Technical Training Schools

Radiation Safety
For users of nuclear gauging devices

Ohmart/Vega

Copyright 19952005 Ohmart/VEGA Corporation, Cincinnati, Ohio. All rights reserved. This document contains
proprietary information of Ohmart/VEGA Corporation. It shall not be reproduced in whole or in part, in any form,
without the expressed written permission of Ohmart/VEGA Corporation. The material in this document is provided for
informational purposes and is subject to change without notice.
ISO 9001 approval by Lloyds Register Quality Assurance Limited, to the following Quality Management System
Standards: ISO 9001:1994, ANSI/ASQC Q9001-1994. Approval Certificate No. 107563.
Ohmart/VEGA Corporation
4241 Allendorf Drive
Cincinnati, Ohio 45209-1599 USA
Voice:
(513) 272-0131
FAX:
(513) 272-0133
Web site (North America)
www.ohmartvega.com
Web site (outside North America)
www.ohmart.com
Field service email
fieldservice@ohmartvega.com

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Contents
CHAPTER 1 : WHY WE ARE HERE 1
Regulatory oversight 1
What material is regulated 1
Declaration 1
Purpose 1

The NRC and Agreement States 4

Agreement States 5

Licenses 7
General license 7
Specific license 7
Ohmart general license gauges 7
Rules common to both general and specific licenses 9
Radioactive material tag 10
Specific license 10

Key elements of a license 11

Radiation protection program 12
Responsibilities of a Radiation Safety Officer 13
Review questions 15

CHAPTER 2 : BASIC RADIATION THEORY 17

Nuclear physics 17
The atom 17
Nucleus 20
Stable and unstable elements 21
Isotopes 22
Double encapsulation 23

Radiation vs. radioactivity 24

Radioactivity 24
Spontaneous 24
Disintegration 24
Radioactive nuclei 24
Types of radiation 25
Alpha 25
Beta 25
Neutron 25
Gamma 25

Properties of radiation 26
Decay scheme 26
Decay of Uranium 27

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Radioactive decay and half-life 28

Energy level of a particle or a photon 29
Penetrating ability of radiation 30
Brehmsstrahlung X-ray 31
Decay of isotopes used in gauging 32
X-rays 35
Electromagnetic waves 35
Electromagnetic spectrum 36
Ionization 36

Becoming radioactive 37
Review questions 38

CHAPTER 3 : MEASUREMENT AND MONITORING 39

Radiation units 40
Exposureroentgen 40
Absorbed doseRad or Gray 40
Rad 41
Gray 41
Quality factor 42
Biological dose equivalentrem or seivert 43
Rem 43
Sievert 43
ActivityCurie or Becquerel 44
Radiation field intensity compared with dose rate 45
Normal range of exposures 45

Monitoring techniques 46
Gaseous ionization detectors 46

Scintillation counters 49
Nuclear gauging 50
Theory 50
Radiation transmission equation 51
Density measurement 52
Web (sheet) measurement 53
Radiation transmission 53
Weight per area 53
Thickness 54
Specific Gravity 54
Operation of a nuclear gauge 55
Standardization 56

Survey meters 57
Choosing a meter 57
Operating a meter 58

Personnel dosimetry 59
Pocket dosimeter 59
Film badge 60

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Thermoluminescent dosimeter (TLD) 61

Review questions 62

Conversion factors 63
Exposure 63
Radiation units 63
Biological doserem and sievert (Sv) 63
Exposure doseroentgen (R) and coulomb (C) per kilogram (kg) 63
Absorbed doserad and gray (Gy) 63
ActivityCurie (Ci), disintegrations per second, and Becquerel (Bq) 63
Some additional useful conversions 64
Metric prefixes 64

CHAPTER 4 : SAFETY CALCULATIONS 65

Radiation field intensity calculations 66
Tools for protection from radiation 66
Radiation field intensity at one foot 66

Inverse square law 68

Calculating dose rate at any distance 71
Shielding half-value layer 73
Approximate shielding half-value layers for gamma emitters 74
Total dose 75

Planning 78
Effects of shielding and distance 78
Ohmart source holders 79
A method of calculating radioactive decay using the yx key on a calculator 80

CHAPTER 5 : HEALTH EFFECTS 83

Introduction 83
History of biological effects 84
Radiological protection agencies 85
Medical advice 85

Health risks 86
Probability and consequences 86
Everyday risks 87
Radiation compared to other occupational risks 88

Sources of radiation 89
Natural background radiation 89
Man-made radiation 91

Dose effect relationship 92

Threshold effect 92
Non-threshold effect 93
Low-level exposures 94

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Type of exposure 94
Chronic 94
Acute 94

Health effects 95
Body cell damage 95
Radiation sickness 96
Radiation injury 96
Radiation poisoning 96
Reproductive cell damage 96
Interaction with tissue 96
Recovery from radiation exposure 97
Effect on embryonic development 98

Dose limitations 100

Ohmart exposures 102
Ohmart gauges 102
Guideline for user's exposures 104

Purpose of regulations 105

Conclusion 106
Review question 107
References 108

CHAPTER 6 : EMERGENCY GUIDELINES 111

General guidelines 112
Exposure vs. contamination 112
Guidelines 112

Typical emergency situations 114

Typical emergency situations 114
Stuck shutter 114
Loss or theft 115
Entering a tank or vessel 115
Fall or collision 116
Fall: 116
Collision 116
Fire 118
Fireproof source holders 119

Emergency equipment 120

Review questions 121

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CHAPTER 7 : U.S. NRC REGULATIONS 123

Tests to be performed on nuclear gauges 124
Radiation survey and occupancy evaluation 124
Periodic leak test (wipe test) 124
On/off mechanism test 124

Posting requirements 125

Area definitions 126

Record keeping requirements 128

Personnel monitoring 130
Radiation protection program 131
Notification/reports 132
Reports of theft or loss of licensed material, 20.2201 132
Notifications of Incidents, 20.2202 133

Reportable exposures 133

Report events 134
Reports of overexposures and excessive levels and concentrations, 20.2203 134

Other regulations 136

Inspection 136
Instruction to workers 137
Disposal 138

U.S. NRC rules and regulations 139

Part
Part
Part
Part
Part

19Notices, Instructions, and Reports to Workers; Inspections 139

20Standards for Protection Against Radiation 139
21Reporting of Defects and Noncompliance 139
30Rules of General Applicability to Domestic Licensing of Byproduct Material 140
31General Domestic Licenses for Byproduct Material 140

Contacting the U.S. NRC 141

Regional Offices 141

Internet sites and information 142

Contacting the Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission 142
Review questions 143

CHAPTER 8 : U.S. DOT SHIPPING REGULATIONS 144

U.S. DOT terms 145

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Special form radioactive materials 145

Normal form radioactive material 146
Type A and specification 7A packaging 147
Water Spray 147
Free Fall Drop 147
Compression 147
Penetration 147
Activity limits for type A packages 148
Hazardous material identification 149
Reportable quantity 150

Shippers responsibility 151

Returning radioactive material to Ohmart 152
Step 1: Obtaining authorization 152
Step 2: Preparing packaging 152
Leak Test 152
Security Seal 152
Marking Requirements 153
Step 3: Affixing labels 154
Content 156
Activity 156
Transport Index 156
Air Shipment 156
Step 4: Completing the shipping document 157

Sources of federal regulations 160

Title 49 160
Main headings 160

DOT definitions 161

CHAPTER 9 : PROCEDURES 167

Receiving the source holder 168
Installation of a source holder 169
Step 1: Preliminary survey 169
Step 2: Mounting unit 170
Correct installation 170
Step 3: Perform a leak test 170
Step 4: Radiation survey after installation 170
Step 5: Occupancy evaluation 171

Removal of a source holder 172

Step
Step
Step
Step

1:
2:
3:
4:

Physical examination of unit 172

Perform radiation survey 172
Perform leak test 172
Handling precautions 173

Removal of source holder with an open shutter 173

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Step 1: Develop a plan for safe removal 173

Step 1A: Establish a radiation safety zone 173
Step 1B: Select shielding material for open source holder 173
Step 1C: Determine physical limitations of moving source holders 173
Step 2: Explanation to workers of handling procedures 174
Step 3: After source holder is removed from mounting 174

Leak testing 175

Instructions for leak testing 175
Test results 175

Shutter check 176

Shutter check 176
Suggested radiation lockout procedures 177
Using a survey meter 177
Using the gauge electronics 177
Industrial gauge inspection report form 179
Radiography Contractors Questionnaire 187

APPENDIX 189
GLOSSARY 205
INDEX 205

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Tables
Table 1: Examples of stable and unstable elements

21

Table 2: Decay of radioactive materials 26

Table 3: Example of nuclear gauging radioactive isotopes half-lives
Table 4: Example of quality factor values

29

42

Table 5: Examples of pure radioisotope quantities that equal one curie

44

Table 6: Advantages and disadvantages of film badges 60

Table 7: Advantages and disadvantages of TLDs

61

Table 8: Curie units to becquerel units conversions

64

Table 9: Metric prefixes 64

Table 10: Radiation field intensity units 66
Table 11: Calculating dose rate constants and units

71

Table 12: Shielding half value layers for gamma emitters 74

Table 13: Occupational dose limits per year

100

Table 14: General public dose limits per year

100

Table 15: Ohmart employee exposure record for three years

102

Table 16: Area definitionunrestricted 126

Table 17: Area definitionrestricted

127

Table 18: Record keeping requirements 128

Table 19: Reportable exposure actions 133
Table 20: Reportable events and actions 134
Table 21: Typical Ohmart A1 and A2 radionuclide values 148
Table 22: Isotope values for reportable quantities

150

Table 23: Package survey requirements for distances

155

Table 24: Information for shipping documents

157

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Figures
Figure 1: NRC regions and agreement states 5
Figure 2: General license tag 8
Figure 3: Radioactive material tag 10
Figure 4: sub-atomic particle characteristics 19
Figure 5: Atomic numbers and mass 20
Figure 6: Hydrogen isotopes 22
Figure 7: Double encapsulation 23
Figure 8: Types of radiation 25
Figure 9: Example of decay scheme 26
Figure 10: Activity vs. time curve 28
Figure 11: Penetrating ability of radiation 30
Figure 12: Brehmsstrahlung x-ray production 31
Figure 13: Decay of Cesium-137 32
Figure 14: Decay of Cobalt-60 33
Figure 15: Decay of Strontium-90 34
Figure 16: Decay of Krypton-85 34
Figure 17: Electromagnetic wavelengths 35
Figure 18: Ionization 36
Figure 19: Quality factor 42
Figure 20: Gaseous ionization detectors 46
Figure 21: Detector regions 47
Figure 22: Ohmart detector overview 49
Figure 23: Typical density gauge setup 50
Figure 24: Example of detector output changes with process density 52
Figure 25: Web detector overview 53
Figure 26: Example of a survey meter 57
Figure 27: Example of a pocket dosimeter 59
Figure 28: Example of a film badge 60
Figure 29: Example of TLD 61
Figure 30: Shielding half-value layer 73
Figure 31: Total dose mrem per time 76
Figure 32: Effects of shielding and distance 78
Figure 33: Estimated loss of life expectancy from health risks 87
Figure 34: Average individual exposure per year 89
Figure 35: Radiation is all around us 90
Figure 36: Health effects risk by radiation curve 93

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Figure 37: Workers notification 125

Figure 38: U.S.A. DOT 7A type A Radioactive Material label #1 153
Figure 39: U.S.A. DOT 7A type A Radioactive Material label #2 153
Figure 40: U.S.A. DOT 7A type A Radioactive Material label #3 153
Figure 41: Regulations for labels 154
Figure 42: Cargo aircraft label 156
Figure 43: Radiation lockout permit 178

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Procedures
Procedure 1: Receive source holder 168
Procedure 2: Ensure meter is calibrated and operable 169
Procedure 3: When radiation field is greater than 5mR/hr 169
Procedure 4: Leak testing 175

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Notes

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Chapter 1: Why we are here

This section introduces you to the concepts and terminology that are necessary to
understand regulatory authority and the purpose of radiation protection programs. We want to
set the grounds rules for why we need control of radioactive material and how you as a
gauge user are affected.
We need to understand that the rules are written to fit a wide range of applications from
nuclear medicine to power plants. We will cover the parts that are important to you as a
nuclear gauge user.

Regulatory oversight
What material is regulated
The authority to regulate radioactive material (RAM) is found in the Atomic energy Act of
1954 (The Act). The declaration of purpose of the Act states in part:

Declaration
Atomic energy is capable of application for peaceful, as well as, military purposes. It is
therefore declared to be the policy of the United States that

The development, use, and control of atomic energy shall be directed so as to make the
maximum contribution to the general welfare, subject at all times to the paramount
objective of making the maximum contribution to the common defense and security; and

The development, use, and control of atomic energy shall be directed so as to promote
world peace, improve the general welfare, increase the standard of living, and strengthen
free competition in private enterprise.

Purpose
It is the purpose of this Act to effectuate the policies set forth above by providing for-a.

A program of conducting, assisting, and fostering research and development in order to

encourage maximum scientific and industrial progress;

b. A program for the dissemination of unclassified scientific and technical information and
for the control, dissemination, and declassification of Restricted Data, subject to
appropriate safeguards, so as to encourage scientific and industrial progress;

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c.

A program for Government control of the possession, use, and production of atomic
energy and special nuclear material, whether owned by the Government or others, so
directed as to make the maximum contribution to the common defense and security and
the national welfare, and to provide continued assurance of the Government's ability to
enter into and enforce agreements with nations or groups of nations for the control of
special nuclear materials and atomic weapons.

d. A program to encourage widespread participation in the development and utilization of

atomic energy for peaceful purposes to the maximum extent consistent with the common
defense and security and with the health and safety of the public.
It is with this mission in mind that the use and control of radioactive material began. The Act
has been further modified over the years by the Energy Reorganization Act of 1974, which
formed the current Nuclear Regulatory Agency (NRC). In order to understand how the
regulations apply to all organizations that use material that is covered by the Act we need to
look at some definitions.

Atomic energy
The term "atomic energy" means all forms of energy released in the course of nuclear fission
or nuclear transformation.

Byproduct material (This is the type of RAM used in Ohmart gauges)

The term "byproduct material" means:
1. Any radioactive material (except special nuclear material) yielded in or made radioactive
by exposure to the radiation incident to the process of producing or utilizing special
nuclear material, and
2. The tailings or wastes produced by the extraction or concentration of uranium or thorium
from any ore processed primarily for its source material content.

Licensed activity
The term "licensed activity" means an activity licensed pursuant to this Act and covered by
the provisions of section 170a.

Source material
The term "source material" means:
1. Uranium, thorium, or any other material which is determined by the Commission pursuant
to the provisions of section 61 to be source material; or
2. Ores containing one or more of the foregoing materials, in such concentration as the
Commission may by regulation determine from time to time.

Special nuclear material

The term "special nuclear material" means:

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1. Plutonium, uranium enriched in the isotope 233 or in the isotope 235, and any other
material which the Commission, pursuant to the provisions of section 51, determines to
be special nuclear material, but does not include source material; or
2. Any material artificially enriched by any of the foregoing, but does not include source
material.

Occupational dose
Means the dose received by an individual in the course of employment in which the
individual's assigned duties involve exposure to radiation or to radioactive material from
licensed and unlicensed sources of radiation, whether in the possession of the licensee or
other person. Occupational dose does not include the dose received from background
radiation, from any medical administration the individual has received.

Public dose
Means the dose received by a member of the public from exposure to radiation or radioactive
material released by a licensee, or to any other source of radiation under the control of a
licensee. Public dose does not include occupational dose or doses received from background
radiation, from any medical administration the individual has received.
It addition to the above-mentioned material there is Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material
(NORM). NORM can be found in small quantities in almost anything. It typically can be in the
form of mineral that is absorbed in plant life and then eaten by animals and humans. It also is
found in most rock formation. This natural background radiation will be discussed in the
chapter on health effects. It is important to note at this time that NORM is always regulated by
the states themselves. Some of you already are aware of the possible accumulation of
NORM material in your processes. While in its original state, NORM can be very hard to
detect. Any process that causes it to be concentrated increases the chance of the levels
increasing to measurable quantities. Although NORM can be a major issue for many of our
users, it is beyond the scope of this class to go into much detail about its regulation.

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The NRC and Agreement States

The U.S. NRC is the federal agency responsible for ensuring the safety of people who work
with radioactive material and the security of certain radioactive materials. These include
source materials such as uranium and thorium and by-products such as Cesium-137, Cobalt60, Strontium-90, Krypton-85, and many others. Special nuclear material such as Plutonium238 is under especially stringent regulation because it is fissionable in large quantities. All
control is through licensing.
The U.S. NRC does not control naturally occurring radioactive materials not connected with
the program. Among these are Radium226 and its decay series including Lead210. The
U.S. NRC does not have any regulatory authority over x-ray equipment.

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Agreement States
The states are gradually taking over the regulation of all radiation-emitting materials and
devices including naturally occurring radioactive materials and x-ray equipment. Under
legislation enacted several years ago, the U.S. NRC may pass control of radioactive
materials and sources of radiation to a state, providing the state legislation meets U.S. NRC
standards. The state governor must sign an agreement with the U.S. NRC after the State
Legislature has enacted proper legislation.

Figure 1: NRC regions and agreement states

III

II
IV

NRC regions and agreement states

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As of January 2001, 32 states have become Agreement States. These are:

Alabama

Iowa

Nebraska

Oklahoma

Arizona

Kansas

Nevada

Oregon

Arkansas

Kentucky

New Hampshire

Rhode Island

California

Louisiana

New Mexico

South Carolina

Colorado

Maine

New York

Tennessee

Florida

Maryland

North Carolina

Texas

Georgia

Massachusetts

North Dakota

Utah

Illinois

Mississippi

Ohio

Washington

Legislation either is pending or is being considered in Minnesota, Wisconsin, and

Pennsylvania.
In general, the legislation passed by the states has the same provisions as the U.S. NRC
regulations. However, there is one marked difference. In virtually all Agreement States, all
sources of ionizing radiation are regulated by the state. This means that naturally occurring
materials such as radium and x-ray equipment, not covered by U.S. NRC regulations, are
covered by state regulations.
U.S. NRC involvement is not required for Agreement States. All dealings are with the state
agency. You should address correspondence to the appropriate state to obtain license
application forms and instructions. Addresses for the states can be found on the Internet at
http://www.hsrd.ornl.gov/nrc/asframe.htm.
In addition to the control exercised by Agreement States, most states register radioactive
isotopes or sources of ionizing radiation. You may write the appropriate State Department of
Public Health to request details of the registration requirements.

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Licenses
A user must operate a nuclear gauge under a license from the U.S. NRC or Agreement State.
The license sets limits on what the user can do with the gauge. Licenses fall into two
categories: general and specific.

General license
The concept of a general license is often misunderstood. The requirements for General
Licensees are detailed in Part of 31.5 of the Code of Federal Regulations. This regulation has
the effect of issuing a license under certain conditions without any documentation.
This section establishes the criteria for who is allowed to distribute general license gauges,
and the criteria for those who use them.

A general license is issued to a manufactured item

The item must be designed to have minimal risk of exposure in normal operations

In an emergency situation the release of radioactive material is unlikely

The owner is permitted to do only what is stated on the license tag

Specific license
Most of you will have a document that is your specific license.

This type of license is issued to an individual

It applies to a particular quantity of radioactive material

Allows the licensee to do only what is stated on his license

It could be more restrictive than a General License

Ohmart general license gauges

Ohmart/VEGA operates under Ohio license No.032040-31-0036 to distribute approved
devices under the General Licensees defined in 10CFR31.5.
Gauges manufactured for distribution to a General Licensee must have a radiation field low
enough that personnel are not apt to receive a radiation dose in excess of 0.5rem/year. In
most installations, 5mR/hr at 12" from the surface of the gauge meets this requirement and is
the accepted criteria.

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The General Licensee must abide by the conditions of the General License. These conditions
are shown on a metal label attached to the gauge.

FOR A DETAILED EXPLANATION OF THIS LABEL READ OHMART INSTRUCTION

MANUAL SECTION RS.
RECEIPT, POSSESSION, USE AND TRANSFER OF THIS DEVICE ARE SUBJECT TO A
GENERAL LICENSE OR EQUIVALENT AND REGULATIONS OF THIS U.S. NRC OR AN
AGREEMENT STATE.
ABANDONMENT OR DISPOSAL PROHIBITED UNLESS TRANSFERRED TO PERSONS
SPECIFICALLY LICENSED BY THE NRC OR AN AGREEMENT STATE.
OPERATION PROHIBITED IF THERE IS INDICATION OF FAILURE OF OR DAMAGE TO
SHIELDING, OR SOURCE CONTAINMENT.
ANY PERSON MAY MOUNT THIS DEVICE IN PLACE INITIALLY, PROVIDED THE ON-OFF
MECHANISM IS LOCKED IN THE OFF POSITION. ALL OTHER DEVICE INSTALLATION,
DISMANTLING, RELOCATION, REPAIR AND TESTING INVOLVING THE RADIOACTIVE
MATERIAL, ITS SHIELDING AND CONTAINMENT SHALL BE PERFORMED BY PERSONS
SPECIFICALLY LICENSED BY THE NRC OR AN AGREEMENT STATE.
DEVICE SHALL BE TESTED FOR RADIOACTIVE LEAKAGE AND PROPER
FUNCTIONING OF ON-OFF MECHANISM AND INDICATOR AT INSTALLATION AND AT
SOURCE REPLACEMENT BY PERSONS SPECIFICALLY LICENSED BY THE NRC OR AN
AGREEMENT STATE. THEREAFTER, TESTING SHALL BE DONE AT NO LONGER THAN
3 YEAR INTERVALS, USING PROCEDURES STATED IN THE INSTRUCTION MANUAL.
LOSS, THEFT, OR TRANSFER OF THIS DEVICE AND FAILURE OF OR DAMAGE TO THE
SHIELDING, OR THE SOURCE CONTAINMENT, MUST BE REPORTED TO THE NRC OR
AN AGREEMENT STATE.
THIS LABEL SHALL BE MAINTAINED ON THIS DEVICE IN A LEGIBLE CONDITION,
REMOVAL OF THIS LABEL IS PROHIBITED
Figure 2: General license tag

This label may not be removed from the gauge and it must be kept clean and legible.

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Rules common to both general and specific licenses

The gauge cannot be abandoned, sold for scrap, or placed in the trash bin. If the gauge is no
longer needed, it can only be removed by a person or company specifically licensed by the
U.S. NRC or an Agreement State. It must be shipped to a person or company specifically
licensed by the U.S. NRC or an Agreement State to receive the gauge.
If there is any damage to the gauge or failure of the shutter mechanism, turn the shutter to
the OFF position (if possible) and telephone Customer Services at Ohmart (513-272-0131).
If the lock is missing, broken, or not locked, do not uncrate or mount the gauge in position.
Call Ohmart for advice.
Anyone may mount the gauge in position on the process pipe, do the electrical wiring, and
turn the electrical power switch ON as long as the source holder shutter is locked in the OFF
position. When mounting the gauge in position, take the necessary precautions to assure that
the source holder is not dropped or damaged.
Only a person specifically licensed by the U.S. NRC or an Agreement state is allowed to
remove the gauge from its mounting or to dismantle the gauge.
After these preliminary services are performed, a person specifically licensed by the U.S.
NRC or an Agreement State must do the start-up of the gauge. This involves:

Unlocking the shutter and turning it ON

Testing for proper operation of the shutter and shutter position indicator

Making the initial radiation field intensity survey

Performing initial testing for leakage of radioactive material

If the device is lost or stolen, the U.S. NRC or the Agreement State agency must be notified.
Ohmart should also be notified so that proper help can be provided.
If the gauge is involved in a fire or explosion, the area around the gauge should be
barricaded or roped off until a specifically licensed person can evaluate the situation.

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Radioactive material tag

All source holders are required

to have a tag similar to this.
This tag must be kept legible at
all times.

Additional labels may also be

required, such as the General
License label.

Figure 3: Radioactive material tag

The label may not be removed from the gauge and it must be kept clean and legible.

Specific license
A specific license is a document issued to an applicant, authorizing a particular use of a
gauge. The license outlines the type of device (or devices) the licensee may possess and the
limits within which the licensee may use such devices. It names a specific individual (or
individuals) as user and names a Radiation Safety Officer who may be the same as one of
the individual users. The Radiation Safety Officer is responsible for keeping records required
by the licensing authority.
Requirements and instructions for making application for a Specific License are contained in
Section 30.32 and 30.33. The most important requirement is 30.33 (a) that requires that the
applicant be qualified by training and experience to use the material for which the license is
requested. This training may be given by the Ohmart engineer at the time of installation
and/or start-up, or at a separately scheduled training school.
The Specific License does not grant any privileges that are not actually stated. However, it is
possible, after the required training, to have the Authorized User or Users, and/or Radiation
Safety Officer, granted the authority to perform leak tests or to supervise the installation,
relocation or removal of gauges. These privileges may be requested in the original
application, provided that training satisfactory to the U.S. NRC or Agreement State is
documented. The Ohmart 40 hour class meets that requirement.

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Key elements of a license

To whom is the license issued? This will be in Part 1 and 2 of a license. The license will be
issued to an individual, partnership, or corporation. The license number and expiration date
are in Part 3 and 4.
Defining the material. Typically, a license will list several different isotopes, listed by a letter
under each heading. Items 6,7,8 and 9 will describe the radioactive material, the physical
form, quantity allowed and will define usage of the material. Therefore, 6a, 7a, 8a, and 9a
would refer to one specifically defined item or items containing RAM. How this material is
defined is the major goal of the next chapter.
Assigns the Radiation Safety Officer. This is the key point of contact between the licensee
and the agency. Some of the responsibilities of the RSO are:

Provide overall coordination of the radiation safety program.

Serve as the licensees liaison officer with the licensing agency on license or inspection
matters.

