three major tenets in its implementation.
These are the pre-observation conference, the classroom observation and the postobservation conference. The clinical supervision exercise as outlined by Glickman 1990
uses five sequential steps as follows:
1.
2.
Observation
3.
4.
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5.
Step One: The pre conference with the teacher. The supervisor sits with the teacher and
determines the reason and purpose for the observation, the focus for the observation, the
method and form of the observation to be used at this time of observation. Both the
teacher and the supervisor are clear about what will transpire. The teacher states his / her
personal concerns, needs and aspirations. The areas of instructional concerns are
identified in behavioural terms and the observation instrument to use in collecting the
data created or selected. A decision is also made about the time for observation.
Step Two: The actual classroom observation. The supervisor observes the teacher in the
classroom and collects data using the observation instruments agreed to in the preconference. Some of these include categorical frequencies, physical indicators,
performance indicators, visual diagramming, space utilization, focused questionnaire and
so on.
Step Three: The supervisor analyzes the data by himself . He lays our recorded pages of
observation and studies the information. The information is summarized by counting up
frequencies, determination of recurring patterns, isolation of a major occurrence, discover
which performance indicators were present and which were not. He then puts it in a
visual form for analysis by both parties.
Step Four: The post observation conference. The teacher and supervisor meet and analyze
the information. Every effort should be made to elicit the analysis of the data from the
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teacher. It is extremely important that the data is true and accurate and is indeed a
complete representation of what actually occurred. The supervisor and the teacher
thereafter make plans for further improvement.
Step Five: the supervisor and teacher reflect on and critique the previous four steps. The
procedures from preconference to post conference are reviewed to determine whether
they were satisfactory or if revisions might be needed before repeating the sequence. A
number of questions can be asked to seek to determine ways to improve.
Questions such as:
These questions indicate that the supervisor is involved in an improvement effort in the
same manner as the supervisee.
Observer: __________________
Class Level____________
Subject: ________________
Date _________
Time: ______________
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How will you know if the objectives have been met? Or that student learning has
occurred?
What specific teaching strategies /behaviors will be used?
What led to and what follows this lesson?
What would you like me (the observer) to concentrate on?
What type of observation would you like?
Generic Observation
Using a standard evaluation form, the observer makes anecdotal notes and comments on
the class or lesson as a whole. Often these forms will have elements of a standard fivestep lesson plan or teacher competencies which can be checked or commented upon as
appropriate.
Educational Criticism
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Modeled after the style of an art critic, this format requires a skilled observer to evaluate
the lesson much as a critic evaluates a work of art, movie or book. Language is
expository and the writing tries to capture the tone or mood of the class.
Question-Response Patterns
Observer uses a seating chart to record the nature of student and teacher responses to
teacher generated questions.
Key:
-- Incorrect response
Teacher Prompt or encouragement
+ Correct Response
X Response cannot be classified as correct or incorrect
O Positive teacher feedback or praise
Teacher Questions
Observer can use the chart below to records all of the questions and interrogative
statements that a teacher makes. The questioning patterns are then analyzed.
QUESTION
TALLY
TOTAL
PERCENT
CATEGORY
Knowledge
Compare
Comprehension
Application
Analysis
Synthesis
Evaluation
Translation
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Totals
Verbal Interaction
Observer uses a seating chart to trace verbal statements in the class. Arrows indicate a full
statement directed to another person. Observer uses a new sheet every five minutes or so
and numbers the arrows. This method can help determine which students or areas of the
room are included or excluded.
Traffic Patterns
Using a diagram of the room, observer uses lines and arrows to trace movement patterns
of teacher and students. (Arrows are accompanied by times.) This may not be appropriate
if excessive group movement will be occurring during an activity.
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Lesson Planning (First, determine the curriculum; that is, what the children will learn, what
they will be able to do upon completing the activities or work of the lesson. Second, determine
what the students already know, before beginning the lesson that can lead into the new
curriculum of the day. Be sure to include the exact examples, problems, projects, or activities
that will be used.)
Another anonymous writer believes that effective teachers systematically and carefully
plan for productive use of instructional time. The same writer believes that the effective
teacher also needs to develop a plan to provide direction toward the attainment of the
selected objectives. The more organized a teacher is, the more effective the teaching, and
thus the learning, is. Indeed, writing daily lesson plans is a large part of being organized.
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The purpose of formative evaluation is to validate or ensure that the goals of the
instruction are being achieved and to improve the instruction, if necessary, by means of
identification and subsequent remediation of problematic aspects. Weston, Mc Alpine,
and Bordonaro, (1995). Formative evaluation is conducted to provide program staff
evaluative information useful in improving the program. Worthen, Sanders, and
Fitzpatrick, (1997). "When the cook tastes the soup, thats formative; when the guests
taste the soup, thats summative." Robert Stakes. According to Scriven, (1996),
formative evaluation is "is research-oriented vs. action-oriented". The "evaluations are
intended - by the evaluator - as a basis for improvement"
Use of technology in the classroom would enable the creation of lesson which not only
caters for the visual learner but also the child with literacy problems. Research from
Sudbury Northern Life Staff and Palliser Regional School in the US both agree that
technology enhances the learning experiences of the child.
