A Student's Guide

to

Einstein's Major Papers

Robert E.
Department

of

Kennedy

Physics, Creighton University

OXFORD
UNIVERSITY PRESS

Contents

Acknowledgments

xiii

Introduction

xv

Setting the Stage for

1905

1.1 Overview

1.2 Historical

Background

1.2.1 600 BC to AD 200: The Contribution of the

Early Greeks

1.2.2 The 1600s: The Contribution of Galileo and Newton

13

1.2.4 The Worldview in 1900

15

1.3 Albert Einstein

15

1.3.1 The

Pre-College

1.3.2 The

College Years

1.3.3 Prom

College

Years

15
17

to 1905

19

1.4 Discussion and Comments

1.5

20

Appendices

21

1.5.1 Science

Today

21

1.5.2 Newton's Law of Gravitation from

Kepler's

Laws

1.6 Notes
1.7

1.2.3 The 1800s: The Contribution of Maxwell and Lorentz

25
27

Bibliography

31

Radiation and the Quanta

33

2.1 Historical

33

2.1.1

2.1.2

Background

Thermodynamics and Entropy

Blackbody

2.1.3 Max Planck's

2.2 Albert Einstein's

34

Derivation of the Radiation Density

"On

Paper,
Concerning the Production
2.2.1 On

33

Radiation

and

Transformation of Light"

Difficulty Encountered in the

Theory

2.2.2 On Planck's Determination of the

39

of

"Blackbody Radiation"

40

Elementary Quanta

2.2.3 On the

2.2.4

38

Heuristic Point of View

41

Entropy of Radiation
Limiting Law for the Entropy of Monochromatic

42

Radiation at Low Radiation Density

43

2.2.5 Molecular-Theoretical Investigation of the

Dependence
Solutions
2.2.6

of the

on

of Gases and Dilute

Entropy

the Volume

43

Interpretation of the Expression for

of the

the

Dependence

Entropy of Monochromatic Radiation

According to Boltzmann's Principle

on

Volume

44

2.2.7 On Stokes' Rule

45

2.2.8 On the Generation of Cathode

Rays by Illumination

of Solid Bodies

46

2.2.9 On the Ionization of Gases

by

Ultraviolet

Light

47

2.3 Discussion and Comments

47

2.4

49

Appendices
2.4.1

Entropy

and

Irreversibility

49

2.4.2 Planck's derivation of p (v, T)

2.4.3 Wien's Expression for Entropy

50
51

2.5 Notes
2.6

52

Bibliography

55

The Atom and Brownian Motion

56

3.1 Historical

Background

56

Atom

57

3.1.1 The

3.1.2 Brownian Motion

60

3.1.3 The Worldview in 1900

60

3.2 Albert Einstein's

Paper,

"A New Determination

of Molecular Dimensions"

3.2.1 On the Influence

62

on

the Motion of

Liquid

Exercised by a Very Small Sphere Suspended in It

3.2.2 .Calculation of the Coefficient of Viscosity of a Liquid
in Which

Very Many Irregularly

Spheres are Suspended

63

Distributed Small
66

3.2.3 On the Volume of a Dissolved Substance Whose

Molecular Volume is

Large Compared

to that

of the Solvent

67

3.2.4 On the Diffusion of

in

an

Undissociated Substance

Liquid Solution

68

3.2.5 Determination of the Molecular Dimensions with the

Help of the

Relations Obtained

69

3.3 Albert Einstein's Paper, "On the Movement of Small

Particles

Suspended in Stationary Liquids Required

Molecular-Kinetic
3.3.1

Theory

by

the

of Heat"

70

On the Osmotic Pressure Attributable to

Suspended

Particles

71

3.3.2 Osmotic Pressure from the Standpoint of the

Molecular-Kinetic Theory of Heat
3.3.3 Theory of Diffusion of Small

Suspended Spheres

3.3.4 On the Random Motion of Particles

Liquid and Their

72

Suspended in

Relation to Diffusion

73
a

75

3.3.5 Formula for the Mean

Displacement of Suspended
Determining the True

Particles. A New Method of

Size of Atoms

76

3.4 Discussion and Comments

3.5

76

Appendices

78

3.5.1 Derivation of the Expressions for

3.5.2 Derivation of the

u,

Expression for W

v, and
=

78

Energy

per

Unit Time Converted into Heat

85

3.5.3 Derivation of the Coefficient of Viscosity of a Liquid

in Which Very Many Irregularly Distributed Spheres
are

Suspended

90

3.5.4 Determination of the Volume of

Dissolved Substance

93

3.5.6 Derivation of B

95

JV*n

3.5.7 Derivation of

v =

3.5.8 Derivation of

(x2)

(x, t)

96

98

3.6 Notes
3.7

93

3.5.5 Derivation of the Expression for Entropy

98

Bibliography

4 The

103

Special Theory

of

Relativity

105

4.1 Historical Background

4.1.1 The

Relativity

105
of Galileo Galilei and of Isaac Newton 105

4.1.2 The Lorentz Transformations

4.2 Albert Einstein's Paper, "On the

Moving Bodies"

(from Lorentz)
Electrodynamics of

113

4.2.1 Definition of

4.2.2 On the

Simultaneity
Relativity of Lengths

4.2.3

of Transformation of Coordinates and Time

Theory
from

System

at

Rest to

115
and Times

System

116

in Uniform

Translational Motion Relative to It

4.2.4 The

108

118

Physical Meaning
Equations
Concerning Moving Rigid Bodies and Moving Clocks 120
of the

Obtained

4.2.5 The Addition Theorem of Velocities

121

4.2.6 Transformation of the Maxwell-Hertz

Equations for

Empty Space. On the Nature of the Electromotive

Forces that Arise upon Motion in

Magnetic Field

4.2.7

Theory of Doppler's Principle and of Aberration

4.2.8 Transformation of the Energy of Light Rays. Theory
of the Radiation Pressure Exerted

122
124

Perfect Mirrors 126

on

4.2.9 Transformation of the Maxwell-Hertz

Equations

when Convection Currents Are Taken into

Consideration
4.2.10

Dynamics

of the

128

(Slowly Accelerated)

4.3 Albert Einstein's Paper, "Does the Inertia of

Depend Upon Its Energy Content?"