Establish the Radiation Safety Program and conduct annual audits.

Control procurement and disposal of licensed material.

Establish and conduct the training program.

Examine and determine the competence of personnel.

Ensure that only individuals who are authorized by the license use the licensed materials.

Establish and maintain a personnel monitoring program if required.

Establish and maintain storage facilities for any sources not is service.

Establish and maintain the leak test program and supervise leak testing of sealed
sources.

Develop and maintain up to date operating and emergency procedures

Investigate the cause of incidents and determine necessary preventive action.

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Radiation protection program

According to the Code of Federal Regulations Part 20.1201 Subpart B each licensee shall
develop, document, and implement a radiation protection program. The program should
define training and procedures for all of the areas that would pertain to the licensed activities
and ensure compliance with the provisions and with the regulations.
The goal of the radiation safety program should be to implement ways through engineering
controls and procedures to keep occupational doses and doses to the general public as low
as reasonably achievable (ALARA).
The regulations also state that, the licensee shall at least annually review the radiation
protection program content and the implementation of it.

Items defined in a radiation safety program

Who is in charge

Who can use material

What they can do

Training specific to those duties

Emergency procedures

Operating procedures (leak tests, surveys, lockout, etc.)

The remainder of the license defines how the licensee will safely use the material. Other
items such as physical location, installation and removal of source holders, allowed
maintenance and authorized users. It is important to remember as we continue the class that
you get to decide what you want to define in your license. The type of license that Ohmart
has that allows for the manufacturing and distribution is the same type of license that you
have or will apply for.
We have just defined a radiation safety program as what we need. It is the goal of this class
to give you all of the background information that you will need to make the decision to apply
for or modify your license so that it is best for you and your company.

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Responsibilities of a Radiation Safety Officer

The Radiation Safety Officer (or Radiation Protection Officer) is normally an individual user,
supervisor, or other individual who maintains the license and has overall responsibility for the
radiation safety program. The named individuals duties and responsibilities should be
detailed along with his or her training experience. The RSO is expected to coordinate the
safe use of licensed materials and to ensure compliance with the requirements of state and
federal regulations.
The minimum duties of the RSO are considered to include the following:
1. Provide overall coordination of the radiation safety program
2. Serve as the licensees liaison officer with the licensing agency on license or inspection
matters
3. Control procurement and disposal of licensed material, maintain associated records, and
ensure that licensed materials that are possessed or used by the applicant are limited to
those specified in the license
4. Establish and conduct the training program
5. Examine and determine the competence of personnel
6. Ensure that the licensed materials are used only by those individuals who have
satisfactorily completed appropriate training programs and who are authorized by the
license
7. Establish and maintain a personnel monitoring program if required and ensure that all
users wear personnel monitoring equipment, such as film badges or thermoluninescent
dosimeters (TLD)
8. Establish and maintain storage facilities for any sources not in service
9. Ensure that licensed material is properly secured against unauthorized removal at all
times
10. Establish and maintain the leak test program and supervise leak testing of sealed
sources
11. Procure and maintain radiation survey instruments
12. Establish and maintain a survey instrument calibration program
13. Develop and maintain up to date operating and emergency procedures

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14. Ensure that the terms and conditions of the license are met and that required records,
such as personnel exposure records, leak test records, etc., are periodically reviewed for
compliance with NRC regulations and license conditions

15. Conduct inventories and maintain utilization logs

16. Review and ensure maintenance of those records kept by others
17. Establish and maintain the annual internal inspection program
18. Conduct radiation safety inspections of licensed activities periodically to ensure
compliance with the regulations and license conditions
19. Serve as a point of contact and give assistance in case of emergency, (for example, theft
of licensed materials, fire, etc.) and ensure that proper authorities (for example, NRC,
local police, and State personnel) are notified promptly in case of accident of other
incident that may involve the release of licensed material
20. Investigate the cause of incidents and determine necessary preventive action
21. Have the authority to ensure that management and personnel uphold the requirements of
the license
22. Establish a procedure for evaluating and report equipment defects and non-compliance
pursuant to 10 CFR Part 21.

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Review questions
1.

What type of RAM is regulated?

2.

What is byproduct material?

3.

Who controls NORM?

4.

Who is the regulating authority for your facility?

5.

What is a specific license?

6.

What is a general license?

7.

What are three of the responsibilities of an RSO?

8.

What is the goal of a Radiation Safety Program?

9.

How often should the Radiation Safety program be audited?

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Notes

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Chapter 2: Basic radiation theory

This section will introduce you to the concepts and terminology that are necessary to
understand radiation. It will not explore the "whys" of radiation theory, but it will cover all the
basic "whats." The terms introduced in the first section will be used throughout the course, so
you will have the opportunity to become familiar with them and use them comfortably.
We start with the most basic of all concepts: the atom, the building block of matter.

Nuclear physics
The atom
The atom is the smallest unit of an element that retains the identity of that element. If you
broke apart a chunk of gold, even the smallest piece would still be gold. However, if you
broke apart one atom of gold, you would no longer have gold, you would only have subatomic particles.
Atoms are very small1,000,000 atoms in a row would just about equal the thickness of this
piece of paper. It is impossible to see an atom, but in 1911, a scientist named Rutherford
introduced a model by which we can visualize a picture of the atom.
An atom may be thought of as a solar system. The sun would represent the nucleus, made
up of protons and neutrons, while the planets would represent orbiting electrons.

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Protons and neutrons have the same weight, which is defined as an atomic mass unit (AMU).
Three protons would weigh three AMU. Electrons are very small, weighing about 0.00054
AMU.

A proton has an
electrical charge of
+1, and an
electron has an
electrical charge of
1. Neutrons are
electrically neutral.
The nucleus
contains all the
positive charge
and over 99% of
the mass of the
atom. The electron
cloud contains the
negative charge
and very little
mass.

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Figure 4 illustrates the most important characteristics of the sub-atomic particles.

Symbol
Mass
Charge
Location

Proton

Neutron

p
1 AMU
+1

n
1 AMU
0

Nucleus

Nucleus

Electron
e
.00054 AMU
-1
Electron
cloud

Figure 4: sub-atomic particle characteristics

Now, imagine what the result would be if we packed a proton and an electron so tightly
together that they behaved as one particle. The electric charge would be zero, since 1+1 =
0. The mass would be 1AMU + 0.00054AMU = 1.00054AMU, which is approximately 1AMU.
The result would be like a neutron! That is one way to think of a neutrona tightly packed
proton and electron acting as a single particle. This idea will be important later.

Electron

+
Proton

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Nucleus
The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is called the atomic number, symbolized by
the letter Z. The atomic number determines the chemical properties of an element. For
example, all forms of the element hydrogen have an atomic number of 1. All forms of helium
have two protons, or an atomic number of 2.
In an electrically neutral (non-ionized) atom, the number of electrons in the outer electron
cloud is exactly equal to the number of protons in the nucleus. This way, the negative charge
of the electrons "cancels out" the positive charge of the protons.
The atomic mass (A) of an atom is the sum of the number of the protons in the nucleus and
the number of neutrons in the nucleus.

Atomic Number

1
Hydrogen

55

12
Carbon

Cs

133
Cesium

Atomic Mass
Figure 5: Atomic numbers and mass

Atomic NumberZNumber of protons in nucleus.

Atomic MassANumber of protons plus number of neutrons.

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Stable and unstable elements

The addition of neutrons to the nucleus forms isotopes of the same element. Some of these
are unstable and are considered radioactive.
Table 1: Examples of stable and unstable elements

Stable

Unstable

Hydrogen 1

Hydrogen 3

Carbon 12

Carbon 14

Cesium 133

Cesium 137

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Isotopes
Isotopes are different forms of an element that have the same number of protons but a
different number of neutrons. They all have the same atomic number, but they have different
atomic masses.
For example, the element hydrogen has three known isotopes.

Hydrogen

Deuterium

Tritium

Figure 6: Hydrogen isotopes

To the chemist, these are all the same substances, since all isotopes of a particular element
have the same atomic number, and, as stated above, it is the atomic number that determines
the chemical properties of an element.
To the nuclear physicist ,however, these are different substances. Some of the isotopes may
be stable and not radioactive, but others may be unstable and therefore radioactive.
More than 500 radioactive isotopes (radioisotopes) have been discovered to date, at least
one for every known element.

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Double encapsulation
There are several steps involved in the double encapsulation process. As shown in the
diagram below the ceramic micro spheres are first enclosed in the inner capsule sealed by
the inner plug. From there, it goes into the outer capsule and is then sealed by the outer plug.
After these steps are completed the capsule is complete.

Double Encapsulation Source Assembly

INNER CAPSULE

INNER
PLUG

CERAMIC
MICROSPHERES
OUTER
CAPSULE
OUTER
PLUG
FINISHED
CAPSULE

Figure 7: Double encapsulation

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Radiation vs. radioactivity

Radioactivity
Radioactivity is the spontaneous disintegration of radioactive nuclei which results in the
emission of nuclear radiation." This sentence packs a lot of meaning into a short space. Let
us look at each main idea individually.

Spontaneous
Spontaneous emits radiation by itself, naturally, with no artificial assistance from man.

Disintegration
The nucleus breaks down and ejects particles and energy.

Radioactive nuclei
Only certain nuclei are radioactive, others are stable and remain intact indefinitely.
The type of radiation emitted is characteristic of the given radioactive nuclide (radionuclide).
Radiation may be in the form of a high-speed particle or in the form of electromagnetic
radiation similar to light. The type of radiation we are concerned with in this course is called
ionizing radiation. Ionization will be discussed at the end of Chapter 2.

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Types of radiation

Beta
Alpha

Gamma
Neutron

Figure 8: Types of radiation

Alpha
An alpha particle is a particle made up of two protons and two neutrons that is expelled at a
high velocity from the nucleus of certain radionuclides. Having an electrical charge of +2 and
a mass of 4AMU, an alpha particle is identical to a helium nucleus.
When an alpha particle is expelled, the atomic number decreases by two and the atomic
mass decreases by 4AMU.

Beta
A beta particle is an electron that is expelled from the nucleus. Note that this is not one of the
orbital electrons! It is an electron that was expelled from a neutron in the nucleus.
When a beta particle is expelled, the neutron it came from becomes a proton. Therefore, the
atomic number increases by one and the atomic mass remains the same.
This particle has a mass of 0.00054 AMU and generally has an electrical charge of 1.

Neutron
Neutrons are emitted from several natural radionuclides, as well as, from induced nuclear
reactions. They have no electrical charge and a mass of 1 AMU.

Gamma
Gamma and X-rays are both electromagnetic radiation, as are light, radio waves, and several
other types of radiation. Although electromagnetic radiation is non-particulate, it may be
described as a pseudo-particle called a photon.
The electromagnetic photons have no mass and no electrical charge.

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Properties of radiation
Decay scheme
Usually, an atom gives off radiation by emitting a particle. Each radionuclide emits a specific
type of particle; for instance, Uranium-238 (U-238) is an alpha emitter. An atom of U-238 that
emits an alpha particle is changed into Th-234, a beta emitter. The decays of U-238 (to the
stable atom lead-206) are shown in the next table. Every radionuclide is a member of such a
decay scheme.

Unstable Atom

Gamma
Radiation

Stable Atom

Figure 9: Example of decay scheme

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Decay of Uranium
Table 2: Decay of radioactive materials
Element and Atomic

Half Life

Type of Radiation emitted

Mass
Uranium238

Thorium234

Protactinium234

Uranium234

Thorium230

Radium 226

Radon222

4,500,000,000 years

24.1 days

6.75 hours

250,000 years

80,000 years

1602 years

3.8 days

Alpha

Beta

Beta

Alpha

Alpha

Alpha

Alpha

(gas)
Polonium218

3 minutes

Alpha

(solid)
Lead214

Bismuth214

Polonium214

Lead210

Bismuth210

Polonium210

26 minutes

19 minutes

.0001 second

19 years

5 days

138 days

Lead206

Beta

Beta

Alpha

Beta

Beta

Alpha

Stable

Number of

Number of

Protons

Neutrons

92

146

90

144

+1

91

143

+1

92

142

90

140

88

138

-2

-2

86

136

84

134

82

132

+1

83

131

+1

84

130

82

128

+1

83

127

+1

84

126

82

124

Decay of Uranium* Number of protons = Atomic number

No mass of a material is a pure alpha emitter or a pure beta emitter. This is because some of
the atoms of the original element are changed into atoms of different elements. The
radioactive source soon becomes a mixture of the original, pure material and its daughter
products (nuclides lower in the decay scheme).

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Following an alpha or beta event, the product nucleus may be left in an excited state. It
releases this excess energy by emitting a gamma ray. So, gamma radiation is emitted
naturally and spontaneously.

Radioactive decay and half-life

A mass of radioactive material contains a certain amount of energy that it will give up in the
form of radiation. As radiation is emitted, both the energy remaining, and the rate at which
this energy is given off decrease exponentially. The term half-life refers to the length of time
that it takes for 50% of this residual energy to be given off. Correspondingly, the rate at which
radiation is given off decreases to 50% in one half-life. The rate that the energy is given off is
called the activity.

A
C
T
I
V
I
T
Y
TIME
Figure 10: Activity vs. time curve

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Following are the half-lives of some of the radioactive isotopes used in nuclear gauging
(taken from AEA catalog):
Table 3: Example of nuclear gauging radioactive isotopes half-lives

Elements and Atomic Mass

Half-life

Iron55

2.7 years

Cobalt60

5.3 years

Krypton85

10.7 years

Strontium90

28.6 years

Cesium137

30.2 years

Americium241

433 years

Because radionuclides decay spontaneously, it cannot be predicted when a single atom will
decay. But in a quantity of a radionuclide, about half the atoms will decay within one half-life.
Over the course of another half-life, half of the remaining atoms will decay, leaving only of
the original atoms, and so on.
The half-life is characteristic of each nuclide and ranges from a fraction of a second to many
thousands of years.

Energy level of a particle or a photon

The energy with which a particle or a photon is expelled from the nucleus is characteristic of
each nuclide. These energies are measured in units of keV (thousand electrons volts) and
MeV (million electron volts).

Beta shield
The various types of radiation can be distinguished by observing their penetrating ability. A
practical application of this fact is the beta shield. This is part of many radiation survey
instruments.
A beta shield is a piece of metal or plastic that can be used to cover up the detector of a
radiation survey instrument. When the beta shield is in place, only high-energy gamma
radiation can penetrate the shield to reach the detector. This allows for a reading of only
gamma radiation. When the shield is removed, the detector receives both gamma and beta.
The beta level can be determined by subtracting the strictly gamma reading and the gamma
and beta reading.

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Penetrating ability of radiation

Each type of radiation has the ability to penetrate certain materials. The depth to which it can
penetrate depends on what type of radiation it is, how much energy it has, and what type of
material it tries to penetrate.

Neutron Alpha Beta Electromagnetic

high

low

Skin
Aluminum

Steel

Figure 11: Penetrating ability of radiation

Alpha radiation cannot penetrate the skin.

Beta radiation can penetrate about inch of aluminum.

Neutron radiation can penetrate many inches of steel. Neutrons tend to "scatter" within
materials.

Electromagnetic radiation can also penetrate steel, depending on the energy of the
radiation.

The penetrating ability of a given type of radiation is related to the energy level. For example,
gamma at 2MeV is more penetrating than gamma at 1.9MeV.
When comparing different types of radiation, however, there is no such direct relationship.
Gamma at 2MeV is far more penetrating than alpha at 2MeV.

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Brehmsstrahlung X-ray
As charged particles, such as beta radiation, pass through matter and are slowed down, they
give off photons of radiation (x-rays). The higher the energy of the particles and the denser
the material the more Brehmsstrahlung x-rays are produced.

Brehmsstrahlung
X-Ray

Beta Radiation

Beta Source
Lead

Aluminum

Figure 12: Brehmsstrahlung x-ray production

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Decay of isotopes used in gauging

What is happening to the material inside the source capsule of a gauge? Like Uranium,
discussed earlier, it is decaying, giving off radiation, and transforming into other elements,
called daughter products.
Cesium-137 is used as a gamma source. An atom of Cesium initially emits a beta, at either
1.17 or 0.54 MeV, becoming Ba-137. If it emits the beta at 1.17 MeV, the Ba-137 nucleus is
stable. However, if it emits the beta at 0.54 MeV, the nucleus is left in an excited state, and it
emits a 0.66 MeV gamma ray.

Cs 137
55

(93.5%)

30.2 years
(half life)

*
Ba 137
56

(6.5%)

[0.662 MeV]

Ground state
Figure 13: Decay of Cesium-137

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Cobalt-60 emits a higher energy gamma than Cesium-137, so its gamma has a greater
penetrating ability. It initially goes through a beta decay and transforms into Ni-60, which, left
in an excited state, emits one gamma at 1.17 MeV and then another at 1.33 MeV.

Co
5.3 years
(half life)

Ni 60 *
28

(1.173 MeV)

Ni 60 *
28

(1.332 MeV)

Ni 60
28

Figure 14: Decay of Cobalt-60

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Strontium-90 is a commonly used beta source. As it decays into Zr-90, it first emits beta
particles at two energies, 0.54 MeV and 2.27 MeV. This is because Yritrium-90 decays with a
2.27 MeV beta particle. Sr-90/Yr-90 do not emit gamma following their beta decays.
Sr

90
38

28.6 yr
(half life)

(0.54 MeV)

90
39

64 hr
(half life)

(2.27 MeV)

Zr 90
40

Stable

Figure 15: Decay of Strontium-90

Krypton-85 is used as a beta source. In its most common form, it emits a beta at 0.67 MeV. It
also emits a small about (0.41%) of gamma at 0.514 MeV.

Kr 85
36

10.7 yrs
(half life)

B - [0.67 MeV ]

Rb

85
37

Stable

Figure 16: Decay of Krypton-85

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X-rays
Like gamma radiation, x-rays are electromagnetic. However, x-rays are man made and are
produced by excited orbital electrons releasing energy. Recall that gamma radiation is
produced by an excited nucleus. Bombarding a metallic target with high-energy electrons,
which excite the orbital electrons in the metal, produces X-rays. To release this excess
energy, the orbital electrons release electromagnetic radiation in the form of x-rays.
Because x-rays are produced in this way, simply flipping a switch can turn off an x-ray
source. There is no danger of exposure from an x-ray machine that is turned off, unlike a
source using radioisotopes, which can only be shielded, never "turned off."

Electromagnetic waves
Wavelengths are measured from crest to crest. They can vary in distance from long (miles in
length) to very short (millions of an inch). The shorter the wavelength the higher the energy
level of the photons.

Radio waves
Microwaves
Infared light
Visible light
Ultraviolet light
Gamma / X- ray

Figure 17: Electromagnetic wavelengths

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Electromagnetic spectrum
Different wavelengths of energy fit into different categories. As the wavelength gets smaller,
energy is increased. High energy can be ionizing radiation.

Ionization
What, then, does radiation do to materials? The type of radiation we are concerned with is
called ionizing radiation because it can ionize atoms and molecules. Recall that atoms are
electrically neutral because the number of electrons in the electron cloud equals the number
of protons in the nucleus.

10-10

Nonionizing Ionizing
Photon Energy eV
10-5
100
105

1010

Ultraviolet
Electric
Waves

Radio Waves

Infrared
Visible

105

100
10-5
Wavelength cm

Gamma
Rays

Cosmic
Rays

X Rays

10-10

10-15

Figure 18: Ionization

When an ionizing radiation particle (or photon) strikes an electron, it "knocks" the electron
away from the atom. The electron can be moved far enough away from the atom that it
cannot rejoin. The atom then has a net positive charge, and it is called an ion.

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Becoming radioactive
Will a material that has been exposed to ionizing radiation become radioactive? NO! Just
because a material has been exposed to radiation does not mean it will become radioactive.
For a material that is naturally non-radioactive to become radioactive, it must absorb an extra
neutron into its nucleus. This is extremely difficult to accomplish. One of the only ways to add
a neutron to a nucleus is to place the material in an atomic reactor and hope a few atoms
absorb some of the millions of neutrons being produced in the fission reactions.
Therefore, simple exposure to radiation will not make anything radioactive, although the
exposure may have some effect on the material.

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Review questions
1.

What is the smallest unit of an element that retains the identity of that element?

2.

What are the three basic subatomic particles? Which one is a combination of the
other two? Explain.

3.

What are isotopes?

4.

Cesium-137 is often used in nuclear gauging. What does the number 137 mean?

5.

What is the difference between gamma and x radiation?

6.

Which type of radiation is made of two protons and two neutrons like a helium
nucleus?

7.

If you have 1000 atoms of a radionuclide, how many of the original atoms will you
have left after one half-life? How many after two half-lives?

8.

What is the half-life of Cs-137?

9.

Which is more penetrating: Alpha at 1 MeV, or gamma at 1 MeV?

10.

Can ionizing radiation such as gamma cause anything to become radioactive?

11.

Explain ionization.

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Chapter 3: Measurement and

monitoring
You have learned the basics of radiation theory. Chapter 3 focuses on more concrete aspects
of radiation. It will introduce the three related qualities that are important for radiation
monitoring: exposure, absorbed dose, and biological dose equivalent. It will also describe
various monitoring techniques.

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Radiation units
Thinking back on what you have learned, you know that not all radiation is the same.
Radiation can be particulate (made of particles like alpha, beta, neutron) or non-particulate
(like gamma and x-ray). Each type of radiation can have different energies. A beta with high
energy may be just as penetrating as gamma with low energy.
We would like to be able to describe all of these types of radiation with one unit to make our
lives a bit easier. However, they seem so different; how can we do this?
These types of radiation have one thing in common: the ability to ionize. When ionizing
radiation passes through matter, it interacts with the atoms and molecules in the medium it
traverses, producing ions and free electrons. (See Chapter 2.)

Exposureroentgen
We can use the property of ionization to compare different types of radiation. For instance, a
unit called the roentgen is used to compare gamma and x-rays at different energies.
1roentgen (R) = that amount of x or gamma radiation that would produce one electrostatic
unit of charge in one cubic centimeter in dry air.
The roentgen, which is the unit of exposure, describes neither the number of photons in the
beam, nor their energy; it merely gives the effect of that radiation on one cubic centimeter in
air at standard temperature and pressure.
(A unit of exposure is not defined for particulate radiation.)
There is not an equivalent unit it the international measurement system (SI) but it can be
expressed as coulombs per kilogram (C/kg) of air.
1 C/kg = 3876 R
Most meters are still calibrated in mR/hr so even though it is not defined in the regulations it
is still the common term for measurement a radiation field in air.

Absorbed doseRad or Gray

The roentgen applies only to x and gamma radiation in air. Ionization can be caused by other
types of radiation, such as alpha, beta, neutron, etc. For this reason it was considered
necessary to introduce a unit which would depend only upon the amount of energy absorbed
per unit mass of material. This unit is called the rad.

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Rad
Rad is a measure of the amount of energy imparted to matter by ionizing radiation per unit
mass of irradiated material. One rad is equal to 100ergs/gram.
An erg is a unit of energy in the SI system.
Some materials absorb radiation more easily than others do. If two materials are exposed to
the same source, they may absorb different amounts of radiation (absorbed dose measured
in rads).
It has been found that 1 roentgen of x or gamma radiation results in the absorption of
98ergs/gram in soft tissue. Since one rad is equal to 100ergs/gram, an exposure to
1roentgen of x or gamma radiation will result in an absorbed dose of approximately 1rad.
Thus, for gamma and x-rays, 1R = 1rad.

Gray
For standard international units the units for absorbed dose is the gray.
1rad= 100ergs/gram or 0.01joule/kilogram
1gray = 1joule/kilogram
100rad = 1gray

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Quality factor
The quality factor is a function of "linear energy transfer" (LET), the amount of energy
absorbed per unit path length. The quality factor is specifically applicable to biological tissues,
and cannot be used for other materials. The quality factor is similar to another commonly
used weighting factor, the Relative Biological Effectiveness (RBE).

ENERGY

For example, an alpha particle will dissipate its entire energy within one centimeter along its
path in the body. A gamma photon, on the other hand, may dissipate only 5% of its energy in
passing through the entire body.

DISTANCE

Figure 19: Quality factor

Different types of radiation have different values for QF, as shown below.
Table 4: Example of quality factor values

42

Radiation

Isotope

Energy (MeV)

QF

Gamma

Co-60
Cs-137
Am-241

1.17, 1.33
0.66
0.66

1
1
1

Beta

Sr-90
Kr-85

2.27, 0.55
0.67

1
1

Fast Neutrons

Am/Be
Cf-252

48
2

10
10

Thermal Neutron (through shield)

Am/Be
Cf-252

broad spectrum
broad spectrum

5
5

Alpha

Ra-226

4.79

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Biological dose equivalentrem or seivert

The roentgen and the rad are based upon a "quantity of energy" rather than the biological
damage caused by the dose. For this reason, the rem, which defines the amount of biological
damage in man, was introduced. The word rem is an acronym for "Roentgen Equivalent
Man."

Rem
Rem is a measure of the dose to body tissue in terms of its estimated biological effect relative
to a dose of one rad times the quality factor.
rem = rad QF where QF is the quality factor.
Thus, exposure of a person to one rad of gamma energy equals the biological dose
equivalent of one rem.

Sievert
For standard international units the Biological Dose Equivalent is the sievert that is defined
as:
Sievert = Gray Quality Factor
Therefore 100rem = 1sievert
1millirem = 10micro sieverts

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ActivityCurie or Becquerel
The curie (Ci) is a unit of measure of source activity. It is the quantity of a nuclide, and is
related to the number of disintegrations per second of the source. The activity is not related to
the mass of the source. The curie is defined as follows:
Curie is the quantity of radioactive material that decays at the rate of 37billion (3.71010)
disintegrations per second.
The table below shows the pure radioisotope quantity of various nuclides required to equal
one Curie.
Table 5: Examples of pure radioisotope quantities that equal one Curie

Isotope

Half-life

Quantity

Argon41

109 minutes

0.02g

Gold198

2.7 days

4.1g

Iron55

2.7 years

444g

Cobalt60

5.3 years

880g

Krypton85

10.7 years

2.5mg

Strontium90

28.6 years

6.3mg

Cesium137

30.2 years

11.5mg

Radium226

1,620 years

1g

Uranium238

4,500,000,000 years

2884kg

Thorium232

14,000,000,000 years

9,072kg

g=microgram, mg=milligram, kg=kilogram

The SI unit is the Becquerel (Bq) and is equal to one disintegration per second.
Therefore one Curie is 37109 Becquerel or 37GBq.