Colleen Valin (2009) writes about the use of technology in the classroom by teacher Gord
Smith in Palliser Regional School in the US in the article Technology 'makes the lessons
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fun'. Furthermore, Sudbury Northern Life Staff (2009) recently added more teachers are
being classified as Technology Integration Mentors (TIMs). The TIM teachers will
support classroom teachers and students to use technology in ways that enhance lesson
planning, delivery and ultimately student learning and achievement.
The expected outcome for the lesson planning area is that the teacher can produce well
structured and innovative lesson which will grab and retain the interest of the students.
Additionally, only by documenting the structure of a lesson can one accurately reflect on
it in order to continually improve ones craft and practice of teaching.
The expected outcome of the constructivist approach is that the teacher will organize
learning objectives and content beforehand. Material and skills will be predetermined and
defined in advance of learning. It is intended that the material is delivered by the teacher,
skills and material are learnt by the student. Students are assessed by their ability to
remember the material or practice the skill. Johanssen (1994)
Formative evaluation allows the teacher to obtain user feedback during the delivery of the
lesson. In Oregon, teachers are learning to use the tools of evaluation to find out if their
teaching strategies are really working. (Stepanek, 2004)
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Technology integration allows for more visual and interesting lesson which will capture
and hold the learners attention. It also allows for easy manipulation of the lesson for
subsequent classes which is a wonderful time saving device.
Lesson planning was selected since it is a critical part of the organization process in
preparing for ones class. It takes into account all or at least most of the critical variables
that one would cover in a lesson. However, one appreciates that a lesson plan is simply a
guide and the effective delivery of a lesson may sometimes require the teacher to
meander around the core concepts of the lesson whilst learning is in fact still taking place.
Experience in the profession has revealed that we tend to adopt an instructivist instead of
a constructivist approach to teaching, where children are treated as passive recipients of
knowledge rather than active participants in the teaching / learning process. Hence, this
area is a critical one where most teachers are required to change their approach.
Evaluation as a whole is often neglected; especially since often times as teachers we are
so focused on covering the content in order to envelop all areas of the syllabus. This
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pressure to cover content sometimes occurs at the opportunity cost of testing whether
learning is actually occurring.
Technology is an area which opens up a window of possibilities from lesson planning and
delivery to more innovative areas of video conferencing and internet research. Although,
the basic areas would be covered such as the preparation of lesson in power point, the
various possibilities remain to be explored as the technology becomes available.
Rationale for keeping journal and Clear description of how you will
employ your journal to capture the outcomes, challenges, insights
and successes of the Clinical Supervision Exercise
The Clinical Supervision Journal will be used to trace the growth and development of the
teacher as well as the reflections by the supervisor on required changes in strategy. The
image of looking at oneself in a mirror, means that it has implications of being conscious
of what one is doing. Because of this it is a word that is widely used but not always
understood. Rowntree (1988), for example, praises the reflective student who thinks
about her own experience of studying and decides what changes of approach might be
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most suitable.
Rowntree (1988) says reflection is studying one's own study methods as seriously as one
studies the subject and thinking about a learning task after you have done it. Unless you
do this, he says, the task will almost certainly be wasted.
In any learning situation, he says, you should prepare for it beforehand, participate
actively during it, and reflect on it afterwards. Thus the journal will be used to capture
such activities and reflections.
Focus on the preparatory process of Lesson Planning is the second step towards effective
delivery. Acquisition of the requisite resources to facilitate a more interesting and
29
focused lessons would be next in line. Incorporation of other key elements for effective
delivery of lessons can be added to the repertoire of skills as the clinical supervision
process develops. Some of these other key skills and techniques would be motivational,
communication, classroom management and a variety of instructional methods.
Conclusion
Brief summary of what is proposed, highlighting objectives and
expected outcomes
Basically this clinical supervision proposal focuses on the development of four critical
areas in the selected teacher. These are lesson planning skills, greater class participation
and a more inductive approach to teaching, greater use of summative evaluation and the
infusion of technology in the delivery of lessons.
The overall objective is the production and delivery of more effective lessons. This
would be accomplished by focusing on the development of specific critical skills as
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References
Doolittle, P. (1994) Teacher Portfolio Assessment.
ERIC Clearinghouse on Assessment and Evaluation. Retrieved Sept 2009
Johanssen (1994) Article: Constructivism and Instructivism
http://www.worc.ac.uk/LTMain/LTC/StaffDev/Constructivism. Page last updated
on 9th October 2001
Kizlik, S. Lesson Plans the easy way. http://www.adprima.com/easyless.htm
Leddick, G. R & Bernard, J.M. (1980). The history of supervision: A critical review.
Counselor Education and Supervision, p186
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Management and Staff (2009/10), Barataria South Secondary School, Strategic Plan,
2009-2012
Petree, A. Constructivism, a better way of teaching.
http://www.kn.pacbell.com/wired/fil/pages/listconstrucal2.html,
Sergiovanni, Thomas J. & Starratt Robert J. (1993).Supervision: A Redefinition. New
York: McGraw-Hill, Inc.
Sergiovanni, T.J. & Starratt, R.J. (1998). Supervision: A redefinition (6th ed.):
McGraw-Hill, Boston, MA
Swift, D. (1984). Finding and keeping teachers: Strategies for small schools
Tener Morton. (1966). Teaching Business Principles by the Case study method, Volume
V, No 1, Fall. www.mortontener.com www. pareonline.net/getvn.asp
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