4.4 Discussion and Comments

Electron
a

128

Body
129

131

133

4.5 Appendices
4.5.1 Lorentz and the Transformed Maxwell

Equations

140

4.5.3 The

146

Field Transformations

Electromagnetic
Doppler Principle
4.5.5 The Electrodynamic Lorentz
4.5.4 The

150
Force

153

155

4.6 Notes
4.7

Bibliography

159

5 The General Theory of Relativity

5.1 Historical

161

161

Background

5.1.1 Lingering

Questions
Special Theory

5.1.2 Generalizing the

of

5.1.3 The Equivalence

161
of

Relativity

Gravitational Field and

163
an

Accelerated Reference Frame

164

5.1.4 The Timeline from 1905 to 1916

5.2 Albert Einstein's

Paper,
Theory of Relativity"

167

"The Foundation of the General

171

Part A: "Fundamental Considerations

of

133

4.5.2 Derivation of the Lorentz Transformation Equations

on

the Postulate
171

Relativity"
5.2.1 Observations

on

the

5.2.2 The Need for

an

Extension of the Postulate

Special Theory of Relativity

of Relativity

171

172

5.2.3 The

Space-Time Continuum. Requirement of

General Covariance for the Equations Expressing
General Laws of Nature

174

5.2.4 The Relation of the Four Coordinates to

Measurement in

Space and

Time

175

Part B: "Mathematical Aids to the Formulation of

Generally Covariant Equations"

178

5.2.5 Contravariant and Covariant Four-Vectors

179

5.2.6 Tensors of the Second and

181

Higher Ranks

5.2.7

Multiplication of Tensors
5.2.8 Some Aspects of the Fundamental Tensor
5.2.9 The Equation of the Geodetic Line. The Motion
of

Particle

182
183

186

5.2.10 The Formation of Tensors

by

Differentiation

187

5.2.11 Some Cases of Special Importance

188

5.2.12 The Riemann-Christoffel Tensor

191

Part C: "Theory of the Gravitational Field"

5.2.13 Equations of Motion of
Gravitational Field.

Field-Components

192

Material Point in the

Expression for

of Gravitation

the

192

5.2.14 The Field Equations of Gravitation in the Absence

of Matter

193

5.2.15 The Hamiltonian Function for the Gravitational

Field. Laws of Momentum and

5.2.16 The General Form of the Field
of

Energy
Equations

Gravitation

196

5.2.17 The Laws of Conservation in the General Case

5.2.18 The Laws of Momentum and Energy for Matter,
as a

Consequence of

the Field

Equations

Part D: "Material Phenomena"

5.2.19 Euler's Equations for
5.2.20 Maxwell's
Free

198
198

199

Frictionless Adiabatic Fluid

199

Electromagnetic Field Equations for

Space

200

Part E:
5.2.21

194

205

Newton's

Theory

as a

First

Approximation

205

5.2.22 "The Behaviour of Rods and Clocks in the Static

Gravitational Field.
of the Perihelion of

Bending of Light Rays. Motion

Planetary Orbit

5.3 Discussion and Comments

213

5.3.1 Verification of the General

Theory of Relativity
Theory of Relativity:
and
the
Unified
Field Theory
Cosmology
Appendices
5.3.2

5.4

5.4.1

Beyond

5.4.3 The

213

the General

Multiplication of Tensors

5.4.2 Some

208

of the Geodetic Line

5.4.4 The Formation of Tensors

5.4.5 Some Cases of

223
223

Aspects of the Fundamental Tensor

Equation

216

Differentiation

by
Special Importance

5.4.6 The Riemann-Christoffel Tensor

224
225

229
232
239

5.4.7 The Hamiltonian Function for the

Gravitational Field
5.4.8 Calculation of the

Bending

241
of

Starlight

249

5.4.9 Calculation of the Precession of the Perihelion

of

Mercury

5.4.10 The

249

Bending

of

Starlight Experiment

5.4.11 Newton's Bucket

5.5 Notes
5.6

253

254
255

Bibliography

262

Einstein and

265

6.1 Historical

265

Quantum Mechanics
Background

6.2 The Evolution of

6.2.1 The

Quantum Mechanics

267

Theory of Specific Heat (1906)

6.2.2 The Dual Nature of Radiation

(1909)

267
268

6.2.3 The Bohr Atom

6.2.4

Spontaneous

6.2.5 The

(1913)

269

(1916)

271

Compton Scattering Experiment (1923)

271

and Induced Transitions

6.2.6 Bose-Einstein Statistics

272

6.2.7

275

(1924)
Broglie (1924), and Schrodinger (1926)
6.2.8 Einstein and Bohr (1927, 1930)
Einstein, de

281

6.4

Appendices

282

6.4.1 The

282

Specific Heat of Dulong and Petit

6.4.2 The Commutator of P and Q

277

6.3 Discussion and Comments

282

6.5 Notes

283

6.6 Bibliography

287

Epilogue
7.1 The Inflexible

7.2 Notes
7.3

Index

Bibliography

290

Boundary

Condition

290
293
295

297