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Radiation field intensity compared with dose rate

The radiation field intensity is a measure of the rate of exposure to a source, expressed in
roentgen per hour. The radiation field intensity is strongest close to the source. It decreases
rapidly as the distance from the source increases. (This will be discussed in detail in Chapter
4.)
Human exposure is measured in total dose, which is the sum of internal and external
exposure. For example, exposure to electromagnetic radiation of 1R/hr results in an
absorbed dose rate of 1rad/hr, which is equivalent to 1rem/hr.
A person exposed for one hour would receive 1rem dose. If the exposure lasts for six
minutes, the total dose would be 0.1rem or 100millirem.

Normal range of exposures

Most exposures are very small and are measured in millirem or microsieverts per hour. Since
exposure times are usually very short, the total dose is extremely small.

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Monitoring techniques
Radiation interacts with the atoms and molecules of the medium it transverses. Radiation
produces ionization in gas media, development of photographic emulsions, scintillation in
certain phosphors and decomposition in certain chemicals. These properties have been
utilized in the detection and measurement of radiation since ionizing radiation is not
detectable by ordinary human senses.

Gaseous ionization detectors

There are three types of gaseous ionization detectors:
1. Ionization chambers
2. Proportional detectors
3. Geiger-Mueller detectors

Gas

Anode

Detector
Output

Bias
Voltage
Cathode

Figure 20: Gaseous ionization detectors

These detectors all work on the same principle. A hollow tube is filled with gas. An electrode
runs down the center of the tube; the tube wall acts as the other electrode. An electrical
potential is placed across the electrodes, giving the wall of the tube a negative charge and
the center electrode a positive charge. This electrical potential difference between the two
electrodes is called a "bias voltage. The bias voltage determines which type of gaseous
ionization detector you have. (This will be discussed in a few paragraphs.)

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When the tube is exposed to ionizing radiation, some of the gas atoms ionize, producing ions
and free electrons. The electrons are attracted to the positive electrode and drift toward it.
When they collect on the electrode, they follow the electrode out of the gas chamber. The
motion of the electrons is an electrical current that is measured as the detector output.
The current measured at the detector output is used to determine information about the
radiation.
The bias voltage can be set at any value. If a gaseous ionization detector started out with a
zero bias and the bias was gradually increased, the behavior of the detector would change.
The detector would move through five distinct regions, as illustrated below. Regions II, III,
and IV are useful for detecting radiation.
Figure 21: Detector regions

Region IThe applied voltage is so low that the primarily ionized particles recombine before
they can be collected. This region is not useful for counting.
Region IIThe applied voltage is just sufficient to collect all the primary ionized particles.
The detector output is an analog current proportional to the number of ion pairs formed in the
gas (radiation field intensity.)
The detector that operates in Region II is the ionization chamber. Ionization chambers, which
can operate over a wide range of radiation intensities, are used in most density, level, and
belt scale measurements.
Region IIIThere is a partial discharge of gas in the tube in the vicinity of the primary
ionizations. Therefore, the detector output is a series of pulses whose height is proportional
to the radiation energy and whose frequency is proportional to the radiation field intensity.
The detector that operates in Region III is the proportional counter. Proportional counters
have a high counting rate capability, and are able to distinguish between radiations of
different energy levels.

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Region IVThe detector output is a series of pulses whose height is constant (independent
of radiation energy) and whose frequency is proportional to the radiation field intensity.
The detector that operates in Region IV is the Geiger Mueller (GM) detector. GM tubes
cannot be used for very high count rates because of saturation and they cannot differentiate
between the types of radiation.
Region VAt higher voltages, the tube will continually discharge. This region is of no
practical use.

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Scintillation counters
Certain materials have the ability to emit a flash of visible light when they are struck by
radiation. Scintillation counters use this property to detect radiation.
In a scintillation counter, these faint flashes of light are converted into electrical energy and
"amplified" in a device known as a "photomultiplier tube" to produce a detectable electrical
pulse.
Scintillation counters are extremely sensitive to alpha, beta and gamma and thus are limited
to radiation fields of 10mR/hr or less. They can be used to determine the energy distribution
of incident radiation.
Its extreme sensitivity makes the scintillation counter ideal for use in analysis, where minute
amounts of radioactive contamination must be detected.
Most Ohmart detectors sold today use scintillation technology.

Electronics
Electrical
Signals
PMT

Scintillator
Gamma
Radiation

Light
Figure 22: Ohmart detector overview

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Nuclear gauging
Theory
The ability of radiation to penetrate materials and to be easily detected makes it ideal for noncontact measurement of materials. Some typical measurements are density, level, loading on
a conveyor belt, and thickness or basis weight of a sheet.
If a beam of radiation is directed at a material, some of the radiation will be absorbed
(attenuated) by the material and some of the radiation will be transmitted through. This
transmitted radiation can be measured using a detector that creates an electrical output
signal.
The output signal is proportional to the amount of radiation reaching the detector. As the
transmitted radiation decreases, the output signal decreases. Similarly, as the transmitted
radiation increases, the output signal increases.
When the gauge is calibrated, the output signal is related to the desired process variable,
e.g., density. The gauge display shows the variable in terms of the chosen process units,
e.g., SpG.
The following figure shows a typical setup for a density gauge.

Figure 23: Typical density gauge setup

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Radiation transmission equation

As stated, the output signal changes with the amount of radiation that reaches the detector.
The amount of radiation that reaches the detector depends on several factors:
1. Total mass of all material between source and detector attenuates the radiation
2. Radiation field intensity at the detector with no process material
3. Physical configuration of the system.
Factor 1total mass of all material between source and detector is the only factor that
changes as the process runs.
Factor 2stays the same except for slight changes due to source decay or material buildup
on vessel walls.
Factor 3stays the same if no changes are made to the process line, source and detector.
These factors are related by the radiation transmission equation:
R=R0 e-km
where
R=radiation field intensity at the detector, after passing through the process material.
R0=radiation field intensity at the detector with no process material between the source and
detector
e=the exponential, 2.718
k=constant dependent on system
m=total mass between the source and detector
The output signal current, I, is directly proportional to the amount of radiation that reaches the
detector. So, as R increases, I increases proportionally. This means that the radiation
transmission equation is equivalent to saying:
I=I0 e-km
where
I=the output signal current for the measurement
I0=the output signal current with no process material between source and detector

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Density measurement
To determine the density of a process material, the measurement is usually done in a pipe or
vessel whose size does not change, and therefore the volume of material in the pipe between
the source and detector does not change. So, any change in the mass between the source
and detector must be due to a change in density of the fluid; the more dense, the more mass
of the material can fit into a given volume, the less dense, the less mass is in the same
volume.
If the liquid is very dense, more radiation is absorbed by the material, and less reaches the
detector. The output signal, I, will then be LOW to indicate HIGH density. If a very light liquid
is passing through the pipe, less radiation is absorbed by the material, and more reaches the
detector. The output signal will then be HIGH to indicate LOW density.
The following figure shows how detector output changes with the process material density.
Point A represents the light liquid and point B represents the heavy liquid.

10

A
8

6
4
2
0
1

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

Known Density (SpG)

Figure 24: Example of detector output changes with process density

In most cases, the operator is not interested in the basic transmission curve. He wants to
know the density of the process. The electronics of an Ohmart gauge convert the basic
transmission curve to show any variable the user orders. It may show SpG, percent solids, or
any other unit.

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Web (sheet) measurement

Radiation transmission
A radiation source directs a beam of radiation with intensity R0 through a web, where some of
the radiation is absorbed. The intensity of the radiation that reaches the detector is R. For
beta radiation, the radiation intensities are approximated by the equation
Equation 1

R=R0 e-kM

where M is the mass of material in the area that the radiation beam penetrates on the web
(area A).

Detector

Source
Figure 25: Web detector overview

Weight per area

A thickness scanning system inherently measures mass per area, M/A. (This is commonly
referred to as weight per area, or basis weight.)
Many industries, such as the paper industry, are interested in a weight per area
measurement.

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Thickness
Some industries are interested in the thickness of the web.
If the material is homogeneous (like plastic, not paper), and the specific gravity (SpG) of the
material is known, then the average thickness, T, of the web in area A can be calculated. This
calculation is done by the system and the operator sees the measurement in units of
thickness.
Equation 2

SPG = Dm / Dw

where
Dm =density of material
Dw =density of water
Equation 3

V = AT whereV =volume of material the web passes through

The density of the web is given by:

Equation 4

Dm = M/V

Equation 5

Dm = M/AT

Equation 6

TDm = M/A

Dividing both sides by Dw,

Equation 7

T (Dm/Dw) = (M/A) (1/Dw)

Equation 8

T (SPG) = (M/A) (1/Dw)

Solving for T:
Equation 9

T = (M/A) (Dw SPG) 1

Because Dw and SPG are known constants, a change in the measured mass per area, M/A,
will indicate a change in thickness, T, of the web.
Equation 10

dT = d(M/A) (Dw SPG) 1

Equation 10 is practical to use to measure in "the real world" because the SPG of many
materials (notably plastics) is known and remains constant throughout the process.

Specific Gravity
The SpG of the web could theoretically also be inferred from measuring M/A, if the thickness
is known and constant.
Solving equation 8 for SPG:
Equation 11

54

SPG = (M/A) (Dw T)1

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With a constant thickness, a change in the measured mass per area will indicate a change in
the SPG of the web.
Equation 12

dSPG = d(M/A) (Dw T)-1

However, equation 12 is not a practical measurement in the real world for most materials,
because the thickness varies too much in the process to be considered a constant.
To make measuring the SpG of a web practical in the "real world," it becomes necessary to
measure d(M/A) and dT simultaneously. A caliper gauge to measure dT used in conjunction
with a beta gauge to measure d(M/A) at the same place on the web would satisfy this
requirement.
Thus, a practical measurement would be:
Equation 13

dSPG = d(M/A) d(T-1) (Dw-1)

Operation of a nuclear gauge

All nuclear gauges are calibrated to a specific range of values. In the density example,
assume that the light liquid is the least dense that will pass through the pipe, and the heavy
liquid is the most dense that will pass through the pipe.
The light and heavy samples are sent to a lab. The lab determines that their SpGs are 1.0
and 1.2.
The lower edge of the range, point A, is where radiation and detector output are a maximum.
As the process variable (density) increases, the detector output will decrease until point B,
the upper edge of the range, is reached. At this point, radiation at the detector and the
detector output are minimum.
To calibrate the gauge, the electronics are programmed to know that the maximum detector
output value corresponds to 1.0SPG, and the minimum detector output value corresponds to
1.2SpG. Thus, we have calibrated the gauge to the range of values between A and B on the
transmission curve, corresponding to a range of 1.0 to 1.2SpG.
A similar procedure is used to calibrate a web gauge, using a micrometer or a sensitive scale
to correlate the gauge readings to the desired process variable.

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Standardization
Remember that most nuclear gauges respond to the total mass of everything between the
source and detector. Insulation on pipes, vessel wall thickness, internal components within a
vessel, build-up on the beta source window, source decay etc., all tend to affect the radiation
reaching the detector, R0. If these extraneous factors are constant and predictable, then they
present no problem. If, on the other hand, any of these extraneous factors change and are
not compensated for, then the measurements will be in error by the amount of this uncompensated change.
For example, if thick buildup is allowed to accumulate inside a pipe that has a density gauge
mounted on it, the measured density will change. The thick buildup will absorb extra
radiation, and less will reach the detector, causing a false reading of high density.
To compensate for this, the gauges must be periodically "standardized" so that the gauge
reads correctly. Automated gauging systems can perform standardizations automatically, but
most other gauges must be manually standardized.

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Survey meters
Choosing a meter
Following is a sample of various survey meters. Hundreds are available, and the particular
meter you choose depends on your particular need. The survey meters described here
represent a wide range of styles.

Figure 26: Example of a survey meter

To determine which survey meter you need, you must know what type of source you have,
the accuracy required of your measurement, how the meter will be used, the operating range
of the meter, etc.
If you are shopping for a meter, Ohmart can advise you which ones to consider. Ohmart also
keeps models in stock that are sold as optional equipment with Ohmart gauges.

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Operating a meter

Before using a survey meter, check the following:

Battery voltage meets minimum specifications

Meter calibration is current

Meter is operable

Appropriate meter has been chosen for type and range of radiation

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Personnel dosimetry
Personnel dosimeters are devices worn or carried by the worker to measure the radiation
exposure to which the individual is subjected. In general, such devices should have the
following properties:

Small, lightweight, convenient to use

Accurate

Ability to provide reproducible results

Convenient to read and interpret results

Rugged

Useful to provide a legal record

Figure 27: Examples of dosimeters

Pocket dosimeter
When an instantaneous indication of radiation exposure is needed, a pocket dosimeter is
used. The most popular type of pocket dosimeter is a quartz fiber, air-filled electroscope. It
consists of

An ionization chamber, sensitive to a desired radiation

A quartz fiber electrometer, to measure the charge

A capacitor, which is highly insulated to share the charge with the electrometer

A microscope, to read the fiber image from a scale.

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The electrometer contains two electrodes, one of which is a moveable quartz fiber. When the
capacitor is charged to a predetermined voltage, the electrodes assume a calibrated
separation.
As the dosimeter is exposed to radiation, ionization occurs in the surrounding chamber,
decreasing the charge on the electrodes in proportion to the exposure. This causes the
moveable quartz fiber electrode to change its position. By holding the dosimeter up to a light
and looking through the dosimeter's microscope, one can see how far the fiber electrometer
moved.
The pocket dosimeter can be recharged with a special instrument and used again.

Film badge
GARDRAY

Figure 28: Example of a film badge

The film badge is the primary permanent record of radiation exposure, and should be worn
outside of clothing between the neck and waist. Film badges have been the legally accepted
indicator of dose received by radiation workers for many years. The film can be varied greatly
to give a wide range of responses to different types of radiation.
In most cases, the film consists of a silver bromide emulsion, which is similar to the type used
in camera film. Ionizing radiation striking the film results in the reduction of the silver ions to
neutral silver. The film is sent to a lab to be developed. The darkness of the developed film is
proportional to the amount of ionizing radiation to which it was exposed.
Film badges can be made to detect alpha, beta, gamma, x-ray, and neutron radiation. The
type of film badge you use will depend on the type of radiation to which you are likely to be
exposed.
Table 6: Advantages and disadvantages of film badges

Advantages of Film

Disadvantages of Film

Wide range response (10mrem500rem)

Slow Processing

Inexpensive

Variable accuracy (15%50%)

Provides permanent record

Energy dependent
Temperature dependent

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Thermoluminescent dosimeter (TLD)

Certain crystalline materials, previously having been exposed to
ionizing radiation, produce light when heated. The amount of light is
proportional to the amount of energy released in the material by the
radiation.
Such a dosimeter can be made small and, by varying the material
used, can be made to have an energy response similar to that of
tissue.
Figure 29: Example of TLD

Table 7: Advantages and disadvantages of TLDs

Advantages of TLD

Disadvantages of TLD

Can be worn longer

Higher cost

Better measurement at low dose exposure

Larger size

Very stable

Not a permanent record

Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL)

The newest technology is an optically stimulated badge
that is made from aluminum oxide. It stores energy and
is then read by a laser. Although not as permanent as a
standard film badge, it can be read and reread. Its
primary advantage is that it is more sensitive than other
film badges. The suggested exchange cycle is every
two months.

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Review questions
1.

Name a gas-filled counter which produces a pulse for each ionizing event.

2.

What device is used for the primary permanent record of exposure from external
radiation?

3.

Name a device used to indicate immediate exposure by utilization of a small

ionization chamber.

4.

Name a personnel monitoring device that, when heated, gives off light proportional to
the amount of energy released in the material by radiation.

5.

What is the unit for exposure?

6.

What is the unit for absorbed dose?

7.

What is the unit for biological dose equivalent?

8.

For gamma and x-radiation, 1 roentgen = how many rem?

9.

What is the unit for source activity?

10.

Explain the basic principles of how a nuclear gauge operates.

11.

Alpha has a larger quality factor than beta. Which transfers more energy to biological
tissue?

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Conversion factors
Exposure
Roentgen (R), the charge produced in air by gamma or X-Rays, has the SI unit expressed as
coulombs per kilogram (C/kg) of air.
1R=2.5810-4C/kg

1C/kg=3876R

Air Kerma rate, the equivalent of observed dose rate in air, is typically used to define
radiation output from sealed sources and has the SI unit grays/second.
Many countries have adopted new units for measuring radiation. These conversion factors
will help you understand the new units, should you encounter them.

Radiation units
Biological doserem and sievert (Sv)
1rem=0.01 Sv

1Sv=100rem

Exposure doseroentgen (R) and coulomb (C) per kilogram

(kg)
1R=2.5810-4 C/kg

1 C/kg = 3876R

Absorbed doserad and gray (Gy)

1rad=0.01 Gy

1 Gy=100rad

ActivityCurie (Ci), disintegrations per second, and

Becquerel (Bq)
1Ci=3.1010dis/sec=3.71010Bq
1Bq=1dis/sec=2.710-11Ci

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Some additional useful conversions

Table 8: Curie units to Becquerel units conversions

Curie Units
mCi

Becquerel Units
GBq

Curie Units
mCi

Becquerel Units
GBq

0.19

100

3.7

10

0.37

200

7.4

20

0.74

250

9.25

25

0.93

500

18.5

50

1.85

800

29.6

60

2.22

1000

37

Example:
150mCi=

100mCi
+50mCi
150mCi

3.7GBq
1.85GBq
5.55GBq

Metric prefixes
Table 9: Metric prefixes

64

Prefix

Value

Value

pico (p)

10-12

0.000000000001

nano (n)

10-9

0.000000001

micro ()

10-6

0.000001

milli (m)

10-3

0.001

kilo (k)

103

1,000

mega (M)

106

1,000,000

giga (G)

109

1,000,000,000

tera (T)

1012

1,000,000,000,000

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Chapter 4: Safety calculations

In this section you will learn equations that will enable you to calculate the radiation field
intensity around a bare source and estimate the absorbed dose rate for an exposed person.
You will also learn to calculate the effects of distance, shielding, and exposure time.
These equations will be useful to get an approximation of the field intensity when a survey
meter is unavailable. They can also help to determine quickly the amount of absorbed
radiation a person may have received.
Keep in mind that Ohmart sources are contained in source holders. These source holders are
specifically designed to reduce the radiation outside the holder to a safe level when the
shutter is closed or the source holder is properly mounted and the shutter is open. The
radiation field intensity calculations are applicable to a bare source, which you will probably
never encounter. However, they are useful in estimating worst case exposure.

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Radiation field intensity calculations

Tools for protection from radiation
The following tools are used in radiation protection: time, distance, shielding, and planning.
We will use the following math formulas to estimate them. Values for Kr-85 and Sr-90 are
omitted because beta radiation is easily reflected and converted to a different energy.

Radiation field intensity at one foot

The radiation field intensity from a bare, or unshielded, source can be calculated using the
following equation. Constants are given for both Traditional and SI units. Be careful not to mix
them in your calculations.
R=AK
where
R=radiation field intensity at the defined distance in Sv/hr or (mR/hr)
A=source activity GBq or (mCi)
K=constant whose value depends on the type of source
Table 10: Radiation field intensity units

SI Units @ 30 cm

Isotope
constants

Traditional Units @ 1 ft

946

Cs-137

3.5

3784

Co-60

14

2432

Ra-226

1486

Ir-192

5.5

29.7

Am-241

0.11

These constants are a function of the efficiency of decay (amount of energy per decay) and
the energy level of that decay.

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Example 1
What is the radiation field intensity at a distance of one foot from a bare 10 mCi Cs -137
source?
Here
A=10 and K=3.5
so
R=(10)(3.5)=35 mR/hr

Example 2
With a survey meter, you measure the field intensity of a bare Co-60 source at one foot to be
70mR/hr. What is the source activity?
If
R=AK, then A=R/K. Since R=70 and K=14
then
A=(70/14)=5mCi.

Example 3
What is the field intensity of a bare, 3.7GBq Cs-137 source at 30cm?
Remember that in this equation, the source activity should be in SI units.
A=3.7 and K=946
so
R=3,500Sv/hr

Problem 1
What is the field intensity of an unshielded 1,000mCi Am-241 source at one foot?
(Ans: 11mR/hr)

Problem 2
Calculate the source activity of Cs-137 source if its field intensity at one foot is 87mR/hr.
(Ans: 25mCi)

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Inverse square law

What if you want to know the radiation field intensity at a distance other than one foot? As
you might guess, the greater the distance from the source, the lower the radiation field
intensity. The inverse square law governs this property. Any radiation measurement is
always made at some distance from the source of radiation. If you know the radiation field
intensity at one distance, the field intensity can be calculated at any distance by using the
following equations:
R2d22= R1d12
This equation can be solved for one of the radiation fields.
R2 = R1(d1/d2)2
where
R2=Radiation field intensity at a distance d2 from a source
R1=Radiation field intensity at a distance d1 from a source
It is important to remember that all radiation measurements have a dose and intensity for
each point measured.

1ft
1R/hour

2 ft
R/hour

Therefore, for point 1 above there will be a R1 and d1and for point 2 a unique R2 and d2.

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Example 4
If the radiation field intensity at a distance of 1ft from a source is 10mR/hr, what is the
radiation field intensity at a distance of 3ft?
Here
R1=10mR/hr, d1=1ft, and d2=3ft
so
R2=(10)(1/3)2=(10)(1/9)=1.11mR/hr

Example 5
If the radiation field intensity at 6ft is measured to be 10mR/hr, what is the intensity at 1ft?
In this example,
R1=10mR/hr, d1=6ft, and d2=1ft
so
R2=(10)(6/1)2=(10)(36)=360mR/hr

Example 6
What is the radiation field intensity at a distance of 4'6" from a bare 5 mCi Cs-137 source?
First, we must calculate the field intensity at one foot. Recall that R=AK.
Here
A=5, and K=3.5
Solving the equation,
R=(5)(3.5)=17.5mR/hr at 1ft.
Now we can calculate the field intensity at 4'6", or 4.5 ft
R1=17.5 mR/hr, d1=1ft, and d2=4.5ft
R2=(17.5)(1/4.5)2= (17.5)(0.22)2=0.86mR/hr at 4'6"

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Problem 3
What is the field intensity of a 1,000mCi Am-241 source at 2ft?
Remember, you found the intensity at 1ft in Problem 1.
(Ans: 27.8mR/hr)

Problem 4
What is the field intensity of this source at 3 ft? at 4ft?
(Ans: 12.3mR/hr, and 6.9mR/hr)

So far you have learned to calculate the field intensity of a source at one foot and at any
distance. The inverse square law illustrates an important aspect of radiation safety. If you
double the distance between you and the source, you decrease the radiation by four times. If
you triple the distance, you decrease the radiation by nine times, and so on.

Using the inverse square law, you can calculate that holding a
source capsule in your hand, about a tenth of an inch from
your skin, compared to holding it with a four foot tool will
expose you to 230,000 times more radiation.
Source capsules should never be picked up with bare
hands.

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Calculating dose rate at any distance

The previous equations can easily be combined algebraically to allow for one equation that
can solve for the radiation field at any distance.
R2=R1(d1/d2)2 solved for the dose at one foot R=AK results in

R=

KA
d

where
R=radiation field intensity at the defined distance in Sv/hr or (mR/hr)
A=source activity GBq or (mCi)
K=constant whose value depends on the type of source
d=Distance in feet or meters
Table 11: Calculating dose rate constants and units

SI Units
Meters

Isotope
Constants

Traditional Units
Feet

85

Cs-137

3.5

340

Co-60

14

218

Ra-226

133

Ir-192

5.5

2.7

Am-241

0.11

The following equation will give the minimum distance from a source a person must stand to
receive a certain absorbed dose rate.

d = K AR

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Example 7
What is the absorbed dose rate at a distance of 1 foot from a 10mCi Cs137 source?
Here
A=10mCi, d=1ft, and K=3.5
so
R=(K)(A)/(d2)=(3.5)(10)/(12)=35/1=35mrem/hr
Looking back to Example 1, we calculated the field intensity for this to be 35mR/hr.

Example 8
How far away should a worker stand from a bare 40mCi Co-60 source to keep the absorbed
dose rate below 2mrem/hr?
Here,
R=2mrem/hr, A=40mCi, and K=14.

d = 14 40 2 = 280

=16.7ft

The worker should stand at least 16.7 feet away from the source.

Problem 5
What is the absorbed dose rate of a 37 GBq Cs137 source at one meter?
(Ans: 3145Sv/hr)

Problem 6
How far away should a worker stand from a 4mCi Cs137 source to keep the absorbed dose
rate less than 2mrem/hr?
(Ans: 2.6ft)

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Shielding half-value layer

Another way to reduce the amount of radiation you are exposed to is through shielding.
Shielding is simply placing a layer of material between you and the source. The effect of the
shielding depends on its thickness and the type of shielding material.

Before shielding
eight units

Four units
stopped by
1st layer

Two units
stopped by
2nd layer
One unit
stopped by
3rd layer

One unit
not
stopped

Figure 30: Shielding half-value layer

With electromagnetic radiation, a thickness of material that reduces the field intensity by onehalf is called a "half-value layer" of shielding. For example, one half-value layer would reduce
a field intensity of 10mR/hr to 5mR/hr. Another half-value layer would reduce the field
intensity by another half to 2.5mR/hr.
The thickness of the half-value layer varies with the type of material used and the isotope it is
shielding. Some approximate half-value layers are shown in the following table.

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Approximate shielding half-value layers for gamma

emitters
Table 12: Shielding half value layers for gamma emitters

Material

Cs-137

Co-60

Dirt
Wood

6"

8 1/2"

Water
Plastic

3 3/4"

7 1/2"

Rubber
Brick
Coal

2 1/2"

3 1/2"

Concrete

2"

3 1/4"

Aluminum

1 1/2"

3"

Steel
Brass

1/2"

1"

Lead

1/4"

1/2"

Tungsten

3/16"

3/8"

Gold

7/32"

9/32"

Example 7
A Cs-137 source has a field intensity of 8mR/hr. How many half-value layers are required to
reduce the field intensity to 2mR/hr?
One half-value layer would reduce the field by half, making it 4mR/hr.
Another half-value layer would reduce it by another half, making the field intensity 2mR/hr.
Therefore, two half-value layers are needed.

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Example 9
How many inches of steel are needed to fulfill the requirements of the above example?
For Cs-137, a half-value layer of steel is 0.5inches.
Two half-value layers are needed, for a total of 1inch of steel.

Problem 7
How many half-value layers are needed to reduce a 18mR/hr field to a field of less than
2mR/hr?
(Ans: Four layers)

Problem 8
How many inches of steel are needed to reduce a Co-60 radiation field intensity by half?
(Ans: 1in)

You may use the half-value layer calculation if you need to ship a source holder back to
Ohmart for repair or disposal. The Department of Transportation has stringent requirements
governing the field intensity of shipped radioactive materials. The half-value layer calculation
will help you determine how much additional shielding, if any, a source holder needs before it
is shipped.

Total dose
The values we have calculated so far have been rates of exposure per hour. To evaluate the
effect on a person we must know the dose they received.
The total dose a person receives is dependent on the amount of time he/she is exposed to
the radiation. To calculate the total dose received, simply multiply the absorbed dose rate by
the amount of time of exposure.
The maximum radiation field around a source holder is 5mR/hr.

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This picture shows that if a person were in a 5mR/hr field he would receive a dose of 5mrem
in one hour. They would receive a dose of only 1.7mrem if the time was limited to
20 minutes and would receive only 0.8mrem in 10 minutes.

5.0
4.6

0.4

4.2

0.8
mrem

3.8
3.
3

1.3
1.7

2.9
2.5

2.
1

Figure 31: Total dose mrem per time

Example 10
If a person spends two hours working one foot away from a 10mCi Cs-137 source, what is
her total dose?
From Example 9, the absorbed dose rate was 35mrem/hr.
The total dose is then
(35mrem/hr)(2hr)=70mrem

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Example 11
What is the total dose received working near a gamma emitter in a field intensity of 2mR/hr
for 10 minutes?
For a gamma emitter, a 2mR/hr field intensity would produce an absorbed dose rate of
2mrem/hr.
Ten minutes is 1/6 of an hour.
The total dose is then
(2mrem/hr)(1/6)hr. = 0.333mrem total dose.

Example 12
If the worker in Example 12 did not make a plan to work quickly around the radiation source
and took 2 hours to do the job, how much radiation would he have absorbed?
(2mrem/hr)(2hr)= 4mrem total dose
You can see that the amount of time spent near a radiation source directly affects the total
dose received. A good safety measure would be to carefully plan the work to be done around
a source in order to minimize the exposure time.

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Planning
Planning should include time, distance, and shielding. It is important to use a combination of
all of these tools, not just one. By incorporating these elements into the plan, exposures can
be limited.

Effects of shielding and distance

The previous math examples illustrate some very important real-life safety strategies. The
time exposed to the radiation, the distance between the source and the worker, the amount of
shielding, and good planning all have a great effect on how much radiation a worker receives.

Bare source capsule

1

151,200 1,050
at 1 in.

Distance in feet
6

3
116.7

29.2

12

13

7.3

Field in mR/hr

With two half value layers at capsule

1 of steel total

Distance in feet

37,800
1
0

151,200 263
at 1 in.

29.2

II

12

7.3

3.2

1.8

Field in mR/hr
Figure 32: Effects of shielding and distance

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Note for Beta Gauge Users

Beta radiation, because it consists of charged particles, interacts with matter differently than
gamma radiation, which has no charge or mass. For this reason, the behavior of beta can
only be approximated by these equations.
As an example, when beta radiation passes through shielding, especially material with a high
atomic number, the beta radiation can cause temporary changes in the material's orbital
electrons, causing them to emit x-rays (Bremsstrahlung radiation). Shielding for this
Bremsstrahlung radiation must then be added. Although lead makes an excellent shield for a
gamma source, materials with low atomic numbers such as Plexiglas, aluminum and rubber
are better for beta sources.

Ohmart source holders

Ohmart source holders are designed to optimize the effects of distance and shielding to
safely contain the radiation source. The source holders increase the distance between the
source and the environment. The higher activity sources are housed in large source holders.
The source holders also shield the source with lead and steel, decreasing the radiation field
intensity further. Again, the larger sources require more shielding.
Properly installed Ohmart gauges usually survey at less than 5mrem/hr at 1foot. Each person
working around the source holder should try to minimize the time spent in direct contact with
it. The Ohmart source holders are made so that the exposure rate is well below NRC
standards, but the goal of radiation safety is to keep exposures

As
Low
As
Reasonably
Achievable

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A method of calculating radioactive decay using the yx

key on a calculator
The standard decay equation
A=

Ao
e

.693Te

can be rewritten as
Te
A=

Ao (0.5)

since
e.695 = 0.5
Solve the exponent first,
Te
T
put in memory, and then use the y key to solve the exponential problem. and then recall the
exponent
Te
T
which is the x of the yx key. You must then press = for the calculator to complete the
calculation. It is then a simple matter to multiply this by Ao the original activity.

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Example
Using the sample question of four hours of decay for Tc99m (half-life six hours), and an
original activity of 25mCi we can solve as follows:

Key Strokes (1-6)

Key Strokes (7-12)

1.

4 (Te)

7.

YX

2.

8.

RCL

3.

6 (T )

9.

= (Calculates yx)

4.

10.

X (Multiply)

5.

STO puts

11.

25 (Original)

12.

= (Displays answer, 15.7)

Te
T
into Memory
6.

.5

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Chapter 5: Health effects

This part will familiarize you with the known health effects of ionizing radiation. It is hoped that
by understanding the facts, each person working with or around radioactive materials will be
able to make informed decisions about his or her work and health.

Introduction
Two points should be noted from the start. First, ionizing radiation has the potential to alter
and even destroy biological cells. This is not a trivial statement; serious consequences can
result from exposure to too much radiation.
Second, most of the health effects discussed here have been observed at extremely high
levels of exposure. Many of the documented cases involve victims of nuclear weapons,
accidents with fissionable materials, or large prolonged exposures of early x-ray operators.
These exposures are much greater than occupational exposures today.
In fact, the health effects at low, occupationally permitted levels are not known. To be on the
safe side, however, we should assume that ANY exposure to ionizing radiation will have a
health effect. Thus, employers are required keep workers' exposure As Low As Reasonably
Achievable to complete a given task. (The NRC calls this limit ALARA.)
Later in this section we will see actual exposure levels for Ohmart employees who work
directly with the gauges. This should help you learn what range of exposures you should
expect as an Ohmart gauge user.
So, while we are studying the biological effects of radiation, we should understand that
exposure to ionizing radiation can be dangerous, but the health risks need not be
overestimated because of unnecessary fear.

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History of biological effects

It did not take scientists long to discover the most obvious biological effects, first-hand, after
they began a systematic study of radiation. They had no standards to follow and lacked
sensitive detection devices that exist today.
1896Roentgen discovers x-rays.
1896First medical use of x-rays.
1902First report of skin cancer following previous x-ray burn.
1911First radiation induced leukemia described.
1912Ingestion of radium by watch dial painters. Effects appeared much later.
1923More than 100 pioneer radiologists had died from variable effects of radiation.
1927Genetic mutation produced by x-ray in fruit flies.
1943Animal studies show accelerated aging and life span shortening.
1945Observation and reporting of acute radiation syndrome.
The early years of experience with ionizing radiation led to a better understanding of the early
(prompt) effects of radiation, but long-term effects were not known. The phenomena of
ionizing radiation were therefore, abused by today's standards. Many shoe stores had
fluoroscopic shoe fitting devices which exposed individuals to about 10rem for every pair of
shoes they tried. Some doctors prescribed Ra-226 as a cure-all used for treating
hypertension, anemia, arthritis, and even insanity.

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Radiological protection agencies

In the past radiation dose limits were based on recommendations of two groups: the
International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) and the National Council on
Radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP). Both include in their memberships
recognized experts in science and medicine.
The ICRP's recommendations on radiation protection have been widely adopted and form the
basis for radiation protection practices throughout the world. In the United States, the NCRP,
which is federally chartered, provides recommendations for interested industries and federal
and state agencies.
The first recommended radiation exposure limits were offered in 1925, when scientists
suggested limiting exposures to 0.5 roentgen per week from x-rays for radiation workers. In
1934 the ICRP recommended a maximum of 1roentgen per week and the NCRP 0.5 per
week. In 1949-50 the two groups recommended 0.3rem per week, and in 1956-57 they
recommended 5rems per year. This latter recommendation still stands as the basis of today's
occupational limit. All of these recommended dose limits were in addition to radiation doses
from natural background and medical sources.
In 1959, with atmospheric weapons testing underway and with the growing use of nuclear
energy under the Atoms for Peace program, President Eisenhower established the Federal
Radiation Council (FRC) to provide guidance with respect to all radiation matters directly or
indirectly affecting health, including guidance for all Federal agencies in the formulation of
radiation standards for protection of humans from radiation. When the Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) was formed in 1970, this responsibility was transferred to that
agency. In addition, the responsibility for establishing generally applicable environmental
radiation standards for uses of man-made radioactive materials regulated under the Atomic
Energy Act also was transferred to the EPA. The United States Nuclear Regulatory
Commission (U.S. NRC) has responsibility for implementing and enforcing these standards.

Medical advice
Ohmart/VEGA Corporation and its representatives cannot give medical advice concerning
possible effects of radiation. However, we can present information that is considered by the
scientific community and the regulatory agencies to be the best currently available. This
section presents current information available from the U.S. NRC and other reliable sources.
The bibliography at the end of the section may be of use in finding more information on health
effects of radiation.

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Health risks
Health effects of radiation are studied by looking at large groups of people; therefore, the
results are statistical in nature. By studying a large group of people, it has been shown that
there is an increase in the risk for the group of certain cancers that increases with increasing
exposure to ionizing radiation. However, an individual cannot know if her exposure to
radiation will cause a given health effect.

Probability and consequences

Assessing the degree of risk in an activity involves two factors: the probability that something
bad may happen to you by performing the activity and the consequences and how bad that
"something" may be.
For example, if there is a large rock sticking out of your lawn, you may injure yourself on it. If
the risk is great enough, you may want to put time and energy into digging it up. To assess
the risk, you determine the probability of tripping over it. If it is in the path to your front door,
the probability is greater than if it were in a corner behind the flower bed. If the probability
seems high that you will trip over it frequently, you then assess the consequences of tripping
over it. If it sticks out of the ground only one inch, you may just stumble over it. But, if it sticks
out six inches and is sharp and jagged, the consequences of tripping over it could be fairly
painful.
Similarly, the risk associated with exposure to radiation depends on the probability of
exposure and the consequences of exposure. A user of a typical nuclear gauge may receive
a small exposure only if he works directly on the gauge or very near it. Otherwise, the
probability of receiving a detectable exposure is quite low. The consequences of receiving a
very low exposure are not well known, but are certainly not detectable in the short term.

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Everyday risks
Every person takes certain health risks every day; people drive cars, use tobacco products,
operate machinery, take walks alone, use tanning beds, drink alcohol, choose not to
exercise, eat too much fat, ride motorcycles, and on and on. People make decisions about
what health risks to take, including whether to work in a place where they may have an
occupational exposure to ionizing radiation.
Because fears of health effects from radiation are great, a good way of assessing the degree
of risk is to compare it to known effects of other common risks. Detailed in U.S. NRC
Regulatory Guide 8.29 is a comparison among health risks, using the average number of
days of life expectancy lost per unit of exposure to each particular health risk.
These results are statistical in nature. To calculate them, the researchers look at a large
number of persons, record the age when death occurs from apparent causes, and estimate
the number of days of life lost as a result of these premature deaths.

All industry
Trade
Manufacturing
Agriculture
Construction
Mining
5 rem/yr for 50 years
0.65 rem/yr for 30 years

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

Days

Figure 33: Estimated loss of life expectancy from health risks

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Radiation compared to other occupational risks

The editors of Patty's Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology1 made this observation:
"Compared to chemically toxic agents, the properties of ionizing radiation generally
enable its detection at much lower levels and with much greater accuracy. This
condition has contributed greatly to the feeling that radiation has great toxic potential,
but in many (or perhaps most) cases this is mainly because its presence can be
detected at these low levels. It appears that much of the concern over health hazards
due to radiation is the direct result of this."
It is ironic that the property that makes radiation easy to detect in small amounts increases
people's perception that it is much more toxic than other agents encountered in industry.
In fact, the safety record for the nuclear industry has been remarkably good. The Nuclear
Regulatory Commission publication, Regulatory Guide 8.29, Instructions Concerning Risk
from Occupational Exposure, details the safety record of the nuclear industry compared with
other industries. This guide is included at the end of this chapter.

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Sources of radiation
It is important to realize that occupational and medical exposures to radiation are only part of
an individual's total exposure to ionizing radiation.

Natural background radiation

Even before man began manufacturing radioactive isotopes, people were exposed to ionizing
radiation. There are many sources of natural radiation. Recall that almost every element has
at least one radioactive form, and so a small percentage of many natural materials contain
some radioactive traces. Soils in some regions of the world, especially Brazil, contain high
amounts of naturally radioactive materials. Plants grown in soil containing trace amounts of
radioactive elements also contain trace amounts of radioactive elements. Many food products
contain Potassium-40. Building materials, such as bricks and concrete that are made from
earthen materials, also may contain radioactive isotopes, like uranium. Choosing to live in a
brick home instead of one made of wood may add up to 10millirem per year to your natural
Fallout 5
Cosmic 30

Mining 5

Soil 30

Body 20
Building
Material 60

Medical 90
Other misc.
radon, etc. 111

Nuclear
Power 1

Average individual exposure

is approximately 360 mrem/yr

Jet Flight 5
Misc. products 3

radiation exposure.

Figure 34: Average individual exposure per year

Another radioactive element in the atmosphere we are exposed to is Carbon-14 (C-14) that is
used to date the remains of living beings.

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"C-14 is produced in the upper atmosphere from nuclear reactions caused by cosmic
rays. The chemical behavior of carbon atoms with C-14 nuclei is the same as those
with ordinary C-12 nuclei, e.g., atoms with these nuclei combine with oxygen to form
CO2 molecules. Since living organisms continually exchange CO2 with the
atmosphere, the ratio of C-14 to C-12 in a living organism is the same as the
equilibrium ratio in the atmosphere, which is about 1.3 10-12. When an organism
dies, it no longer absorbs C-14 from the atmosphere, so that the ratio C-14/C-12
continually decreases due to the radioactive decay of C-14. A measurement of the
decay rate per gram of carbon thus allows the calculation of the time of death of the
organism."3
Radon gas, one of the radioactive daughter products of uranium, is frequently trapped in soil.
Radon, an alpha emitter, is thought to be one of the causes of lung cancer in coal miners. It is
frequently trapped in basements and crawl spaces of homes and buildings, because it is the
heaviest gas in nature. Among natural sources, radon and radon decay products indoors
make the greatest contributions to the annual effective dose equivalent.4 The levels of radon
vary greatly in different parts of the country, but the average annual dose equivalent is
200mrem.

Figure 35: Radiation is all around us

Every time we eat or breath, we may take in a tiny number of radioactive isotopes. Thus, we
are exposed to radiation that is emitted from these radioactive isotopes in our own body.
Cosmic radiation, a general term for ionizing radiation that comes from stars, is another
source of natural radiation.
Some cosmic radiation penetrates the earth's atmosphere; a person's exposure to this type of
radiation increases with increasing altitude, because the atmosphere acts as shielding.

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Man-made radiation
We are also exposed to radiation resulting from the activities of man. The use of
radionuclides in industry, in power generation, consumer products and from nuclear weapons
all contribute to the population's effective dose equivalent.
The EPA did a study in 19844 which found that of radiation workers who had measurable
exposures, the average dose equivalent was 230mrem per year in 1980. Averaged over the
1980 U.S. population, the average was 0.7mrem.
Many consumer products use radioactive materials, and contribute a small amount to the
population average dose equivalent. The domestic water supply contributes about 1.0 to
6.0mrem annually, mostly due to dissolved radon from ground water supplies. Building
materials contribute about 3.6mrem annually. Combustible fuels in the form of coal, natural
gas heaters, and natural gas cooking ranges add about 0.6mrem annually. Other consumer
products such as smoke detectors, luminous watches, and road construction materials also
contribute tiny amounts to the U.S. average.
One consumer product, tobacco, is thought to contribute the highest dose to the U.S.
population. Smoking may contribute up to 1,300mrem annually for the average smoker.
However, to date, researchers have found it impossible to make an accurate estimation of the
dose equivalent, so the equivalent dose from smoking is not included in the average U.S.
totals. The source of the radiation from tobacco smoke is polonium-210 and lead-210. These
radionuclides are present on the large tobacco leaves, primarily from the deposition of
airborne radon decay products.5

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Dose effect relationship

When faced with the possibility of receiving occupational radiation exposures, the question
most people ask is, "What levels of exposure are safe?" The answer to that question is rather
complicated. The question implies that there is some known exposure level below which
there will be no health effects and above which there will be effects. Researchers themselves
differ about whether there is some safe level, and if there is one, what that level is.
These researchers use dose-effect models to represent their views on the question. A
dose-effect model attempts to predict what kind of a health effect will occur at a given dose of
radiation. Basically, there are two types of dose-effect models:
1. With threshold effects
2. With non-threshold effects.

Threshold effect
A threshold effect model means that there is a threshold of dose below which there is no
damage. An example of this is the level of sound and noise. Below about 80decibels(dB), in
the normal range of hearing, there is no adverse health effect. But around 90dB, damage to
hearing is possible. The amount of damage increases as the level (dose) increases. Around
100dB, there is physical pain and hearing damage.

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Non-threshold effect

Health effects (cancer risk)

A non-threshold effect model means that there is no dose level below which there is no
effect. Although the effects of radiation can be seen clearly only at high doses, it is prudent to
assume that smaller doses have some chance of causing cancer.5 A non-threshold effect
model, then, assumes that any exposure to radiation, no matter how small, will introduce the
probability of a health effect.

4
3
1

100

10,000
Radiation dose in millirem

Figure 36: Health effects risk by radiation curve

Most scientists believe that there is some risk no matter how small the dose. This is indicated
by curves 1 and 3. Some scientists believe that the risk drops off to zero at some low dose,
the threshold effect. Curve 2 illustrates this fact. A few believe that risk levels off so that even
very small doses imply a significant risk. Curve 4 represents this belief. The majority of
scientists today endorse the linear quadratic model, as shown in curve 3.
The dose numbers on this scale are very low; 100mrem is the NRC annual allowable limit for
the general public.
The different non-threshold effect models explained in the U.S. NRC Regulatory Guide 8.29
that is located at the end of this section. The U.S. NRC uses the linear model for its
guidelines and policies. This model assumes that as radiation dose increases, the probability
of an effect increases proportionately.

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Low-level exposures
It is difficult to predict what health effects may occur at very low levels of exposure, because
the effects, if any, are only seen many years later and may not be entirely attributable to the
radiation exposure.
Most of the effects of ionizing radiation are based on studies of survivors of the atomic
bombs, and a few accidents involving radiological workers who received massive exposures
in a short period of time.
Industrial exposures are more likely to involve very low levels of exposures over periods of
years. The data on this type of chronic exposure is inconclusive at this time. However, to be
on the safe side, it should not be assumed that exposures of this type cause no negative
health effects.

Type of exposure
As touched on briefly, two types of exposure to radiation are believed to carry the risk of
health effects. They are called chronic exposure and acute exposure.

Chronic
Chronic exposure is defined as repeated small doses of ionizing radiation delivered over an
extended period of time. An example of chronic exposure would be 20100mrem per week,
every week for several years. Chronic exposures may cause delayed effects such as cancer.

Acute
Acute exposure refers to a large dose of radiation received in a short period of time; for
example, 45,000100,000mrem received within a few hours or less. Acute exposure may
cause immediate, or prompt, effects (such as burns) as well as delayed effects.
The type of exposure a nuclear gauge user would get is chronic. According to a report
published in 1982 (NUREG-0714), the average annual exposure for gauge users (for both
fixed and portable gauges) is 100millirem. Note, however, that this study was done using
people who were monitored. Most Ohmart gauge users do not monitor their employees,
because the radiation field intensity around the gauge is low enough that monitoring is not
required. So, the average exposure for all Ohmart gauge users would be significantly less
than the NRC reported figure.

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Health effects
It is important to realize that no health effect caused by exposure to radiation is unique. For
instance, radiation can cause burns and so can sunlight. Radiation can cause cancer; so can
tobacco products, and industrial chemicals. Radiation can cause birth defects; so can
alcohol.
Each body reacts differently to ionizing radiation exposure. It is impossible to predict whether
one exposed person will develop cancer or not. Some of the factors that cause variation
between people are:

Age

Sex

Cigarette smoking

Genetic makeup

State of health

Diet

Others

Health effects can be categorized as damage to body cells (nerve, blood, skin, muscle, etc.)
or damage to the reproductive (eggs or sperm)cells, or germ cells.

Body cell damage

The damage to body cells can be delayed or prompt. Delayed effects are the most subtle
(and perhaps the most feared) aspects of radiation health effects, and may occur many years
after exposure. Prompt effects are usually evident minutes to days after a high exposure.6
Some delayed effects of radiation are:

Accelerated aging

Cancer (including leukemia)

Cataracts

Delayed body cell damage can be caused by either external or internal exposure to radiation.
Some prompt diagnoses or conditions of radiation are:

Radiation sickness

Radiation injury

Radiation poisoning

Recovery is possible from any of these prompt effects, with the proper medical treatment.

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Radiation sickness
Radiation sickness is produced by a massive overdose of penetrating external radiation, most
commonly gamma and x-rays. The severity depends on the total dose received. Having
received an acute dose of about 450,000mrem over a few hours, a person will have a 50%
chance of survival without medical treatment. The set of symptoms associated with radiation
sickness is called acute radiation syndrome.

Radiation injury
Radiation injury consists of localized injurious effects, generally from overdoses of less
penetrating external radiation and most often to the hands because contact is usually with the
hands. Some examples of radiation injury are:

Burns

Loss of hair

Skin lesions

Alpha and beta radiation are less externally penetrating than gamma radiation, so they may
be a more common cause of radiation injury.7

Radiation poisoning
Radiation poisoning is an illness that results from dangerous amounts of radioactive materials
(e.g., the material sealed in the source capsule) entering the body, potentially causing
diseases such as anemia and cancer. Recall that materials that emit alpha and beta can
cause a great deal of damage if ingested or inhaled, because the low penetrating ability of
alpha and beta causes most of their energy to be released within the body.8

Reproductive cell damage

SterilityDamage to sperm or eggs can cause sterility. An acute dose of 20,000mrem has
been shown to cause temporary sterility in men, and an acute dose of about 600,000mrem
has been shown to cause permanent sterility in men and women.9
Genetic effectsThere has been great concern that exposure to low level radiation may also
increase the number of genetic mutations which will lead to birth defects. So far, there have
been no genetic mutations due to radiation exposure observed in man, including the
descendants of atomic bomb survivors.10

Interaction with tissue

How does radiation cause changes in living tissue? You may recall that ionizing radiation can
change an electrically neutral atom into an ion by "knocking" electrons off the atom's outer
shell. (This is how many radiation detectors work.) This process is ionizationthe making of
ions from atoms. Radiation can ionize any atom or molecule; it ionizes gases, water, and
molecules in living tissue.

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Fortunately, exposure to radiation does not instantly ionize all the atoms in our body. In fact,
most radiation passes straight through our body without ionizing any atoms.

The reason for this is simple. The tiny electrons orbit a "far" distance away from the nucleus.
If the nuclei of the atoms were as big as a basketball, then the electrons would be hundreds
of feet away.
So, there is plenty of room for radiation to pass through the atoms of the body without striking
an electron.
Even under these circumstances, some atoms become ionized. If enough atoms in a cell are
ionized, the cell cannot function or reproduce properly and there may be biological damage.

Recovery from radiation exposure

If damage to the body from radiation exposure does occur, the body can repair itself in most
cases. Slight burns or a decrease in blood count can be repaired by the body's natural
processes of constantly replacing old cells with new ones. (This is not to say that if someone
has had an exposure large enough to have caused these effects that they should not seek
medical advice.)
However, there may be some irreparable damage also. Most types of injuries have some
level of permanent damage: a burn or a cut may cause a scar, and swelling and arthritis
often follow joint damage. Because it is not known what type of injury low levels of radiation
cause, it is also not known whether there is long-term irreparable damage.
The U.S. NRC Regulatory Guide 8.29 addresses this question by stating:
"A reasonable comparison involves exposure to the sun's rays. Frequent short exposures
provide time for the skin to repair. An acute exposure to the sun can result in painful burning,
and excessive exposure has been shown to cause skin cancer. However, whether exposure

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to the sun's rays is short term or spread over time, some of the injury is not repaired and may
eventually result in skin cancer."

EFFECTS

Recovery

Irreparable injury

Recovery

Irreparable injury

TIME
Thus, it may be that multiple acute exposures may cause a higher risk of irreparable damage.

Effect on embryonic development

Embryos are extremely sensitive to conditions in their environment. For instance, pregnant
women are advised to restrict their intake of alcohol, caffeine, and other substances which
have been shown to have an effect on their developing child. Exposure to radiation is no
exception.

Make an informed decision

Exposure of the embryo to doses of radiation can cause many types of physical
abnormalities, especially in the nervous system. Studies of Japanese children who were
exposed while in the womb to atomic bomb radiation have shown evidence of both small
head size and mental retardation. Most of the children were exposed to radiation doses in the
range of 1 to 50rads10. This is not a genetic mutation because the embryo itself was
damaged, not the parents' genes.

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Because the embryo is so sensitive, industrial and medical exposure of pregnant women
should be avoided as much as possible. The NRC has established a special dose limit for
protection of the unborn child.
Currently, the NRC requires that the dose of the embryo be limited to 500mrem during the
nine months of pregnancy. It is required that the employee inform her employer of her
condition as soon as she realizes she is pregnant if the dose to the unborn child is to be
minimized.
In order to keep radiation risks in perspective, the NRC Guide 8.13 provides a table titled
"Effects of Risk Factors on Pregnancy Outcome." This table compares radiation risks of a
child receiving 1,000mrem before birth to other common risks, such as the mother smoking or
drinking alcohol. For example, the incidence of cancer death in children increases from 1.4
per thousand occurring naturally to 2.0 per thousand (an increase of 0.6 per thousand) if the
child is exposed to 1,000mrem. The incidence of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome increases from 12
per thousand natural occurrences to 100 per thousand if the mother consumes 24 alcoholic
drinks per day.

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Dose limitations
Through scientific studies, it was found that certain radiological effects do not occur below
certain exposures. These exposure levels are called "threshold values" for that particular
effect.
However, other effects such as cancer may not have a threshold value. These are called
non-threshold effects. This means that scientists have not found a level of exposure at which
there is absolutely zero chance of getting cancer.11
For that reason, the regulations are set to reduce the probability of non-threshold effects to
an acceptable risk level. Also, the level of 5,000mrem/year (whole body) is believed to permit
a lifetime occupational exposure without reaching levels of effects for which thresholds exist.
Table 13: Occupational dose limits per year
Occupational Dose Limits (mrem/year)
Whole Body

Skin/Extremit
y

Lens of
Eye

Workers

5000

50,000

15,000

Minors

500

5,000

1,500

Pregnant
Workers

500 for 9
months

Not Defined

Table 14: General public dose limits per year

Dose Limits to the General Public
(TEDE)
100mrem/yr.

100

2mrem/hr.

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To quote from the code of federal regulations:

Occupational Dose means the dose received by an individual in the course of employment
in which the individuals assigned duties involve exposure to radiation and/or to radioactive
material from licensed and unlicensed sources of radiation, whether in the possession of
the licensee or other person. Occupational dose does not include dose received from
background radiation, from any medical administration the individual has received, from
voluntary participation in medical research programs, or as a member of the public. 10
CFR 20.1003
Public Dose means the dose received by a member of the public from exposure to
radiation and/or radioactive material released by a licensee, or to any other source of
radiation under the control of a licensee. Public dose does not include occupational dose
or doses received from background radiation, from any medical administrative individual
has received, or from voluntary participation in medical research programs. 10 CFR
20.1003

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Ohmart exposures
As a result of Ohmarts strict adherence to occupational safety standards, the average
exposure to workers has been kept well below 5,000mrem/year. For instance, the average
whole body dose for workers involved in nuclear waste disposal was 920mrem in 1975.
A table showing the exposures for other occupations can be found on page 8.29-10 in the
NRC publication, "Instruction Concerning Risks from Occupational Radiation Exposure,"
which is included in this manual.

Ohmart gauges
What kind of exposures can you expect when working with an Ohmart nuclear gauge? The
answer to that question depends on many things. It depends on the activity of your source,
how long you work with it, how often you work with it, how near it is to your workspace, etc.
To give you an idea of how much radiation you can be exposed to from an Ohmart gauge,
see the table below. It contains a list of the exposures for five years of Ohmart employees
involved in manufacturing. These people work very closely with the gauges every day. Some
of them "load" the source holders with source capsules. Because of this, they receive a much
larger dose than someone working only with a source that is safely shielded by a source
holder.
Table 15: Ohmart employee exposure record for five years

Year

Total
Dose

Total
Badge
d

Number
Exposed

Average
Dose

Median
Dose

<50

60/
100

110/
200

>200

1996

6130

71

42

146

40

21

11

1997

4530

77

39

116

40

21

1998

3540

89

35

101

40

20

1999

3410

86

29

118

70

12

2000

3810

74

42

91

30

29

2001

3625

59

34

107

20

23

2002

3070

50

24

128

30

13

The table above illustrates the exposures that Ohmart employees received over a five-year
period. As indicated by the table, exposures decreased dramatically over this period. There
are many factors that figured into this drop. When observing the table notice that the total
dose, the average dose, and median dose show downward trends. This is rather remarkable

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considering the increase in the number of employees being monitored and the amount of
radioactivity handled.

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Guideline for user's exposures

In general, Ohmart's gauges will expose workers to very little radiation. As a guideline,
remember the following:

"If exposures are greater than the general public limit, something is
wrong."
Check the installation, perform a leak test, do another radiation survey, have the gauge
moved by a licensed person, review safety procedures with workers; assess your situation to
lower exposures if they are higher than the general public limit of 100mrem per year.

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Purpose of regulations

55
mph

The purpose of the NRC dose limitation is to keep the radiation exposure of everyone down,
including that portion of the population engaged in work involving radiation. Radiation
protection limits are not absolute limits below which it is safe and above which there is
danger. Exceeding a limit does not imply that you have suffered an injury.
A good comparison is with the highway speed limit that is selected to limit accident risk and
still allow you to get somewhere. If you drive at 75mph, you increase your risk of an auto
accident to levels that are not considered acceptable by the people who set speed limits,
even though you may not actually have an accident.
If a worker's radiation dose repeatedly exceeds 5,000mrem in a year, the risk of health
effects could eventually increase to a level that is not acceptable to the NRC. Exceeding an
NRC protection limit does not mean that any adverse health effects are going to occur. By the
same token, staying below the limit does not mean that adverse health effects are not going
to occur. It does mean that a licensee's safety program has failed in some respect and that
the NRC and the licensee should investigate to make sure the problems are corrected.12
Even though an exposure may not cause physical harm, the overriding principle is that
exposures are to be kept As Low As Reasonably Achievable (ALARA). This means applying
the practices of controlling distance, time, and shielding.

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Conclusion
As in every activity in our lives, there is some risk involved with radioactive materials.
Occupational exposures are believed to be at a level where the probability of experiencing
delayed effects is low. The exposures are also at a level where the occurrence of prompt
effects is zero under normal conditions.
You have learned that the risk of health effects of radiation can be reduced by conscious
effort. Using the ALARA principle as a guideline, exposures can be kept to a minimum.

In the end, each person must weigh the

risks and benefits of his or her occupation,
and make a decision about which risks are
acceptable and which are not.

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Review question
1.

In general, which type of radiation is more penetrating, alpha or gamma?

2.

What is chronic exposure?

3.

What is acute exposure?

4.

Which prompt effect is caused by internal absorption of radioactive materials?

5.

If you are accidentally exposed to 5,000 mrem, will there be a noticeable effect?

6.

Delayed effects can be caused by chronic or acute exposure to radiation. What are
some delayed effects of radiation exposure?

7.

How many mrem will you receive working around an Ohmart gauge in a year?

8.

What are the hourly and annual exposure limit for the general public?

9.

What is the occupational dose limit for workers in a calendar year?

10.

What is the limit for declared pregnant workers?

11.

What does ALARA mean?

12.

How can you reduce your radiation exposure?

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References
1.

Thomas, R.G., and Thomas, R.L. (1979). Evaluation of Exposure to Ionizing

Radiation. Pattys Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology, Vol. III. New York, NY: John
Wiley and Sons.

2.

NCRP (1987) National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurement,

Exposure of the Population in the United State and Canada from Natural
Background Radiation, NCRP Report No. 94.

3.

NCRP (1987) National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurement, Ionizing

Radiation Exposure of the Population of the United States. NCRP Report No. 93.

4.

EPA (1984) Environmental Protection Agency, Occupational Exposure to Ionizing

Radiation in the United States. A comprehensive Review for the year 1980 and a
Summary of Trends for the years 1960-1985. EPA 520/1-84-005. Environmental
Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.

5.

NCRP (1987) National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurement,

Radiation Exposure of the U.S. Population from Consumer Products and
Miscellaneous Sources. NCRP Report No. 95.

6.

NRC (1981) Instruction Concerning Risks from Occupational Radiation Exposure.

7.

NIOSH (1988) Guidelines for Protecting the Safety and Health of Health Care
Workers. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public
Health Service, Centers for Disease Control, National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health, Division of Standards Development and Technology Transfer.
DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 88-119.

8.

Brannigan, F.L. Living with Radiation. Washington, DC: United States Atomic
Energy Commission.

9.

NRC (1992) Monitoring Criteria and Methods to Calculate Occupational Radiation

Doses.

10.

Instruction Concerning Prenatal Radiation Exposure. Washington, DC: U.S.

Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Office of Standards Development. Regulatory
Guide 8.13.

11.

Hemplemann, L.H. Radiation, ionizing: biological effects. Encyclopedia of

Occupational Health and Safety, Third (Revised) Edition. Geneva: International
Labour Office.

12.

NRC (1992). Monitoring Criteria and Methods to Calculate Occupational Radiation

Doses.

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Notes

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Chapter 6: Emergency guidelines

In this section, you will not just learn the regulations in regard to radiological emergencies,
but also the importance of planning, preparation and training. These will prevent confusion
and unnecessary risk when handling emergencies.
Radiological emergencies can have many causes, which can result in large or small
consequences. The early handling of any emergency is often crucial to its outcome, with
proper and judicious early action a prime consideration in limiting eventual damage. When an
emergency arises, remain calm and think about actions to take. While rapid and effective
action is imperative, hasty action before consideration can compound difficulties.

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General guidelines
It would be extremely difficult to stipulate hard and fast rules for meeting the wide variety of
situations that accompany radiation accidents. However, some general guidelines apply to
most situations. First, it is important to understand the two general types of potential
emergency situations involving a nuclear gauge: exposure and contamination.

Exposure vs. contamination

As outlined in Chapter 4, everyone is exposed to radiation every day. Exposure and
contamination are two very different phenomena and must be treated as such. Exposure
occurs when a person has been in a radiation field. Exposure implies external radiation
penetration. A Cs-137 source capsule may produce gamma radiation strong enough to
penetrate the body, for instance. However, once the source is shielded or the person moves
significantly away from it, there is no longer exposure to the radiation. Exposure to a radiation
field is the primary safety concern for nuclear gauge users.
Contamination implies direct contact with, inhalation, ingestion, or absorption of radioactive
materials. Using a nuclear gauge, contamination is only possible if the source capsule
ruptures and radioactive material leaks out. So instead of only being exposed to gamma
radiation from a Cs-137 source, a person who has been contaminated has been in direct
contact with the actual Cs-137 material that was inside the source capsule. This is potentially
very dangerous because if the radioactive material is in direct contact with the skin, or is
inside the body, the distance from the person to the source is zero and the radiation field is
quite high. Also, the radioactive material absorbed by the organs and can cause internal
damage.
Note
Rupturing of the source capsules is extremely rare.

Guidelines
5

Plan ahead to avoid accidents and to be prepared to deal with them. Make sure
procedures are up-to-date and include plans for dealing with nuclear-related incidents.
Educate your staff and workers to recognize potentially dangerous situations and to know
how to deal with an emergency in your absence.

In all emergency procedures taken, priority should be given to human safety.

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Evacuate the immediate area while simultaneously ensuring that the radiation field and
the extent of spread of contaminating radioactive materials are kept to an absolute
minimum.

Initial Response: cordon off the area

Secondary Response: contain exposure amounts.

Identify and immediately isolate all persons who might have received high exposures or
who could have been contaminated. In such cases, arrange for immediate:
decontamination if necessary
evaluation of personnel devices
collections of body fluids (blood, urine, etc.) for further analysis.

Regulate entry to the scene of the accident by placing a cordon at the 2 mrem/hr level
and marking it with radiation hazard signs, to minimize all subsequent exposures and
contamination incidents.

Contain the contamination at the site of the accident. With gloves and tongs, place plastic
bags over anything you suspect to be contaminated. When finished, place contaminated
gloves, tongs, and clothing inside plastic bags; wash immediately and shower as soon as
possible. If there is any possibility of airborne contamination, the appropriate respirator
should be worn (if possible, a self-contained breathing apparatus). Be sure to shut off all
fans and air-conditioning.

Notify the appropriate authorities promptly through suitable media such as telephone,
FAX, etc., and seek immediate advice on further steps to be taken. Arrange for as timely
an arrival as possible of experts who are trained to deal with such accidental conditions.
(Persons responsible for radiation protection should know ahead of time which experts
and organizations to contact).

Maintain complete records of the accident and follow-up procedures. This simple
instruction is often forgotten, resulting in enormous complications during incident
investigation and in adoption of subsequent remedial measures.

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Typical emergency situations

This section will discuss some of the most common problems involving nuclear gauging
devices.

Stuck shutter
Stuck shutters are a common occurrence, resulting from rust or buildup of materials around
the shutter mechanism. Usually, stuck shutters are discovered under one of two
circumstances: a periodic shutter test, or an attempt to turn off a source to work on the
process line.
If the stuck shutter is discovered during a shutter test:
5

If the situation permits, leave the gauge where it is until you have contacted the
manufacturer. One of the safest places for the gauge to be is in its mounted position.
Remember, you must be specifically licensed to remove a gauge.

Contact the manufacturer. They will advise whether the gauge should be shipped back or
whether a field service engineer should be sent to repair it.

If the stuck shutter is discovered while attempting to work on the process line:
5

Do not proceed with the job.

Contact the manufacturer for advice.

For a temporary solution to service the process line, you may be able to place enough
shielding material in front of the source opening to block the radiation. (Use a survey meter to
test the radiation field.) This method should only be considered a temporary measure until
the unit can be repaired.
If it is necessary, and you are licensed to remove the gauge, use common sense to reduce
any unnecessary exposure. For example, if you are lowering the source holder using a chain,
attach a guide rope to the source holder to stop the radiation beam from pointing toward
anyone. When the source holder is on the ground, lay it opening-down and bolt shielding
material to the opening as soon as possible. Be sure to cordon off the area and tag the
source holder to alert others to the presence of a radioactive source.

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Loss or theft
If a source is lost or stolen you must try to find it and notify the NRC or Agreement State
immediately by telephone or FAX.
To begin the search:
5

Know what you are looking for. Is the entire source holder missing, or just the stainless
steel source capsule? Make sure others helping you in the search know exactly what
they are trying to find.
Note
A source capsule should never be removed from the source holder in the field.

Use a survey meter on the lowest scale during the search. Your first interest is to find any
unusual radiation readings. After you have determined that there is a reading higher than
background, you can adjust the meter to obtain an accurate reading.

Check all places where the source could be hidden from view. Look through trash, scrap,
dumping areas, trucks, and railroad cars.

Entering a tank or vessel

Perhaps the most common accidental radiation exposure is caused by persons entering a
tank or vessel before the radioactive source has been turned off or drawn up into its
protective housing. Exposures of this kind are potentially dangerous because they are wholebody exposures, and because the radiation field intensity inside a tank can be quite high.
Preventing this type of emergency is of the utmost importance. Tank lockout procedures,
which typically include procedures for protecting against chemical, electromagnetic, and
mechanical hazards, must also include procedures to protect against radiation hazards.
A simple preventive measure is to mark each manway with a sign indicating the presence of
radioactive sources.
Before any person enters a vessel, the source must be in the "safe" position (OFF or drawn
up into the protective housing.) Of course, for this instruction to be carried out, the person
must be able to identify radiation source holders on tanks, and be able to determine if they
are safe.
Contractors hired to work on vessels must be made aware of the presence of radioactive
sources.
If safety precautions are ignored and people enter a vessel while the source is still "ON":
5

Get the people out!

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Quickly determine how much time they spent in the tank and at what distance from the
radioactive source.

Calculate their exposure either by measuring the radiation field in the tank or by using the
equations in Chapter 3.

You can look up the activity and isotope in your records or by checking the label on the
source holder. Remember to take shielding of walls or wells into consideration; also, source
decay may reduce the activity of the isotope.
5

Arrange for medical examinations if the exposure is greater than 25,000 millirem, if you
can't determine the exposure, or if the worker is concerned about his dose.

Notify the agency (NRC or Agreement State) if anyone has received a dose greater than
any allowable limit. (See Chapter 7).

Fall or collision
Falls and collisions of source holders may result in the same kinds of damage to the source
holder. Following are some situations which may cause a fall or collision.

Fall:

Bolts rust causing source holder to fall off mounting

Source holder falls off the back of a truck during transport

Chain used to hoist source holder during installation breaks

Bolts not secured correctly during installation

A vessel that vibrates can shake the bolts loose or break welds

Collision

Forklift runs into source holder

Collision of train or truck during transport

Hoist chains swings out of control, resulting in collision

In case of a fall or collision you must use your own judgment as to the extent of damage.
These steps will help you decide how much damage has been done.
5

Survey the source holder to check if the radiation pattern is normal. The radiation profile
should measure less than 5 mrem/hr at one foot from the unit with the shutter closed.

Compare this reading with the installation survey and occupancy evaluation to determine
if the reading is normal.

If the survey is normal, the shielding around the source is probably not damaged. Continue
with the following steps:
5

Ensure that the shutter on/off mechanism is functioning properly. If it is, lock it OFF.

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CAUTION:
Make sure that the radiation beam is pointed away from you and others.
5

If the shutter cannot be turned to the OFF positionblock the opening with shielding
material, and call the manufacturer for help.

Check for possible radioactive material leakage by leak testing the unit. Check for gross
contamination after wiping by taking the sealed baggy with the swab enclosed to an area
away from the source. Use a survey meter to see if there is a radiation field around the
baggy. If there is, this means that some of the radioactive material has been picked up by
the swab and is emitting radiation.
Follow the guidelines given earlier in this chapter for containing contamination. Every
effort should be made to prevent spreading the contamination any further.

If the radiation pattern is within prescribed limits, the source shutter mechanism is
operating properly and there is no evidence of radioactive material leakage, then the unit
may be returned to service.

However, if it appears that the lead shielding has been damaged, regard the unit as having a
radiation field present above allowable limits.
5

Cordon off and mark the area with radiation hazard signs at the 2 mrem/hr radiation level.
If a survey meter is not available, calculate the distance where the field intensity is
2 mrem/hr, based on your records of the activity and type of source.

Obtain names of individuals who may have been exposed.

Call the NRC or Agreement State agency immediately and notify them of the situation.
For your records, write down the name of the person at the agency you spoke with.

Contact the gauge manufacturer so that arrangements can be made for safe removal,
packaging, and shipment of the source holder. If permitted, shielding materials may be
placed around the source holder to decrease radiation levels.

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Fire
In case of a fire, handle the immediate emergency first, and inform fire-fighting personnel that
radioactive sources are in the area. As soon as the immediate emergency is taken care of:
If you do not have a fireproof source holder, assume that the lead shielding has
melted. Place a survey meter on the lowest scale and approach the unit with caution.
If radiation profiles are as measured in the initial installation survey, then proceed.
If the radiation profile is as measured in the initial survey:
5

Check the shutter mechanism for proper functioning.

Leak test the unit.

Examine the source holder environment for:

any damage to the mounting structure (bolts, brackets)
replacement of insulation or cooling system if such was supplied

If the radiation field is above normal limits:

5

Cordon off and mark the area with radiation hazard signs at the 2 mrem/hr level.

Note names of all personnel who may have received an exposure dosage. (If the
employee wants a medical examination, or if you are in doubt as to the exposure level,
arrange for a medical examination).

Contact the gauge manufacturer for assistance in removal, packaging and disposal of the
unit.

Leak test the unit for possible contamination. (A typical Cs-137 or Co-60 source capsule
should withstand a temperature of at least 1475F before distorting and, possibly, leaking
radioactive material).

Survey the area around the unit for possible contamination.

If tests indicate that the unit exhibits leakage, then using plastic gloves and tongs, place
plastic bags over the unit to prevent spreading the radioactive material.

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Fireproof source holders

If the potential for fires in your plant is great, you may want to use fireproof source holders.
Ohmart's SH-F series of fireproof source holders are made of cast iron and contain no lead.
They can withstand temperatures up to 1475F (800C) for 30 minutes.

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Emergency equipment
It is usually very difficult to find what you need in the time of an emergency. Therefore it will
be a great advantage to set aside or know where to locate the following items:
5

Records indicating the radiation levels and occupancy evaluation when the source holder
was installed

List of emergency procedures and phone numbers for help

Survey meters which have been calibrated regularly

Batteries for survey meter

Rope (to isolate the area)

Radiation hazard signs (to identify the area)

Leak test kits

Gloves

Lead or steel sheets

Handling equipment (tongs and long pliers)

Shielded containers

Dosimeters and film badges

Plastic bags for contaminated items

Tape measure

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Review questions
1.

In emergency situations

2.

If personnel have received an external radiation dosage above allowable limits, what
must be done?

3.

A source holder has been damaged, cracking the lead shielding and creating a 50
mrem/hr radiation profile one foot from the unit. What procedures and precautions
should you take?

4.

A shutter mechanism is frozen in the open position. What procedures should you
perform?

5.

If a source holder is involved in a fire, what should you do?

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Notes

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Chapter 7: U.S. NRC regulations

This part of the manual summarizes regulations of the United States Nuclear Regulatory
Commission (U.S. NRC) concerning the use of radioactive material in gauging devices. Of
course, these regulations apply to gauges manufactured by Ohmart as well as other gauges.

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Tests to be performed on nuclear gauges

Three basic tests must be performed on nuclear gauges:

Radiation Survey and Occupancy Evaluation

Periodic Leak Test (Wipe Test)

Shutter Mechanism Test

These must all be performed at the time of installation and periodically thereafter.
Records of these tests must be kept on file by the licensee and must be available for the U.S.
NRC inspectors on request.

Radiation survey and occupancy evaluation

A radiation survey and occupancy evaluation is performed by the Ohmart engineer or other
licensed person immediately after the gauge is installed. The purpose of the survey is to
obtain a radiation profile in relation to the device. Later, if there is any question about whether
the radiation field has changed, a new survey can be taken and compared with the survey
done at installation. The occupancy evaluation will determine whether personnel monitoring is
required.

Periodic leak test (wipe test)

The second test is a periodic test for leakage of radioactive material. This applies to all
sources, except gas sources such as Kr-85. This test must be performed at intervals
specified in the labeling on General License gauges or in the text of a Specific License. The
basic interval for such tests is six months; however, most Cs-137 and Co-60 Ohmart source
holders are approved for leak testing at three year intervals. Leak test analysis may be
performed by firms which have been granted a Specific License. Ohmart offers a leak test
service. [10 CFR 31.5]

On/off mechanism test

The third test ensures that the ON/OFF mechanism is operational. It must be tested every six
months or whatever interval is stated on the general license label or specific license. This is
to ensure that the shutter can be turned off in case of an emergency or in case the gauge
needs to be moved. [10 CFR 31.5]

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Posting requirements
The U.S. NRC requires that certain documents be posted in the work area to help employees
be aware of potential exposure to radiation. Some of the required posting is to inform
employees of their rights and some is to warn them of potential hazards.
Form NRC-3 (Notice to Employees) must be posted in locations that will assure that
employees working in or frequenting restricted areas will observe the notice on the way to or
from work. General licensees are exempt from this requirement. (31.5(c)(10).
The user must post the following documents or their location:

Figure 37: Workers notification

A copy of the Specific License. If the license is not posted, then a notice must be posted
stating where the license is available for inspection. (Sec.19.11)

A copy of the current Federal or Agreement State Regulations for a gauge under a
General License. Excerpts from the Federal regulations, in effect at shipment, are found in
the Ohmart Instruction Manual shipped with the gauge. (Sec. 19.11)

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Operating procedures applicable to licensed activities. (Sec 19.11)

Notice of Violations involving radiological conditions. (Sec. 19.11).

Also, signs indicating areas where exposure to certain levels of radiation are possible must
be posted. These areas are:

Restricted Area

Radiation Area

High Radiation Area

Tables 16 and 17 details the posting requirements, exposure limits, monitoring requirements,
and controls for each area.

Area definitions
These areas require no posting or personnel monitoring.
Table 16: Area definitionunrestricted

Unrestricted Area

Controlled Area

Definition

Unrestricted Area means an area,

access to which is neither limited nor
controlled by the licensee.
20.1003

Limits

No more than 100 millirems/year. 20.1301

No more than 2 millirems in any one hour. For compliance see 20.1302

126

A Controlled Area is an area outside of a

restricted area, but inside the site boundary,
access to which can be limited by the
licensee for any reason. 20.1003

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These areas require posting as listed below.

Table 17: Area definitionrestricted

RESTRICTED AREA
Restricted Area means an area, access to which is limited by the licensee for the purpose of
protecting individuals against undue risks from exposure to radiation and radioactive materials.
Restricted Area does not include areas used as residential quarters, but separate rooms in a
residential building may be set apart as a restricted area. 20.1003
Annual Limits

Total Effective Dose Equivalent equal to 5000 millirems.

Eye Dose Equivalent to 15,000 millirems.
Dose Equivalent of 50,000 millirems to the skin or any extremity. 20.1201

Radiation Area

High Radiation Area

Radiation Area means an area, accessible

to individuals, in which radiation levels could
result in an individual receiving a dose
equivalent in excess of 5 millirems in one
hour at 30 centimeters from the radiation
source or from any surface that the
radiation penetrates. 20.1003

High Radiation Area means an area, accessible

to individuals, in which radiation levels could result
in an individual receiving a dose equivalent in
excess of 100 millirems in one hour at 30
centimeters from the radiation source or from any
surface that the radiation penetrates. 20.1003

Posting of sign with the Radiation Symbol

and the words Caution Radiation Area is
required. 20.1901, 20.1902

Posting of sign with the Radiation Symbol and the

words Caution High Radiation Area is required
20.1901, 20.1902

Monitoring is required when exposure is

likely to be 10% of the annual limit.20.1502

Monitoring is always required. 20.1502

Controls such as lock out procedures, locks, alarms, lights, or automatic reduction of fields may
be required (check regulations). 20.1601, 20.1901, 20.1902

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Record keeping requirements

Federal or State regulation requires that certain records are to be kept on file for each nuclear
device on site. The record may be an original or a reproduced copy that is authenticated by
authorized personnel. Records can be stored on electronic media, provided that they have
the capability for producing legible, accurate, and complete records. Records such as letters,
drawings, and specifications must include all pertinent information such as letters, stamps,
initials, and signatures. The licensee must maintain adequate safeguards against tampering
with and loss of records.
The following table summarizes the most common records that a nuclear gauge user must
keep.
Table 18: Record keeping requirements
Record Type

Description

Time To Be Maintained

Audits of
Reviews of both content and implementation
Radiation Safety of your radiation safety program. 20.2102
Program

Three years unless defined in your license.

Current Up-todate License

Your license and all of the supporting

documentation

Until U.S. NRC or Agreement State authorizes

their disposal.

Disposal

Records of disposal made under 20.2002,

20.2003, 20.304.
[20.2101 and 30.51]

Until U.S. NRC or Agreement State authorizes

their disposal.

Inventories

Records showing the location and usage of all Three years unless defined in your license.
radioactive materials

Periodic leak
tests

Records of leak tests must include results,

date, name of person performing test.
[31.5(c)]

Personnel
monitoring

When monitoring is required, records of

Until U.S. NRC or Agreement State authorizes
individual exposures must be kept on form
their disposal. [20.2106]
NRC-5 or an equivalent form.
[20.2106]

Three years after the next required test, or

until the sealed source is transferred or
disposed.

continued on next page

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Table 18: Record keeping requirements (continued)

Record Type

Description

Time To Be Maintained

Radiation Safety The document that describes how your are

Program
maintaining the safe use of radioactive
material

Three years unless defined in your license.

Receipt

A record showing the receipt of byproduct

material (the signed shipping receipt, for
example.) [ 30.51 ]

Three years following disposal or transfer.

[30.51]

Shutter
mechanism test

Tests of the shutter ON/OFF mechanism must Three years after the next required test, or
include results, date, name of person
until the sealed source is transferred or
performing the test.
[31.5(c)] disposed.

Surveys

Radiation surveys described in [20.1501].

One example is the survey of radiation field
done at time of installation.

Three years following survey, except if survey

is done to determine exposure to individuals in
the absence of personnel monitoring. In this
case, the record must be kept until U.S. NRC
authorizes its disposal. See regulation for
other exceptions. [20.2106]

Training

Instruction in ALARA principles, reporting

Three years. Suggest keeping documentation
responsibilities re: ALARA, and emergency
of names, dates of training, tests, if any and
procedures, for those working around the
certificates if any indefinitely.
sources who are likely to receive occupational
dose of 100mrem per year [19.12]

Transfer

A record of the transfer of material.

[30.51]

Radiation Safety

Three years following transfer.

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Personnel monitoring
Personnel monitoring is required for any individual who:

Enters a "High Radiation Area"

Is apt to receive in excess of 10% in one year of the total effective dose equivalent. This
would be equal to:
500 millirem total effective dose equivalent or
5000 millirem skin or extremity or
1500 millirem to the eye or
100 millirem for minors and declared pregnant women.

(This is approximately 10 millirem per week and is based upon the survey and occupancy
evaluation performed at the time of startup.)
In addition to the above, where personnel monitoring is required, the employer must report to
former employees, on request, the former employee's exposure to radiation as shown in the
records maintained by the licensee. Naturally, if such a record is not required to be
maintained, no reporting responsibility is indicated. Most Ohmart gauges do not require
personnel monitoring.

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Radiation protection program

According to the Code of Federal Regulations Part 20.1101 Subpart B each licensee shall
develop, document, and implement a radiation protection program. The program should
include education on all of the areas that would pertain to the licensed activities and ensure
compliance with the provisions and with the regulations.
The goal of the radiation safety program should be to implement ways through engineering
controls and procedures to keep occupational doses and doses to the general public as low
as reasonably achievable (ALARA).
It is also stated in the regulations that the licensee shall at least annually review the radiation
protection program content and the implementation of it.
Items Defined in a Radiation Safety Program

Who is in charge

Who can use material

What they can do

Training specific to those duties

Emergency procedures

Operating procedures (wipe tests, surveys, lockout, etc.)

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Notification/reports
Under unusual circumstances, a nuclear gauge user in an NRC state may
be required to notify the U.S. NRC of a situation. Descriptions of such
circumstances and actions to follow are detailed in 10 CFR 20.2110,
20.2201, 20.2202, and 20.2203.
Agreement States have similar notification and reporting
requirements.
This section provides a summary of U.S. NRC regulations only. It is highly recommended that
you read the appropriate regulations and become familiar with them.
After an accident or unusual occurrence, the user should check the regulations. If the
regulations are not available for some reason, it is best to telephone the Regional Office at
once. The office should be told what occurred and asked what steps should be taken. If you
call Ohmart, we will try to help.

Reports of theft or loss of licensed material, 20.2201

This section deals with theft or loss of licensed material. Theft is self-explanatory. A loss may
be as simple as a source holder not being located where the records say and not immediately
able to be located.
The regulation leaves it up to the licensee to determine if the theft or loss occurs ...under
such circumstances that it appears to the licensee that an exposure could result to persons in
unrestricted areas. When in doubt, call the Regional Office.
Upon discovering the theft or loss:

Immediately notify the NRC Operation Center at (301) 816-5100.

Within 30 days send a written report of the incident (as described in 20.2203) to the U.S.
NRC Document Control Desk with a copy to the appropriate Regional Office.

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Notifications of Incidents, 20.2202

This section describes levels of exposure and release of radioactive materials that require
immediate or 24-hour notification to the U.S. NRC.
When notification under this section is required, it should be made to:

The U.S. NRC Operations Center by telephone (301) 951-0550

and

The appropriate Regional Office by telephone, telegram, or FAX.

The following chart summarizes the circumstances under which the user is required to
contact the NRC, according to the provisions of 20.2202. The licensee is required to report
any event that may have caused or threatens to cause any one of the circumstances in the
chart. For example, if a person has a whole body exposure of 25rems, the NRC office must
still be notified immediately.

Reportable exposures
Table 19: Reportable exposure actions

Exposure in Millirems

Release of
radioactive
material
averaged over 24
hours

Total
Effective
Dose

Skin/

Immediate
Notification and
30 Day Written
Report

25,000

250,000

75,000

5 x annual intake
limit

20.2202 (a)

24 hour
Notification and
30 Day Written
Report

5,000

50,000

15,000

1 x annual intake
limits

20.2202 (b)

Action

Radiation Safety

Eye

Extremitie
s

Reference

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Report events
Table 20: Reportable events and actions

Action

Events

Reference

Immediate Notification and

30 Day Written Report

Events that prevent the immediate protective

action necessary to prevent exposures. Loss,
Fires, Explosions, etc.

30.50 (a)

24 hour Notification and 30

Day Written Report

An event in which safety equipment fails to

function and no redundant equipment is
available.

30.50 (b)(2)(ii)
30.50 (b)(2)(iii)

Reports of overexposures and excessive levels and

concentrations, 20.2203
This section describes circumstances under which a written report is required. Note that any
notification described in 20.2203 must be followed by a written report. These reports are to be
made to:

Nuclear Regulatory Commission

Document Control Desk
Washington, D.C. 20555

A copy to the appropriate Regional Office.

The format for these reports is described in 10 CFR 20.2203.

Five general circumstances warrant a written report (see regulations for details):
1. Exposure to radiation- in excess of 20.1201, 20.1207 or the license.
2. Exposure to radioactive material- in excess of 20.1201, 20.1207, or license.
3. Levels of radiation or concentration of radioactive materials in restricted area- in excess
of license limits.
4. Levels of radiation or concentration of radioactive materials in unrestricted area- in
excess of ten times any applicable limit whether or not anyone was exposed. 20.2203
(a)(3)(ii)

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5. Any incident described in 20.2202.

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Other regulations
Inspection
The U.S. NRC maintains a staff of inspectors, called Compliance Officers,
periodically visit users establishments and inspect their installations and their
records. Any deviation from the regulations is reported by these officers to the
Regulatory Operations Regional Offices.

who

Recently, these inspections have become somewhat painstaking. This is beneficial since it
assures the user that his records and his installations are in good shape. The inspections can
help to protect him from possible future problems in employee relations. In some cases, it
might even protect him from lawsuits. However, this stepped-up activity also requires
additional care and knowledge on the part of the user.
During an inspection, the inspector may consult privately with workers concerning
occupational radiation protection. [19.15 (a)]. During an inspection, a worker may privately
bring to the attention of the inspector any condition which he thinks violates the regulations.
[19.15 (b)]
In addition, 10 CFR 19.16 states that any worker or representative of workers who believes
that there have been violations of regulations with regard to radiological working conditions,
in which the worker is engaged, may request an inspection by writing to the Regional Office
Administrator. The licensee receives a copy of this request, with the name(s) of the worker(s)
omitted. If the Regional Office Administrator determines that the complaint warrants it, an
inspection of the facilities will be made. The inspection need not be limited to the matters
referred to in the complaint.

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Instruction to workers
Personnel should be aware of the location of source holders, how they function, protective
devices (shutters, additional shielding) as well as the appropriate response to warnings made
in the event of an unusual occurrence or malfunction that may involve exposure to radiation
or radioactive materials.
According to 10 CFR 19.12, all individuals who in the course of employment are likely
to receive in a year an occupational dose in excess of 100mrem (1mSv) are to be
kept informed of the storage, transfer and use of radioactive materials, the radiation
fields present and health protection problems associated with exposure.
Instructed in, and required to observe, to the extent within the workers control, the
applicable provisions of Commission regulations and licenses for the protection of
personnel from exposure to radiation and/or radioactive material;
Instructed of their responsibility to report promptly to the licensee any condition that
may lead to or cause a violation of Commission regulations and licenses or
unnecessary exposure to radiation and/or radioactive material;
In determining those individuals subject to the above requirements, you must take into
consideration assigned activities during normal and abnormal situations involving exposure to
radiation and/or radioactive material that can reasonably be expected to occur during the use
of gauges at your plant. The extent of these instructions must be commensurate with
potential radiological health protection problems present in the work place.

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Disposal
When a radioactive source is no longer needed, it may be disposed of by any one of a
number of approved disposal agencies. The easiest thing for Ohmart customers to do is to
contact Ohmart/VEGA for instructions. In many cases, Ohmart is able to take the source
back, although there are restrictions to this. If Ohmart cannot take the source back, an
authorized disposal agency may be contacted.
In the case of generally licensed gauges, the dismantling of the device must be done under
the supervision of an Ohmart engineer, or specifically licensed person.
On specifically licensed gauges, the provision of the license governs whether or not the user
may dismantle the gauge. By "dismantling the gauge" we mean removing and packing the
source holder following the procedures in Chapter 8. Do not remove the source capsule from
the source holder.

Disposal Inc.

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U.S. NRC rules and regulations

This chapter provided you with a summary of the major regulations that are likely to have an
effect on your work. However, the summary does not discuss all the regulations. Following
are copies of the relevant parts of United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Rules and
Regulations, Title 10, Chapter 1, Code of Federal RegulationsEnergy.
If your job is such that you may find yourself involved with the U.S. NRC, it is a good idea to
become familiar with the regulations.

Part 19Notices, Instructions, and Reports to Workers;

Inspections
Part 20Standards for Protection Against Radiation

General Provisions

Permissible Doses, Levels and Concentrations

Precautionary Procedures

Waste Disposal

Records, Reports, and Notification

Exceptions and Additional Requirements

Enforcement

Part 21Reporting of Defects and Noncompliance

General Provisions

Notification

Procurement Documents

Inspections, Records

Inspections

Maintenance of records

Enforcement

Failure to notify

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Part 30Rules of General Applicability to Domestic Licensing

of Byproduct Material

General Provisions

Exemptions

Licenses

Records, Inspections, Tests, and Reports

Enforcement

Schedules

Part 31General Domestic Licenses for Byproduct Material

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Contacting the U.S. NRC

Go to http://www.nrc.gov for a list of regional offices. This provides the necessary information,
if you need to contact the NRC. Check the regulations to be sure which office to contact
under which circumstances.
U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission
Document Control Desk
Washington, D.C. 20555
U.S. NRC Operations Center

(301) 816-5100

Regional Offices
U. S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Region I 1-800-432-1156
Nuclear Material Section B
475 Allendale Road
King of Prussia, Pennsylvania 19406
U. S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Region II
Material Radiation Protection Section
101 Marietta Street, NW
Suite 2900
Atlanta, Georgia 30323

1-800-577-8510

U. S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Region III

Material Licensing Section
801 Warrenville Road
Lisle, IL 60532-4351

1-800-522-3025

U. S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Region IV

Material Radiation Protection Section
611 Ryan Plaza Drive
Suite 1000
Arlington, Texas 76011

1-800-952-9677

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Internet sites and information

The following sites are listed for reference only.
The NRC home page
www.nrc.gov

Of particular interest -Consolidated Guidance About Materials Licenses:

Program-Specific Guidance About Fixed Gauge Licenses (NUREG -1556, Vol.
4)
www.nrc.gov/NRC/NUREGS/SR1556/V4/index.html
Licensee web toolbox. This site has links to the regulations, regulatory guides and on
site forms
www.nrc.gov/OPA/toolbox.htm
Listing of sealed source and device registrations for all manufacturers.
www.hsrd.ornl.gov/nrc/sources/index.cfm

Listing of agreement state programs with phone numbers

www.hsrd.ornl.gov/nrc/asframe.htm

Contacting the Canadian Nuclear Safety

Commission
This general address and number should serve as a quick reference if you need to contact
the Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission (CNSC). Call to get more information as to the
specific office and/or person to contact under which circumstances.
Canada CNSC 613/996-9505
FAX: 613/995-5086
Web site : www.nuclearsafety.gc.ca
Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission
280 Slater Street
P.O. Box 1046, Station B
Ottawa, Ontario K1P 5S9, Canada

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Review questions
1.

In a Non-agreement State, who regulates the use of x-ray devices?

2.

How do you apply for a general license?

3.

What is the only physical difference between a general license gauge and a specific
license gauge?

4.

Where should you post your specific license?

5.

What is a restricted area?

6.

What is a radiation area?

7.

When is a radiation survey performed? Why?

8.

When is a leak test performed?

9.

During an U.S. NRC inspection, what records should you have available?

10.

When is personnel monitoring required?

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Chapter 8: U.S. DOT shipping

regulations
A gauge user must comply with the conditions of his specific license from the NRC or
Agreement State or the general license when he wants to remove a gauge from service and
dispose of the radioactive source.
A user must also comply with the United States Department of Transportation regulations
when packing or shipping a gauge. This section will discuss some of the pertinent regulations
for shipping radioactive materials.
Remember that an individual packing a device for shipment must be specifically licensed to
do so. If you are not so licensed, Ohmart can provide supervision during packing and
shipping.

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U.S. DOT terms

Special form radioactive materials
Radioactive material must be either a single solid piece or must be contained in a sealed
capsule that can be opened only by destroying the capsule to qualify as special form. In
addition, no dimension may be smaller than 5 millimeters or 0.197 inches (49 CFR 173.403).
Sealed capsules used by Ohmart are all larger than 0.25 inches.

Special form radioactive materials must meet the test requirements detailed in 49 CFR
173.469. These include an impact test, percussion test, bending test, heat test, and a
leaching assessment test, and are conducted by the sealed source manufacturer.
For the export shipment of special form materials, a copy of the Certificate of Competent
Authority is required from the vendor who supplies the gauge. This certificate is given to the
sealed source manufacturer to show that the requirements for special form were met.

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Normal form radioactive material

Normal Form Radioactive Material means radioactive material which has not been
demonstrated to qualify as special form radioactive material.
Some sealed sources used in gauging, such as Iron-55 or the gas Krypton-85, may be
classified as normal form. This could mean that the encapsulated source did not pass the
requirements, or the manufacturer chose not to submit them to the testing.

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Type A and specification 7A packaging

Specification 7A, or Spec 7A, packaging is general packaging that must meet the
requirements for Type A packaging.
Type A packaging must be designed according to DOT regulations 173.411 and 173.465.
The packaging must be adequate to prevent loss or dispersal of its radioactive contents and
maintain its radiation shielding properties while subjected to defined normal conditions of
transport. (10 CFR PART 71) Type A packaging is not designed to withstand transport
accidents.
The shipper, whether it is Ohmart or the gauge user, must make an assessment of his
package design against the performance requirement. These package designs do not have
to be approved. However:
The shipper of a Spec 7A package must maintain on file for one year after the shipment
and provide to the DOT upon request, a documentation of tests and engineering
evaluation or comparative data showing that construction methods, packaging design
and construction materials comply with the requirements in 173.411, 412, & 465.
Foreign-made Type A packages (marked Type A) are accepted internationally without the
specific approval of competent national authority.
Among other requirements described in 49 CFR 173.411 & 173.412, type A packages must
be capable of withstanding the following tests (described in 49 CFR 173.465):

Water Spray
Simulated exposure to 2" of rainfall for one hour.

Free Fall Drop

Dropped onto unyielding surface that causes maximum damage to safety features. For
packages under 11,000 pounds (5,000 kilograms) the packages must be dropped at least
four feet for solid radioactive materials and 30 feet for gaseous materials such as Kr-85.

Compression
Unit compressed for 24 hours under a load five times the weight of the package.

Penetration
A steel bar 1.25" in diameter weighing 13.2lbs (6kg) dropped 3.3feet (1meter) onto the
weakest package part, so that, if it penetrates, it will hit the containment system.

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Activity limits for type A packages

"Type A" packages must not contain a quantity of radioactivity greater than A1 (for special
form radioactive material) or A2 (for normal form radioactive material).
The values of A1 and A2 for typical Ohmart sources are given in the following table. The
activities are expressed in Gigabecquerel and Curies.
Table 21: Typical Ohmart A1 and A2 radionuclide values

Radionuclide

A1, GBq (Ci)

A2, GBq (Ci)

Special Form

Normal Form

2000 (54.1)

0.2 (0.005)

Californium- 252

100 (2.7)

0.001 (0.027)

Cobalt-60

400 (10.8)

400 (10.8)

Cesium-137

2000 (54.1)

500 (13.5)

*Krypton-85

20,000 (541)

10,000 (270)

200 (5.41)

100 (2.70)

Americium-241

*Strontium-90
* not available in special form

Requirements for determination of A1 and A2 values for radionuclides not listed here may be
found in 49 CFR 173.435.

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Hazardous material identification

Every hazardous material has been classified by the DOT and has been given a proper
shipping name and an identification number. For example, the proper shipping name for
radioactive materials in special form is "Radioactive Material Special Form N.O.S." where
N.O.S. means "not otherwise specified." The identification number for this material is "UN
2974." For normal form the proper shipping name is Radioactive Material N.O.S. and the
number is UN 2982.
The proper shipping names and identification numbers for all hazardous materials can be
found in the Hazardous Material Table in 49 CFR 172.101.
The International Atomic Energy Agency has assigned new hazardous material shipping
names. These will be adopted by the U.S. DOT in the future. They are in use now for air and
international shipments.
DOT:
IAEA:

Radioactive Material, Special Form, N.O.S., 7, UN 2974 (

)
Radioactive Material, N.O.S., 7, UN 2982 (
)
Radioactive Material, Type A Package, Special Form, UN 3332
Radioactive Material, Type A Package, UN 2915

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Reportable quantity
A hazardous material can also be defined by DOT as a hazardous substance if the
radioactive material exceeds the listed quantity as defined in 172.101 Appendix A Table 2.
Portions of that table are listed below.
The DOT requires the addition of the letters "RQ" either before or after the description of
radioactive material on both the DOT description label and the bill of lading whenever the
quantity of material covered by that label or bill of lading equals or exceeds the following
values for isotopes we normally use:
Table 22: Isotope values for reportable quantities

Isotope

Value

Value

Americium-241

10 mCi

[0.37 GBq]

Californium-252

100 mCi

[3.7 GBq]

Cesium-137

1 Ci

[37 GBq]

Cobalt-60

10 Ci

[370 GBq]

Radium-226

100 mCi

[3.7 GBq]

Strontium-90

100 mCi

[3.7 GBq]

Krypton-85

1000 Ci

[37 TBq]

Iron-55

100 Ci

[3.7 TBq]

The term "reportable quantity" means that any spill or release of the material requires
reporting. The DOT hotline number is 1-800-424-8802.

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Shippers responsibility
Your responsibility for shipped material does not end when the truck pulls away from your
dock. It ends when the receiving party signs for the shipment. This is especially important to
remember if you are shipping hazardous material.
If you send a source holder back to Ohmart and it gets lost during transport, YOU are
responsible for finding it. Ohmart can assist you in your search, but the regulatory agencies
will expect the appropriate notification and paperwork from you.

Disposal, Inc.

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Returning radioactive material to Ohmart

To return units containing radioactive material to Ohmart, you begin by obtaining proper
authorization from Ohmart. Only Ohmart sources will be accepted for disposal, unless
specific approval is obtained prior to shipment.

Step 1: Obtaining authorization

Call Ohmarts customer service department at 513/272-0131 to obtain a material return
authorization number. Sources will not be accepted unless the return has been authorized.
The material return number must:

Be entered on the bill of lading attached to the package.

Appear on the outside of the package.

Be shown as a reference on all paperwork pertaining to this shipment.

If requested, instructions and the required labels will be mailed after authorization has been
issued.
Do not add or delete any units to those that have been authorized for return without first
calling Ohmart.

Step 2: Preparing packaging

Type A PackagingSource holders and units containing sources must meet the test
conditions of a "Type A" package. Although Ohmart source holders were classified as "Type
A" packages at the time of initial shipment, it is the responsibility of the shipper to ensure that
these units still qualify as "Type A" packages and provide the same shielding protection.

Leak Test
Each container must be wipe tested to ensure that there is no significant removable
radioactive surface contamination.

Security Seal
Each source holder must be turned off whenever possible and locked, or the container must
be closed by a security seal which, when intact, will be evidence that the package was not
opened during shipment.

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Marking Requirements
Each package of radioactive material which conforms to the requirements of a "Type A"
package must carry the appropriate marking in 1/2" letters, as shown below. (49 CFR
178.350)

U.S.A. DOT 7A TYPE A

RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL
Figure 38: U.S.A. DOT 7A type A Radioactive Material label #1

When a package needs protection, or when two packages need to be shipped together, an
overpack enclosure may be used. For example, Ohmart often ships larger gauges in wooden
crates for ease of handling. Overpack enclosures must bear a label identifying the packaging
type of the inner package.

INSIDE PACKAGES COMPLY

WITH PRESCRIBED
SPECIFICATIONS FOR
U.S.A. DOT 7A TYPE A
Figure 39: U.S.A. DOT 7A type A Radioactive Material label #2

The radioactive material must be identified by its proper shipping name on the package and
marked with the appropriate hazardous material identification number. The label below must
also appear on any overpack, using the proper name and UN number of the material for your
shipment.

RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL
SPECIAL FORM, N.O.S.,7
(CESIUM - 137)
UN 2974
Figure 40: U.S.A. DOT 7A type A Radioactive Material label #3

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Step 3: Affixing labels

Each package of radioactive material must be labeled on two opposite sides, with a
distinctive warning label which is selected based upon a radiation survey of the package.
(DOT 172.403). These labels alert personnel who handle packages where special
precautions may be required. Labels referring to radioactive classification from a previous
shipment must be covered with new labels or removed.
The following shows the labeling.

EMPTY

RADIOACTIVE I
Contents
Activity

RADIOACTIVE

RADIOACTIVE

II

III

Contents
Activity

Contents
Activity

TRANSPORT INDEX

TRANSPORT INDEX

Figure 41: Radiation labels

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Table 23: Package survey requirements for distances

Label

Description

Survey reading* at
any point
accessible on
surface

Survey reading*
1meter from the
external surface.
Transport Index

Empty

EMPTY labels must cover

previous labels on empty
containers.

N/A

N/A

White I

Minimal radiation present

Less than 0.5

N/A

Yellow II

Certain controls must be

exercised during shipment

Between 0.5 and 50

Less than or equal

to 1.0

Yellow III

Transport vehicle required to

display Radioactive placard.
See 172.504 for details

Between 50 and 200

Between 1 and 10

*Note: Yellow III shipment to Ohmart must be approved prior to shipment.

The package must meet the survey requirements for both distances to qualify for a label. For
instance, if the survey reads 48mrem/hr at any external surface, but 1.3mrem/hr at one
meter, it must be labeled Yellow III. Packages with reading in excess of Yellow III limits
cannot be shipped by common carrier. See paragraph 173.441 for such shipments.

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Fill out label as follows:

Content
The name of the radionuclide or symbol which conforms to
established terminology.(e.g., Cs-137)

Activity
Expressed in gigaBecquerels, milliCuries may be listed after
in parentheses for truck shipments.

Transport Index

RADIOACTIVE
Contents

Dimensionless number expressing the maximum radiation

level (mrem/hr or microSieverts/hr divided by 10) at one
meter from the external surface of the package.

Activity

TRANSPORT INDEX

Air Shipment

Source holders cannot be shipped on passenger aircraft.

These units may be shipped only on cargo aircraft. The black and orange cargo aircraft label
with black print must be placed on appropriate containers. See previous pages for labeling
for air shipments.

Figure 42: Cargo aircraft label

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Step 4: Completing the shipping document

Each shipment requires a shipping document, whether it is a bill of lading (see following page
for a sample), an airbill or a shipping order. It must contain the following information:
5

Proper shipping name

Identification number

Reportable quantity

Radioactive contents

Transport index

Type label

Certification statement

Emergency response telephone number

Signature

Return authorization number

Proper shipping name and identification number

Table 24: Information for shipping documents

Radioisotope

Proper shipping name

Identification no.

Cs-137, Am-241, Co-60, or

Cf-252

Radioactive Material
Special Form N.O.S.

UN 2974

Kr-85, Sr-90, Fe-55

Radioactive Material
N.O.S.

UN 2982

Reportable quantity
The letters RQ must appear before or after the shipping name if the package contains a
reportable quantity.

Radioactive contents
Name or symbol, i.e., Cs-137

Activity of each package

Expressed in GigaBecquerel.

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Transport index
Refer to the following DOT definitions for further information.

Type Label
"White I", "Yellow II" or "Yellow III".

Certification Statement
Each shipment of a hazardous material must be accompanied by a shippers certification.
Example as follows:
I hereby declare that the contents of this consignment are fully and accurately
described above by the proper shipping name and are classified, packaged, marked,
and labeled/placarded, and are in all respects in proper condition for transport
according to applicable international and national governmental regulations.
Each person who offers for transportation by air a hazardous material authorized for air
transportation shall add to the certification required in this section the following statement:
This shipment is within the limitations prescribed for cargo aircraft only.

Emergency Response Telephone Number

Staffed phone of person offering material for shipment, or organization capable of providing
information about the material.

Signature
Each certificate must be signed by an employee of the shipper. Transportation by air requires
at least two signed copies to the air carrier.

Return Authorization Number

Issued by Ohmart.

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Straight bill of ladingshort form

ORIGINALNOT NEGOTIABLE
(Name of Carrier)
RECEIVED, subject to the classifications and tariffs in effect on the date of the issue of this Bill of Lading.
From: Company
Address:
the property described below, in apparent good order, except as noted (content and condition of contents of packages unknown), marked, consigned, and destined as indicated
below, which said carrier (the word carrier being understood throughout this contract as meaning any person or corporation in possession of the property under the contract) agrees
to carry to its usual place of delivery at said destination, if on its route, otherwise to deliver to another carrier on the route to said destination. It is mutually agreed, as to each carrier
of all or any of said property over all or any portion of said route to destination, and as to each party at any time interested in all or any of said property, that every service to be
performed hereunder shall be subject to all the terms and conditions of the Uniform Domestic Straight Bill of Lading Set forth (1) in Official, Southern, Western and Illinois Freight
Classifications in effect on the date hereof, if this is a rail or a rail-water shipment, or (2) in the applicable motor carrier classifications or tariff if this is a motor carrier shipment.
Shipper hereby certifies that he is familiar with all the terms and conditions of the said bill of lading, including those on the back thereof, set forth in the classification or tariff which
governs the transportation of this shipment, and the said terms and conditions are hereby agreed to by the shipper and accepted for himself and his assigns.

Consigned to Ohmart/VEGA Corporation

Destination 4241 Allendorf Drive State Ohio Zip Code 45209
Route
No.
Pkg
.

H
/
M

Kind of Packages, Description of Articles, Special Marks

and Exceptions

RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL
SPECIAL FORM N.O.S.,7 (

*Weight
Sub. to
Cor.

Principal
Radioactive
Contents

Activity
of
Content
s

T.I.

Type Label

)UN 2974

RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL
N.O.S.,7(
)UN 2982
-----for Gas Ion Chambers Only ---ARGON NON-FLAMMABLE GAS
(DOT - E 8472). (UN-1006)
IN METAL CYLINDERS (ITEM NO. 85880)
--------------------------------This is to certify that the above-named materials are
properly classified, described, packaged, marked and
labeled, and are in proper condition for transportation,
according to applicable regulations of the Department of
Transportation.
Emergency Contact:
Third Party Bill To:
SHIPPERS REF. NO.
MATERIAL RETURN AUTHORIZATION NO.

NAME OF SHIPPER
Permanent post office address of shipper:

Radiation Safety

If charges are to be prepaid,

write or stamp here, To be
Prepaid.

RECEIVED BY
Date

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Sources of federal regulations

Title 49
Department of Transportation's Hazardous Material Regulations, Parts 100199.

Main headings

49 CFR 170Rule-making Procedures of the Materials Transportation Bureau

49 CFR 171General Information, Regulations and Definitions

49 CFR 172Hazardous Materials Table and Hazardous Materials Communications

Regulations

49 CFR 173Shippers-General Requirements for Shipments and Packaging

49 CFR 174Carriage by Rail

49 CFR 175Carriage by Aircraft

49 CFR 176Carriage by Vessel

49 CFR 177Carriage by Public Highway

49 CFR 178Shipping Container Specifications

49 CFR 179Specifications for Tanks Cars

-----------------------------

Title 10
U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission
10 CFR 71Packaging of Radioactive Materials for Transport and Transportation of
Radioactive Material Under Certain Conditions

Title 39
Postal Service, U.S. Postal Service Regulations, Part 123. (Postal Regulations for Transport
of Radioactive Matter are published in U.S. Postal Service Publication #6, December, 1975
and in the U.S. Postal Manual).

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DOT definitions
Extracted from Title 49 Code of Federal Regulations Transportation Section 173.403.

A1
The maximum activity of special form radioactive material permitted in a Type A package.

A2
The maximum activity of radioactive material, other than special form or low specific activity
radioactive material, permitted in a Type A package.

Cargo aircraft only

An aircraft that is used to transport cargo and is not engaged in carrying passengers.

Containment system
The components of the packaging intended to retain the radioactive contents during
transportation.

Design
The description of a special form material, a package, or a packaging, that enables those
items to be fully identified. The description may include specifications, engineering drawings,
reports showing compliance with regulatory requirements, and other relevant documentation.

Fissile material
Any material consisting of, or containing one or more, fissile radionuclides. Fissile
radionuclides are plutonium-238, plutonium-239, plutonium-241, uranium-233 and
uranium-235.

Gross weight
The weight of a package plus the weight of its contents.

Hazardous material
A substance or material which has been determined by the Secretary of Transportation to be
capable of posing an unreasonable risk to health, safety, and property when transported in
commerce, and which has been so designated.

Marking
Applying the descriptive name, instructions, cautions, weight or specification marks or
combination thereof required by this subchapter to be placed upon outside containers of
hazardous materials.

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Name of contents
The proper shipping name of the contents.

Net weight
A measure of weight referring only to the contents of package. It does not include the weight
of any packaging material.

N.O.S.
Not otherwise specified.

Non-fixed radioactive contamination

radioactive contamination that can be readily removed from a surface by wiping with an
absorbent material.

Normal form radioactive material

radioactive material which has not been demonstrated to qualify as "special form radioactive
material."

Overpack
An enclosure that is used by a single consignor to provide protection or convenience in
handling of a package or to consolidate two or more packages.

Package
For radioactive materials, the packaging together with its radioactive contents as presented
for transport.

Packaging
For radioactive materials, the assembly of components necessary to ensure compliance with
the packaging requirements of this subpart. It may consist of one or more receptacles,
absorbent materials, spacing structures, thermal insulation, radiation shielding, and devices
for cooling or absorbing mechanical shocks. The conveyance, tied-down system, and
auxiliary equipment may sometimes be designated as part of the packaging.

Radioactive contents
The radioactive material, together with any contaminated liquids or gases, within the
package.

Radioactive material
Any material having a specific activity greater than 0.002 microCuries per gram (mCi/g) (see
definition of "specific activity")

Shipper paper
A shipper order, bill of lading or other shipping document serving a similar purpose.

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Special form radioactive material

Radioactive material that satisfies the following conditions:

It is either a single solid piece or is contained in a sealed capsule that can be opened
only by destroying the capsule.

The piece or capsule has at least one dimension not less than 5 millimeters (0.197 inch).

The test requirements of 173.469.

Specific activity of a radionuclide

The activity of the radionuclide per unit mass of that nuclide. The specific activity of a material
in which the radionuclide is essentially uniformly distributed is the activity per unit mass of the
material.

Transport index
The dimensionless number (rounded up) placed on the label of a package to designate the
degree of control to be exercised by the carrier during transportation. The transport index is
determined as follows:
The number expressing the maximum radiation level in millirem per hour at one meter (3.3
feet) from the external surface of the package.

Type A package
Packaging together with its limited radioactive contents. A Type A package does not require
competent authority approval, since its contents are limited to A1 or A2.

Type B packaging
A packaging designed to retain the integrity of containment and shielding required by this part
when subjected to the normal conditions of transport and hypothetical accident test
conditions set forth in 10 CFR Part 71.

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Review questions
1.

What is the "Transport Index Number?"

2.

What is the hazardous material identification number (UN number) for special form
material?

3.

What labels are required when shipping a Type A source holder containing Cs-137
on a skid?

4.

What activity of Co-60 may be shipped in a Type A package when the radioactive
material is special form?

5.

Who determines whether a Type A package can withstand the normal conditions of
transport?

6.

At what point does the responsibility shift from the customer to the manufacturer
during return shipment for reuse?

7.

How long should radioactive material shipping records be maintained?

8.

Can radioactive materials be transported on passenger aircraft?

9.

Who is allowed to package and ship source holders containing radioactive materials?

10.

A source holder is being shipped back for disposal. The vehicle is involved in an
accident and the source holder is lost. Who is responsible for finding the source
holder?

11.

What are the surface radiation limits of a package labeled Yellow II?

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Notes:

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Chapter 9: Procedures
This section includes guidelines for performing certain procedures that are not uncommon to
users of nuclear gauges. General guidelines for removing a source holder are given for users
who are specifically licensed to do so. Also in this section are general guidelines for
performing periodic leak tests, surveys, and the occupancy evaluation.
In addition, forms that may be used during the procedures described are included for quick
reference.
Remember, your license may not permit you to perform some of the following procedures. It
is your responsibility to know the limitations of your license agreement and to abide by them.

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Receiving the source holder

Perform the following procedure after receipt of the source holder.
Procedure 1: Receive source holder

1.

Inspection

Visually inspect source holder for damage

Make sure the On/Off mechanism is closed and locked

2.

Check to be sure that the shipment is complete before the truck leaves.

3.

If gauge is not to be installed immediately, find a storage area.

4.

Isolate and secure storage area

Low level radiation fields are always present around source holder.

Occupancy evaluations should be considered when selecting a storage

area. Choose areas that are isolated.

Access should be allowed to authorized personnel only.

5.

Records of the shipping and receipt must be maintained. Refer to page 128 for
further information.

6.

While they may not be required, a survey and leak test provide additional
assurance that the package is in safe condition.

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Installation of a source holder

Each separate placement or relocation is to be regarded as a new installation. Installation
may be conducted only by persons who have been specifically licensed to perform this
function. This person must have a calibrated survey meter and must be present at the site
during the entire operation.

Step 1: Preliminary survey

Procedure 2: Ensure meter is calibrated and operable

1.

Conduct a radiation survey of the unit at the storage location. Survey unit omnidirectionally one foot from the surface

2.

If the radiation field is normal (less than 5 mR/hr at one foot for most Ohmart
source holders), go to step 3. If the radiation field is greater than 5mR/hr
perform the next procedure

3.

Conduct visual inspection of source holder

4.

Shutter mechanism appears to be operable

External surfaces are not damaged

Proceed with installation, ensuring that sufficient personnel and equipment are
available to move the unit.
Procedure 3: When radiation field is greater than 5mR/hr

1.

If the radiation field is greater than 5mR/hr at one foot special posting or
restrictions of the area may be required

2.

Inform workers of any special handling procedures

3..

Verify with the manufacturer that this condition is normal for the type source and
source holder you are installing.

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Step 2: Mounting unit

Correct installation
Before installation of the unit, verify the following:
5

Mounting position is in compliance with manufacturer's engineering drawings and

specifications

Ensure adequate clearance to operate shutter mechanism

High temperature or caustic environmental conditions should have been considered in

advance. Some of these might be:

Adequate insulation to protect source holder from high temperature

Special cooling system required to reduce source holder temperature

Additional shielding required to prevent caustic material from settling on source holders

Personnel and equipment available to mount unit (cranes, hoists, supports, etc.)

Caution
Remember, source holders are very heavy (up to 2,000lbs). Make sure you know how much
weight you are dealing with.

Step 3: Perform a leak test

Refer to Procedure 4 on page 175 for information concerning leak testing.

Step 4: Radiation survey after installation

5

Survey sheets complete with measurements at one foot omni-directionally to record

radiation pattern.

Survey in shutter closed and then open position.

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Step 5: Occupancy evaluation

Areas where personnel may be present are monitored to determine radiation field intensity.
5

Exposed radiation fields present

Additional shielding may be required to prohibit individuals from receiving
radiation dosages greater than 2mrem/hr
Notify appropriate personnel of radiation areas and precautions which must be
taken to minimize exposure

If there are radiation fields above 2mrem/hr present on detector side:

Notify RSO of the problem and precautions which must be taken to minimize
exposure
Add shielding in front of collimator or on detector side to reduce radiation. Survey
unit after installation
Restrict area if required

Radiation fields inside vessel

Establish written lockout procedures
Prior to vessel entry, verify by signature that source holder is locked in OFF
position
Ensure radiation field is below 2mrem/hr with a survey meter prior to vessel
entry
Issue personnel dosimeters or area monitor, if required
Ensure vessel is vacated and entrance door locked before unlocking source
holder and returning it to the ON position.

Ensure compliance with posting requirements

Radiation Caution signs on entrances of vessel
Notice to Employees (Form NRC-3) visibly posted
Lockout procedures posted in an area where personnel who may enter vessel
can see them.

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Removal of a source holder

Removal must be performed by persons who have been specifically licensed by the NRC or
Agreement State. The person must be present during the entire operation. Because most
thickness measuring system source holders which were distributed by Ohmart (BAL) are
issued under general licenses, the user is not allowed to service or remove them.
Perform the safe handling procedures that follow when removing a source holder.

Step 1: Physical examination of unit

5

Integrity of external surface. External surface is smooth and has not been damaged.

Corroded and rusted units which have been in service under extreme environmental
conditions may require special removal and handling and shipping procedures.

Shutter mechanism OFF and locked. Shutter must be closed and locked in the OFF
position or secured shut by some other means.

Step 2: Perform radiation survey

5

Ensure meter is calibrated and operable

Survey unit omni-directionally at 1ft

Radiation field should be comparable to installation survey or less than 5mrem/hr at 1ft
omni-directionally.

Step 3: Perform leak test

5

Perform leak test if unit is being prepared for shipment.

See leak test instructions and forms in the back of Chapter 9.

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Step 4: Handling precautions

5

Inform all personnel involved of procedures before source holder is removed. These
procedures should take into consideration the effects of time, distance, and shielding
and, how they can reduce exposure.

Removal of source holder with an open shutter

Step 1: Develop a plan for safe removal
Step 1A: Establish a radiation safety zone
Only personnel who are specifically licensed to remove and reinstall source holders are
authorized to do so.
5

Determine by calculation at what distance a cordon should be established around an

area to maintain exposure of all other personnel to less than 2mrem/hr

Use the formulas explained in Chapter 4 of this manual

Establish limits of safe zone and restrict the area. Restrictions and posting requirements
are found in Chapter 7

Coordinate job with other supervisors so everyone is aware of situation.

Step 1B: Select shielding material for open source holder

5

Use the half-value layer calculation in Chapter 3 to determine the type and amount of
shielding material required to reduce radiation to less than 2mR/hr at 1 foot

Step 1C: Determine physical limitations of moving source

holders
5

Eliminate obstacles which will prohibit free and quick movement

Gather all equipment required, such as, handling tools, hoists, connection chains,
shielding material, tools, etc.

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Step 2: Explanation to workers of handling procedures

5

Individual functions should be understood by all personnel.

Radiation field focus during movement and possible dosages while handling should be
explained to all personnel involved to minimize exposure.

Placement of shielding material over all collimator openings and methods of fastening
shielding should be understood by all personnel.

Instruction should be provided on the proper use of personnel monitoring equipment to all
personnel involved.

Survey meters should be positioned to determine extent of radiation field at different

physical locations during source exposure.

Movement of source holder or sources is to be rehearsed prior to removal. Exact

handling procedures should be re-emphasized.

Step 3: After source holder is removed from mounting

5

Secure appropriate amount of shielding to the source holder opening

Survey unit after shielding is in place. Exposures should be less than 2mrem/hr to all
personnel.

Package source holder for shipment according to the U.S. DOT regulations (See Chapter
7.)

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Leak testing
The basic interval for such tests is six months; however, most Cs-137 and Co-60 source
capsules supplied by Ohmart are approved for leak testing at three-year intervals.
Ohmart/VEGA can provide, upon request, a letter that outlines the required frequency for
leaking testing. Contact Customer Support if you need a copy of this letter.

Instructions for leak testing

When leak testing a sealed source in a source holder, follow these simple instructions:
It is not necessary to disassemble the source holder for the leak test. Testing the external
surface of the source holder is all that is required. Be sure the shutter is in the closed position
prior to conducting the leak test.
Procedure 4: Leak testing

1.

Take the plastic bag containing the swabstick for source holder to be tested.

2.

Open the plastic bag and grasp the swabstick by the end opposite the fiber tip.

3.

Wipe the external surface of the source holder with the fiber tipped end.

4.

Wipe all seams and around the shaft of the shutter mechanism.

5.

Replace test swab in plastic bag and seal

Caution: Do not touch the fiber end or allow it to touch other objects as this
would spread contamination if the source were leaking.

6..

If there is a survey device available, take the plastic bag containing the wipe
swab to an area away from known radiation and check for gross contamination.

7.

Attach the label provided with the leak test kit. Return to Ohmart for lab test
results.

Test results
Upon receipt, Ohmart will perform a test to determine the presence of radioactive
contamination. If the results of the leak tests are negative, the results are returned to you by
mail indicating that no contamination was present. If removable contamination is found and it
is less than 0.005microCurie, but is significantly above background, Ohmart will send a new
kit for a rewipe. If contamination is evident on the second leak test, although less than
0.005microCurie, you will be advised to dispose of the source although it technically may not

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be leaking. You are required to keep all leak test results on file until three years after the next
required test or disposal.

Shutter check
If the nuclear gauge is used to control your process, be sure to disable the control feature
before moving the shutter to the OFF position. Otherwise, the gauge will read a HIGH
process condition when the shutter is OFF and may change your process.

Shutter check
To test the shutter mechanism, move the actuator back and forth several times between the
OFF and ON position. The actuator should move easily but not freely. There will be some
resistance to movement due to bearing friction and inertia of the mechanism.
Use one of the two methods listed below to ensure that the shutter mechanism is operational:

Method A
Using a portable radiation survey meter, measure the back of the detector housing. Field
intensity should be low when the shutter is in the OFF position. Conversely, when the shutter
is ON, the field intensity should increase.

Method B
If a survey meter is not available, use your electronics and monitor the front panel display or
use an auxiliary monitor, (i.e., recorder) and turn shutter to the OFF position. Indication
should go to the high process value on display or recorder. Open shutter and reading should
return to normal.
As a reminder, Ohmart offers a comprehensive listing of courses in Radiation Safety. The
courses cover timely subjects that include the latest regulations and how they apply to
nuclear instruments, proper licensing procedures, application submission, nuclear safety,
proper handling procedures, periodic maintenance, and leak testing. Call Ohmart for further
information.

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Suggested radiation lockout procedures

Using a survey meter
5

With the shutter open take readings around the detector and in front of the source holder
if possible. Do not put your hand in the air gap.

Close the shutter and retake the readings. You should see a significant drop in the
radiation field intensity. This would indicate that the shutter was closed.

Place a padlock or seal on the source holder to prevent it from being opened.

Check the work area. The field intensity should be very low (less than 1 mR/hr.) If the
field intensity is less than 2 mR/hr the area can be entered by personnel without wearing
dosimeters.

Documentation like the sample Radiation Lockout Permit should be completed and
posted so that personnel entering the work area will know that the source is locked out.

Using the gauge electronics

5

With the shutter open note the reading displayed on the electronics.

Close the shutter and retake the readings. You should see a significant increase in the
reading. This would indicate that the shutter was closed.

Place a padlock or seal on the source holder to prevent it from being opened.

Documentation such as the sample Radiation Lockout Permit should be completed and
posted so that personnel entering the work area will know that the source is locked out.

Note
The only method that can assure that the radiation level in the working area is safe is to use a
calibrated survey meter.

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Radiation Lockout Permit

Display near entry location. Contact Radiation
Safety Department at the conclusion of work.
Location of Source

Date

Has radiation survey been completed?

Survey meter

Serial No.

Calibration Date

Test Results: (Maximum Reading Obtained)

Source Side Time Detector Side Time
Before Locked______mr/hr____Before Locked_____mr/hr_____
After Locked_______mr/hr____After Locked_______mr/hr_____

Area Survey__________Time__________
Radiation Safety Officer_________________________
Control Room Operator_________________________
Dosimeter Issued

No- Not Required

Dosimeter Reading:
Initials
Start___________mrem______________
Stop___________mrem______________

Figure 43: Radiation lockout permit

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Industrial gauge inspection report form

A. General information
1. NAME: ______________________________________________________
ADDRESS: ___________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
TELEPHONE: (_______)-____________________
FAX:

(_______)-____________________

2. Radioactive materials license number _______________________________

3.Most recent amendment number ___________________________________
4.Priority _______________________________________________________
5.Type of Inspection
a. Announced______________________________
Unannounced______________________________
b. Complete______________________________
Partial______________________________
6. Date of Inspection_________________________________________
7. Inspectors Name_________________________________________
8.Survey Instrument(s):
Manufacturer_________________________________________
Model Number_________________________________________
Type_________________________________________
Calibration Date_________________________________________

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B. Inspection history
1. Previous inspection date _________________________________________
2.Noncompliance items noted

Were items corrected?

a. ________________________________

Yes ________

No ________

b. ________________________________

Yes ________

No ________

c. ________________________________

Yes ________

No ________

d. ________________________________

Yes ________

No ________

C. Persons contacted
Responsibility

Title or

D. Incidents
Were there any incidents since the last inspection?
(i.e., overexposure, leaking or lost source.)

Yes ________

No ________

Yes ________

No ________

E. Users
1. Names (list)

2. Are all users authorized?

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F. Records
1. License with most recent amendment present?

Yes ________

No ________

2.Documents referenced in catch all condition present?

Yes ________

No ________

3. Copy available of Notices and Instructions to Workers

and Standards for Protection Against Radiation?

Yes ________

No ________

4. Copy of leak test records available?

Yes ________

No ________

5. Who performed the leak test?

Yes ________

No ________

6. Do records indicate that leak tests were performed at the

required frequency?

Yes ________

No ________

7. Does any leak test record indicate the presence of more

than 0.005 microcuries of radioactive material?

Yes ________

No ________

8. Inventory and shutter test records complete?

Yes ________

No ________

1.Is the form Notice to Employees posted?

Yes ________

No ________

2.Are gauges posted with Radioactive Material labels?

Yes ________

No ________

Yes ________

No ________

G. Posting

H. Personnel monitoring
1. Are users provided with personnel monitoring?
2. Who provides personnel monitoring service?
3. Highest exposure reported and period of

mRem per

4. Are employees advised of personnel monitoring reports at

least annually in writing?

Yes ________

No ________

5. Are employees advised of personnel monitoring reports at

termination of employment?

Yes ________

No ________

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I. Source accountability
1. Are records of receipt of sealed sources completed?

Yes ________

No ________

2. Are records of source disposals complete?

Yes ________

No ________

3. Is there any indication other than the manufacturer or an

authorized recipient?

Yes ________

No ________

Comments
__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________
4. Attach a copy of the sealed source inventory showing isotope, activity, source
model, gauge manufacturer, and model.
5. Does the sealed source inventory agree with records of
receipt and disposal?

Yes ________

No ________

Comments
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
6.Does the sealed source inventory agree with the following items on the license?
a. Item 6, Radioactive material (Element & Mass Number)

Yes ________

No ________

b. Item 7, Chemical & Physical Form

Yes ________

No ________

c. Item 8, Maximum Quantity

Yes ________

No ________

d. Item 9, Authorized Use

Yes ________

No ________

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J. Survey instruments
1. Calibrated at 1-year frequency?

Yes ________

No ________

2. Who Calibrates the instrument(s)?

3. Comparison of licensees survey instrument

Lic.

mR/hr

with the inspectors

Insp.

mR/hr

K. Storage
1. Are gauges placed in a storage area?

Yes ________

No ________

2. Is the storage area secure?

Yes ________

No ________

Yes ________

No ________

3. Is the storage area posted with radioactive material signs?

4. What is the highest exposure rate within the

mR/hr

storage area?
5. What is the highest exposure rate outside the

mR/hr

storage area?

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L. Health physics program

1. Does the licensee have a written policy or procedures to be
followed when performing maintenance on equipment
adjacent to a gauge?

Yes ________

No ________

2. Does the licensee have a written policy addressing lockout

procedures to be followed when performing maintenance in a
vessel?

Yes ________

No ________

3. If gauges are repaired or moved, does the licensee have

copies of the gauge manufacturers instructions or blueprints
for each type of gauge moved or repaired?

Yes ________

No ________

Yes ________

No ________

Yes ________

No ________

Yes ________

No ________

4. Does an examination of the gauges indicate that:

a. The shutter mechanisms are operable?
b. There is a legible radioactive material
sign attached to the gauge?
c. There is a work station within five feet of
the gauge?
5.Radiation measurements gauges ON
Isotope

Activity

Gauge Model

Highest exposure
rate at one foot

Highest exposure
rate near detector

a.

_________

_________

_________

____________

____________

b.

_________

_________

_________

____________

____________

c.

_________

_________

_________

____________

____________

d.

_________

_________

_________

____________

____________

M. Gauge service name of person

1. Gauge electronic calibration by__________________________
2. Gauge removal and reinstallation by__________________________

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N. Compliancenoncompliance items
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

O. Recommendations
(Indicate If They Were Discussed with Licensees)
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

P. Exit interview
1. Names of persons interviewed
A. ______________________________________________________________
B. ______________________________________________________________
C. ______________________________________________________________
D. ______________________________________________________________
2. Inspectors statement
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
3. Licensees statement
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

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Q. Licensing actions needed

(Indicate if they were discussed with licensee)
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
__________________________
Inspectors signature and date
__________________________
Reviewed by and date
__________________________
Reviewed by and date

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Radiography Contractors Questionnaire

Contractor:__________________________________________ Date:____________
Address:

__________________________________________ Time In:_________

________________________________________________Time Out:________

Agency Issuing License:____________________________ License No:__________

Name of Radiographer:_________________________________________________
Name of Assistants:

_________________________________________________

_________________________________________________

Please answer yes or no to the following:

____ 1. Do you have in your possession your specific license?
____ 2. Do you have in your possession operating and emergency procedures?
____ 3. Does your vehicle display the Yellow III Placard?
____ 4. Do you keep records of places and times where radiography operations for each
source are logged?
____ 5. Do you have calibrated and operable radiation survey instruments available?
____ 6. Is the radiographic exposure device provided with a lock or an outer locked
container to prevent tampering or removal by unauthorized personnel?
____ 7. Are locked radiographic exposure devices and storage containers physically
secured to prevent tampering or removal by unauthorized personnel?
____ 8. Are film badges or TLD dosimeters and pocket dosimeters worn by all personnel
acting as a radiographer or radiographers assistant?
____ 9. During radiographic operations, is direct surveillance of the area maintained to
protect against unauthorized entry?
____ 10. Will the area be posted with the appropriate warning signs?
____ 11. Is a physical radiation survey made after each radiographic exposure to determine
that the source has been returned to its shielded position?

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____ 12. Is a physical radiation survey and record made to determine if each source is
properly stored and shielded prior to moving the container?

Important:
After performing the radiography and before departing the plant this questionnaire and a copy
of the radiation survey will be given to the RSO.

I hereby declare under penalty of the law that the above statements are true to the best of my
knowledge and I have made sure that all of the radioactive material that I am responsible for
is properly shielded and secured in my vehicle prior to departing this plant.

____________________________________

_________

Signature of radiographer preparing form

Date

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Appendix
The following pages include a sample inventory record, NRC Form 5, survey drawing used by
Ohmart/VEGA service engineers, survey meter information and documentation for class
exercises.

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Notes

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Glossary
Absorbed dose

A highly technical term meaning the radiation dose or

amount of radiation that has been absorbed by some
substance.

Activity

A measure of the "strength" of a radioactive source. The

rate at which a radioactive material throws off particles
or disintegrates. Activity is measured in units of Curies or
Becquerels.

Acute Radiation Exposure

Exposure to a large dose of radiation in a short period of

time.

Acute Radiation Syndrome

The medical term for the set of symptoms associated

with radiation sickness.

Agreement State

A state that has signed an agreement with the NRC

allowing the state to regulate certain activities using
radioactive materials.

ALARA

Stands for as low as reasonably achievable. 10 CFR

20.1003

Alpha Particle,

A small electrically charged particle of ionizing radiation

thrown off by some radioactive materials. Alpha particles
have a short range and cannot penetrate the outer dead
layer of human skin. But, if radioactive materials emitting
alpha particles are inhaled or swallowed, they can be
very dangerous.

Alpha Ray,
Alpha Radiation

Atom

A unit of matter. An atom consists of a central charged

nucleus (made up of neutrons and protons) and
electrons that surround the nucleus.

Atomic Mass

The number of protons plus the number of neutrons. It is

the atomic weight multiplied by the atomic unit.

Atomic Number

The number representing the relative position of an

element in the periodic table. It is the number
representing the positive charge or the number of
protons in the nucleus of the atom of the element.

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Attenuation

The reduction in the intensity of radiation as it passes

through any material, for example, through lead
shielding.

Audible-alarm Dosimeters

Small electronic instruments that a person can wear.

These dosimeters will sound an alarm when a high
radiation dose rate is encountered or when a certain
radiation dose has been exceeded. Sometimes called
"alarming pocket dosimeters" or "electronic pocket
dosimeters."

Background Radiation
(Natural)

Radiation that is emitted from the naturally occurring

radioactive materials in the earth and from cosmic rays
that bombard the earth from outer space.

Battery Check

A check to see that the batteries of a radiation survey

meter are strong enough. Generally, a "battery-check
button" is pushed and a needle moves to show if the
batteries are strong enough.

Becquerel

A unit to describe the activity (intensity or strength) of

radioactivity in a material. One Becquerel is equal to one
disintegration per second.

Becquerel, Henri

The French scientist who first discovered a naturally

occurring radioactive material, Uranium, in 1865.

BEIR Committee

Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation Committee of the

National Academy of Sciences. This committee is
composed of a group of eminent scientists from
throughout the U.S. who report to the Academy on the
health effects of radiation.

Beta Particle,
Beta Ray,
Beta Radiation

An electrically charged particle of radiation emitted by

many radioactive materials. A beta is a fast-moving
electron, sometimes moving close to the speed of light

Bill of Lading

A document accompanying a shipment of goods that

lists the contents of the shipment.

Byproduct Material

Radioactive material, such as Cobalt-60, obtained as a

byproduct of running nuclear reactors or making nuclear
fuel.

Calibration

Adjustment of a radiation survey meter to make it read a

radiation dose accurately. A radiation source must be

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used for proper calibration.

Cancer

A disease in which rapidly multiplying cells grow in the

body, interfering with its natural functions. Ionizing
radiation may increase the probability that a person will
get cancer.

Cataract

A medical term for the loss of transparency of the lens of

the eye.

Cesium-137

A radioactive material often used in nuclear gauging. An

isotope of the element Cesium. It emits gamma rays with
an energy of 0.662 MeV and has a half-life of 30 years.

Chromosome

All the genetic material or genes contained in a living

cell. Chromosomes control the reproduction of cells and
the characteristics of the cells produced from the original
cell. See gene.

Chronic Exposure

Repeated small doses of ionizing radiation delivered

over an extended period of time. It can cause immediate,
or prompt, effects (such as burns) as well as delayed
effects.

Cobalt-60

A radioactive material noted for very penetrating gamma

rays. An isotope of the element Cobalt. It emits gamma
rays of energy 1.17 MeV and 1.33 MeV. It has a half-life
of 5.3 years.

Code of Federal
Regulations (CFR)

The volume of books containing the regulations issued

by federal agencies.

Collimator

A small opening through which a narrow cone of

radiation escapes when the source is in the "ON"
position.

Contamination, Radioactive

The presence of radioactive material on surfaces where

it is not supposed to be.

Cosmic Radiation

Ionizing radiation that comes from outer space.

Curie

A basic unit to describe the activity of radioactivity in a

material. One Curie is equal to 37 billion disintegrations
per second.

Curie, Marie and Pierre

The French scientists who discovered radium in 1898

and made possible the start of gamma radiography.

Decay Constant

A numerical constant that expresses the rate at which

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radioactive materials decay.

Decay Curve

A graph showing the decreasing radioactivity of a

radioactive source as time passes. The term can also
refer to the line or curve on the graph that indicates the
activity.

Decay, Exponential

A mathematical expression to describe the rate at which

a radioactive material decays.

Decay, Radioactive

The breaking up or disintegration of atoms that have

excess energy. Radiation is emitted in the process.

Delayed Effects

Those effects caused by radiation that do not become

evident until years after exposure to radiation.

Detector, gas-filled

A radiation detector filled with gas. It detects ions

formed by radiation.

Detector, Radiation

The part of a radiation survey meter that is sensitive to

radiation.

Disintegration

The breaking up of an unstable atom. Radiation is

emitted in the process.

DNA

Deoxyribonucleic acid. The long spiral molecules found

in all living cells that control cell functioning and
reproduction.

Dose

Dose is the amount of radiation absorbed by an object.

Dose can be expressed in rads or grays.

Dose Equivalent

A highly technical term referring to radiation dose

expressed in units of rems or sieverts.

Dose Rate

A measure of how fast a radiation dose is being

received.

Dosimeter

A device used to determine the radiation dose a person

has received.

Dosimeter, pocket

A small air-filled ionization chamber (about the size and

shape of a cigar) that measures radiation dose by
responding to the ionization in the air.

Dosimeter,
thermoluminescent

A dosimeter worn by a person to measure the radiation

dose. It contains a radiation-sensitive crystal that

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responds to radiation like the film in a film badge.

DOT

U.S. Department of Transportation. A federal agency

that regulates the transport of radioactive materials.

Electron

A very light particle that rotates around the nucleus of an

atom and carries a negative electric charge. Electricity
is the flow of electrons.

Electron volt (eV)

A small unit of energy. The energy of x-rays and gamma

rays is often given in units of electron volts.
Abbreviations: eV - electron volts; KeV - thousand
electron volts; Me - million electron volts.

Element

A basic type of matter. Each element has distinct

chemical properties. There are 92 different elements
that are found in nature, for example, hydrogen, oxygen,
lead, uranium, carbon, tungsten, and iron.

Empty Label

A DOT label used when a container normally used for

transporting radioactive material does not contain any
radioactive material.

EPA

The Environmental Protection Agency- It is in control of

all radiation matters directly or indirectly affecting health
including guidance for all Federal agencies in the
formulation of radiation standards for protection of
humans from radiation. It also establishes
environmental radiation standards for uses of man-made
radioactive materials.

Erythema

A medical term for a reddening of the skin caused by

increased local circulation of blood as a reaction to
tissue injury. It can be caused by very large doses of
radiation.

Fallout, Radioactive

Radioactive debris from the explosion of nuclear

weapons that falls out of the atmosphere onto the earth.

Film Badge

A dosimeter badge worn by radiation workers to

measure their radiation dose. The badge contains a
piece of film that is darkened by radiation. The radiation
dose can be determined by reading how dark the film is.

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Gamma Alarm

A radiation detector that sounds an alarm when it

detects excessive gamma ray or x-ray radiation.

Gamma Rays,

A type of penetrating and ionizing radiation used in

industrial radiography. Gamma rays are similar to x-rays
but come from the nucleus of an atom when it decays.

Gamma Radiation
Geiger Counter

An instrument used to detect radiation and to measure

radiation dose.

Gene

A part of a living cell that controls the reproduction of the

cell and determines the characteristics that the
reproduced cells will have. See chromosome.

General License

A license issued by NRC or an Agreement State for

possession and use of certain radioactive materials,
often for small quantities, for which no specific
application is required. Individuals are automatically
licensed when they buy or obtain the radioactive
materials or use them in some manner.

Genetic Defect

A defect in a living organism caused by a deficiency in

the genes of the original reproductive cells from which
the organism was conceived. Genetic defects are
passed on to the descendants of the person with the
defect.

Gray

SI unit of dose (1erg per gram)

Half-life

The time it takes for half the atoms in a radioactive

sample to decay. Half-lives vary from a fraction of a
second to billions of years. The half-life of Co-60 is 5.3
years.

Half-value Thickness,

The thickness of a material that will reduce the amount

of radiation passing through the material to one-half of
its initial intensity. The thickness of the half-value
thickness will depend on the material and the energy of
the gamma rays.

Half-value Layer

Hazardous Material
Identification

196

Every hazardous material has been classified by the

DOT and has been given a proper shipping name and
an identification number. All shipping names and
identification numbers can be found in the Hazardous

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Material Table in 49 CFR 172.101

High Radiation Area

An area where the radiation dose to a person could

exceed 100 millirems in 1 hour. There are special
requirements for controlling access to high radiation
areas.

ICRP

International Commission on Radiological Protection.

An international group of scientists representing their
countries who develop recommendations on radiation
dose limits and other radiation protection measures.

Infrared Radiation

Radiant heat. Heat that is transmitted from one object to

another by rays instead of by conduction between
objects that touch each other. Infrared radiation is not
ionizing radiation.

Internal Contamination

Radioactive contamination within a person's body

caused by radioactive material that has been inhaled or
swallowed.

Inverse Square Law

A law of nature that states how the intensity of radiation

decreases as a person moves away from a radiation
source of small dimension. The law states that the
intensity will decrease proportionately to the distance
squared.

Ion

An atom that has gained or lost one or more electrons or

an electron that is not attached to an atom. Ions have an
electrical charge.

Ion Pair

A positively charged ion and an electron. The production

of ion pairs is the method by which ionizing radiation
gives up its energy.

Ionization

The process of adding electrons to, or removing

electrons from, atoms or molecules. This creates ions.

Isotope

A particular form of an element. The isotopes of an

element have the same chemical properties but different
nuclear properties. One isotope of an element may be
radioactive while another isotope of the element is
stable.

keV (Kilo Electron Volts)

A unit of energy equal to 1,000 electron volts.

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Leak Test

A check for the escape of radioactive material from a

source holder.

Leukemia

An often fatal cancer characterized by excessive

production of white blood cells.

Licensee

The company or the person authorized to use

radioactive materials under a license issued by the
Nuclear Regulatory Commission or an Agreement State.

Manmade Radiation

Radiation produced by manmade (not natural) sources,

such as x-ray machines and nuclear power plants.

Median Lethal Dose

The radiation dose that would result in the death of 50%

of the people exposed to that dose. This dose is
approximately 450rems (450,000mrem) delivered to the
whole body within a few hours or a few days.

MeV (million electron volts)

A unit of energy equal to 1,000,000 (1 million) electron

volts. Used to express the energy of gamma rays and xrays.

Microwaves

A form of radiation that is non-ionizing. Microwaves are

more energetic than radiowaves, but less energetic than
visible light. If microwaves are very intense, they can
damage living cells by heating them excessively.

Millirem (mrem)

A commonly used unit of radiation dose, abbreviated

mrem. A millirem is equal to one-thousandth of a rem.

Molecule

The smallest unit of a chemical compound. A water

molecule consists of two hydrogen atoms combined with
one oxygen atom; hence, the well-known formula, H2O.

Mutation

In a cell, a change in the genes or genetic material of the

cell. In humans, people who have genetic defects in all
their cells. See genetic defect.

Natural Radioactivity

The radioactivity from naturally occurring elements that

are radioactive, for example, Radium, Carbon-14,
Uranium.

NCRP

National Council on Radiation Protection and

Measurements. A group of eminent scientists in the U.S.
that develops recommendations on radiation protection.

Negative Electrical Charge

An electrical charge that is attracted to positive electrical

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charges. Electricity is the movement of negative

electrical charges (electrons).
Neutron

One of the basic particles within atoms (the others are

electrons and protons.)

Non-Agreement State

A State that the NRC regulates the use of radioactive

materials.

Non-Threshold effect

It means that there is no dose level below which there is

no effect.

Normal Form

Radioactive materials that do not have special escapeproof containers. For example, liquids and powders in
jars are normal form.

NRC

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. A federal agency

that regulates the use of radioactive materials.

Nucleus

The inner core of an atom or a living cell. In an atom, the

nucleus consists of neutrons and protons tightly locked
together. In a living cell, the nucleus contains the genes
or genetic material of the cell.

OSHA

U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. A

federal agency that regulates safety in the workplace.

Overexposure, Radiation

Receiving a radiation dose in excess of legal regulatory

limits. Most radiation overexposures do not have any
visible medical symptoms.

Overpack

An outer container used to meet certain requirements for

transportation, for example, to lower the radiation dose
rate at the surface of the package or to add protection to
an inner package.

Pig

A casting of metal from a mold in which a radioactive

source may be stored.

Placard

In transporting radioactive materials, a sign on a vehicle

that indicates the vehicle is carrying packages containing
radioactive materials that require Radioactive Yellow III
warning labels on the packages.

Positive Electrical Charge

An electrical charge that is attracted to electrons or other

negative electrical charges.

Prompt Effects

The harmful health effects of radiation appearing within a

day or a few weeks after exposure to a large radiation

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dose. The prompt effects are radiation burns and

radiation sickness.
Proton

One of the basic particles of an atom (the others are

neutrons and electrons). Its electrical charge is the same
size as that of the electron, but positive rather than
negative.

Quality Factor

The factor by which the energy deposited by radiation

(absorbed dose) is to be multiplied to obtain a quantity
that expresses, on a common scale for all types of
ionizing radiation, the biological damage to an exposed
person. It is used because some types of radiation such
as alpha particles are more biologically damaging than
other types such as gamma rays and x-rays.

Rad

A unit of radiation dose. The rad is used to tell how much

energy per unit mass is deposited by radiation (absorbed
dose). For gamma rays and x-rays, one rad is equal to
one roentgen or one rem.

Radiation Area

An area where a person could receive a radiation dose

in excess of 5mrem in any one hour or 100mrem in any
five consecutive days.

Radiation Burns

Burns in flesh caused by ionizing radiation. The burns

are not caused by heat but by chemical break-downs in
the nuclei of living cells. However, radiation burns are
medically similar to heat burns in effect and in treatment.

Radiation Dose Limits

A limit on the radiation dose that a person may receive,

as established by a government regulatory agency.

Radiation Injury

Consists of localized injurious effects, generally from

overdose of less penetrating external radiation and most
often to the hands because contact is usually with the
hands.

Radiation Poisoning

An illness resulting when dangerous amounts of

radioactive materials enter the body, potentially causing
diseases such as anemia and cancer.

Radiation Safety Officer

A person who has been selected to be responsible for

overseeing radiation safety in an organization. Also
called by other names such as radiation protection
officer, radiation safety manager.

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Radiation Sickness

Sickness, possibly fatal, resulting from a large exposure

to radiation (hundreds of rems) in a short time (within
several days).

Radiation Survey

The purpose of a survey is to obtain a radiation profile in

relation to the device.

Radiation, Electromagnetic

A technical term for radiation that travels as waves,

composed purely of electrical and magnetic energy. For
example, gamma rays, x-rays, microwaves, visible light,
radiowaves, infrared rays, and ultraviolet waves or rays.

Radiation, Ionizing

Any radiation that has enough energy to break apart

chemical bonds and cause atoms to form ions (charged
particles.) For example, gamma rays, x-rays, beta
particles.

Radiation, Non-ionizing

Radiation that does not have enough energy to create

ions. For example, visible light, radiowaves, microwaves.

Radioactive

An adjective describing anything that emits radiation

when unstable atoms break up.

Radioactive Material

A material containing unstable or radioactive atoms that

break up or decay and emit radiation in the process.

Radioactive Waste

Waste that contains radioactive material. It must be

disposed of in a safe manner according to certain
regulations.

Radioactivity

The emission of radiation from an unstable atom.

Radioisotope, Radioactive
Isotope

A form (isotope) of an element that is radioactive.

Radon

A radioactive gaseous, chemical element formed,

together with alpha rays, as a first product in the atomic
disintegration of radium.

Reciprocity

The recognition by the NRC or by an Agreement State of

a license issued by the other, to work in a different
jurisdiction than where the licensee is specifically
licensed.

Rem

A unit of radiation dose. A rem is equal to 1,000 millirem.

Reportable Quantity

Any spill or release of the material that requires

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reporting.
Restricted Area

An area to which access is controlled for the purpose of

radiation protection.

Roentgen

A unit of radiation dose. Abbreviated "R"

Roentgen, Wilhelm

The German scientist who discovered x-rays in 1895.

RSO

Radiation safety officer.

Scintillation Counter

An instrument that detects radiation by counting the

small flashes of light (scintillations) the radiation
produces when it hits certain crystals.

Sealed Source

Radioactive material sealed in a capsule designed to

prevent leakage or escape of the material.

Shielding

Material that can be placed around a radiation source for

the purpose of reducing radiation levels.

Sievert

Unit for measuring biological dose

Source Capsule

The steel capsule that the radioactive materials are

welded within to make the radiation source.

Source, Radioactive

Any source of radiation where the radiation is produced

by the decay of radioactive materials rather than
electrically as in x-ray machines.

Special Form

Radioactive material in a form that limits leakage or

dispersal of the material.

Specific License

A license issued to a company or person to possess and

use radioactive material after specific written application
has been made.

Survey Meter, Radiation

A portable instrument that measures radiation dose rate

(radiation intensity).

Threshold Effect Model

A model showing that there is a threshold of dose below

which there is no damage.

Tools for Radiation Safety

The tools for radiation safety consist of the following:

Time, Distance, Shielding, and Planning.

Total Dose

To calculate the total dose received, simply multiply the

absorbed dose rate by the amount of time a person was
exposed.

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Transport Index (TI)

Dose rate in mrem per hour at one meter away from the
surface of a package containing radioactive materials.

Type A or Type B
Packaging

A special type of packaging that meets specific

regulations for transporting radioactive materials.

Ultraviolet Light or Radiation

A form of radiation that is similar to visible light but is a

little more energetic. It is much less energetic than xrays or gamma rays and does not ionize molecules.
Therefore, it is non-ionizing radiation.

Unrestricted Area

Access to a particular area is neither limited nor

controlled by the licensee.

UNSCEAR

United Nations Scientific Committee on Effects of Atomic

Radiation. A committee of internationally known
scientists that reports to the U.N. on the effects of
radiation.

X-ray

Radiation similar to light, but more energetic and

therefore more penetrating. X-rays can cause damage to
living things. They are usually produced by bombarding
a metallic target with electrons (that is, by an electric
spark.)

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Notes

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Index
absorbed dose, 61
Absorbed dose, 38
Activity, 61
acute, 93
agreements states, 135
ALARA, 78
alpha, 23
areas defined, 123
atom, 15
atomic mass, 18
atomic number, 18
becquerel, 42
beta, 23
beta shield, 27
bill of lading, 146
biological dose, 61
Brehmsstrahlung x-ray, 29
calculate dose rate, 70
Canadian Nuclear Safety, 139
cell damage, 94
chronic, 93
Cobalt 60, 31
contamination, 108
curie, 42
Curie to Becquerel, 62
Decay, 30
decay scheme, 24
detectors, 44
dose limits, 100
dosimeter, 57
DOT definitions, 157
electromagnetic spectrum, 34
electromagnetic waves, 33
elements, 19
emergency equipment, 116
emitters, 26
entry into vessel or tank, 111
event, 131
everyday risks, 86
exposure dose, 61
field intensity, 64
film badges, 58
fire, 114
gamma, 23
gauge testing, 120
Geiger-Mueller detector, 44

General and specific license rules, 9

gray, 39
half-life, 27
half-life gamma emitters, 73
HAZMAT identification, 146
health effects, 81

Radiation Safety

Health risks
Assessing, 85

history of effects, 82
ingestion, 108
inspections, 132
instructions to workers, 133
inverse square law, 67
ionization, 34
ionization chamber, 44
isotopes, 20
Krypton-85, 32
leak test, 182
LET, 40
lockout, 184
low-level exposure, 93
monitoring
personnel, 126

MRN, 148
neutron, 23
non-threshold effect, 92
notification, 128
NRC, 136
nuclei, 22
nucleus, 18
planning, 77
prefixes, 62
pregnancy, 97
proportional detectors, 44
protection agencies, 83
protection program, 127
quality factor, 40
rad, 38
radiation penetration, 28

Radiation safety program items, 12

radiation sources, 88

radiation transmission, 51
radiation units, 38
radioactivity, 22
RBE, 40
Record keeping, 124
recovering from exposure, 97
references, 106
rem, 41
reportable exposure, 130
reproductive cell damage, 95
restricted areas, 121
RSO responsibilities, 172
safety calculations, 63
scintillation, 47
shielding and distance, 77
shipping, 141
shipping labels, 150
shutter check, 171, 183

205

shutter stuck, 110

sievert, 41
source collision or fall, 112
source disposal, 134
source holder
receipt, 162

source holders, 78

survey meters, 55
thickness, 52
threshold effect, 91
TLD, 59
Type 7A, 144
Type A, 144
yx key, 79

31589-US-051201

source stolen or lost, 111

Strontium-90, 32

206

Radiation Safety

Ohmart/Vega

Technical Training Schools Course Evaluation

Type of School

Date of Course:
Class Size:
Instructor:
Location:

RADIATION SAFETY
(3 day)
(5 day)
RSGU (1 day)
Intro. RS (1/2 day)
SMARTPRO
Level

INSTRUCTIONS: Your cooperation in the completion of this

questionnaire will enable us to evaluate our course. Please respond to
the questions frankly; include comments and examples where
appropriate. It is not necessary to place your name on this form.

Density
Belt Scale

HART
Density

Level

ECHOFOX

Please circle number and comment as appropriate.

Other

How would you rate the overall quality of the course?

Poor

Excellent

Comments: ________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
How effective was the instructor in presenting the information?
Boring

Interesting

Comments: ________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
To what extent do you feel this course has increased your knowledge of the subject?
Not at all

Significantly

Comments: ________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
To what extent will the information presented be helpful in your job?
Did Not Apply

Very Helpful

Comments: ________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
Time allotted to cover the subject was:

Just right
Too short/fast 0
1
2
3
4
5
Too Long/Slow
Comments: ________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________

Please continue on the back of this form.

Radiation Safety

207

Course Evaluation

Continued

How much did each of the following contribute to your learning?

Hands-on practice and/or demonstrations:

Not at all

Significantly

Comments: ________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________

Textbooks and hand-out materials:

Not at all

Significantly

Comments: ________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
What did you find the most valuable?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
What did you find the least valuable?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
Did the class meet your expectations?_________If not what can we do to improve the class?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
Would you recommend this class to others?
(please check one)
Yes - Why?*
No - Why not?
(*Please list the areas and/or departments which would benefit from attending this course.)
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
Other Comments:
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________

Thank you for your thoughtful answers!! We appreciate your interest in

Ohmart training.

208

Radiation Safety