Chapter 1: What is news?

Here we consider what makes one thing worth reporting, while

another thing is not. We offer a test for news which can work in all
societies. We consider what makes some news stories stronger
than others. Finally, we look at how news comes to journalists,
and the areas of life where we most often find it.
___________________________________________________________
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Life appears to be a shapeless jumble of events, falling over each other,
elbowing and jostling each other.
Journalists each day structure this chaos, so that the public receives it
sorted out and neatly packaged into stories, the same day on radio,
television or online and the next day in newspapers.
It will have been evaluated. The biggest news will be given first in the
bulletin or on Page One of the paper, in detail; lesser news will be given in
less detail later in the bulletin or on an inside page; and the rubbish will
have been thrown away.
How do journalists decide what is news and what is not? How do they
distinguish between a big news story and a small one? The answer is that
they do it in exactly the same way as everybody else. Everybody makes
those same judgments whenever they decide to talk about one event
rather than another.
Criteria of news

The criteria by which news is judged are:

Is it new?

Is it unusual?

Is it interesting or significant?

Is it about people?

Is it new?

If it is not new, it cannot be news. The assassination of Mrs Gandhi is

unusual, interesting, significant and about people, but it cannot possibly
be reported in tomorrow's papers, because it is not new.
If some facts about that assassination became known for the first time,
however, that would be news. The assassination would not be new, but
the
information
would
be.
Events which happened days or even weeks earlier can still be news, as
long as they have not been reported before. If you are telling a story for
the first time, it is new to your readers or listeners and therefore it can be
news.
News of the death of Mao Tse-tung, for instance, was not released to the
world by the Chinese government for several days; when they did release
it, however, it was still very definitely news.
Is it unusual?

Things are happening all the time, but not all of them are news, even
when they are new. A man wakes up, eats breakfast and goes to work on
a bus; it has only just happened, but nobody wants to read about it
because it is not unusual. Ordinary and everyday things do not make
news.
Of course, if that same man was 90 years old and was still catching the
bus to work every day, it would be unusual!
The classic definition of news is this: "Dog bites man" is not news; "Man
bites
dog"
is
news.
This definition, though, is not universal. If dogs are eaten in your society
(at feasts, for instance) then it will not be news when a man bites a dog so long as it has been cooked.

What is usual in one society may be unusual in another. Again, we will

expect the content of the news to vary from society to society. In every
society, though, whatever is unusual is likely to be news.
Is it interesting?

Events which are new and unusual may still not be of general interest.
Scientists may report that an insect has just been found living on a plant
which it did not previously inhabit. The discovery is new, and the event is
unusual, but it is unlikely to interest anybody other than a specialist or
enthusiast.
In a specialist publication this could be big news, but in a general news
broadcast or paper it would merit at most a few words.
Is it significant?

However, if that same insect was one which had a huge appetite, and
which had previously lived on and eaten bush grass and if the new plant
on which it had been found was rice, then the story becomes news,
because it is significant.
People may not be interested in bugs, but they are interested in food. If
this insect is now threatening their crops, it becomes a matter of concern
to them. It is news because it is significant.
Similarly, if a peasant farmer says that the Roman Catholic Church should
ordain women priests, that is not news. If an archbishop says it, it is
news, because what he says on the subject is significant. It is the views of
people such as the archbishop which help to form the policy of the
Church.
Once again, what is interesting or significant in one society may not be
interesting or significant in another. The content of the news may be
different, therefore, in different societies, but the way it is identified will
be the same.
Is it about people?

Most news is automatically about people, because it is the things people

do to change the world which makes news.

However, news
cyclone, a bush
when reporting
story is centred

can also be made by non-human sources, such as a

fire, a drought, a volcanic eruption or an earthquake. It is
these stories that it is important to make sure that the
on people.

The cyclone would not matter if it blew itself out in the middle of the
Pacific Ocean, away from any inhabited islands; the fire could burn for as
long as it likes in bush where nobody lives; the Sahara Desert has a nearpermanent drought, but in most of it nobody is there to rely on rains; a
volcanic eruption or an earthquake which damages nobody's property and
injures nobody is really not news.
All these natural disasters only become news when they affect people's
lives. Every story can be told in terms of people. Always start by asking
yourself the question: "How does this affect my readers', listeners' or
viewers lives?"
Whenever you have a story which tells of how something has happened
which affects both people and property, always put the people first
RIGHT:
More than 100 people were left
homeless after Cyclone Victor
struck Suva yesterday.

WRONG:
Seventeen houses were flattened
when Cyclone Victor struck Suva
yesterday.

How strong a story?

A story which is new, unusual, interesting, significant and about people is

going to be a very good story indeed. One way of deciding the strength of
a story is to check how many of those five criteria it meets.

There are other factors, though, which make stories strong or weak:
Closeness

The same event happening in two different places can have two quite
different news values. A coup dtat in your own country is as big a story
as you can ever have (although you will probably not be at liberty to
report it as you would wish!). A coup in the country next door is still a big
story, because it may affect the stability of your own country.
However, a coup in a small country in another continent is unlikely to
merit more than a few paragraphs.
The appeal of local news is that your readers or listeners might know the
people or place involved.
Remember, though, that the word "local" means different things to
different people. If you broadcast to a wide area or sell your newspaper in
many different towns, you must realise that a small story which interests
readers in one place, because it is local, may not be of any interest to
readers elsewhere.
Personal impact

The average reader, listener or viewer may be a parent, a person wanting

a good education for the children, dreaming of buying a car, looking
forward to going home on leave, anticipating the next big community
feast or festival. You will need to have a very clear understanding of what
your own readers or listeners are like.
So stories about bride-price or dowries, children, land disputes, new
schools, cheaper or dearer fares, or whatever else is important and may
affect your average reader, will have personal impact.
People can identify with stories about other people like themselves. So
those stories with which many people can identify are stronger than those
which only apply to a few.
How do we get news?

A lot of news will come to you as a journalist without any real effort on
your part. Government handouts, Ministers' speeches and announcements

of new developments come into the newsroom after being processed by

press officers or public relations officers.
Passing on such information, as long as it is genuinely interesting and
informative, is an important function of the media, to provide society with
the hard facts of what is happening in the country.
It is part of your job as a journalist to sort out what is interesting and
informative from the millions of boring words which may be sent to you.
There is also news which journalists find for themselves and reveal to the
public. This need not be a subject which somebody wants to be kept
secret. Many people have a story to tell but do not know how to write a
media release. It is part of your job as a journalist to find these people
and report their stories.
There are also some stories which people want to keep secret but which
the public ought to know about. When you hear about such a situation, it
is your duty to investigate fairly but fearlessly.
Where does news come from?

Now we know what makes news. The following are the main areas of life
in which we expect frequently to find news stories. For each category
below, think of at least one event or situation which could make a news
story in your own society.
Conflicts: This category includes wars, strikes, revolutions, secessionist
groups, tribal and clan fights, elections and the power battles of politics.
Disaster and tragedy: This may include air crashes, train crashes, ships
sinking, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, or human tragedies like children
falling down deep wells from which they cannot be rescued.
Progress and development: Development is always news in a
developing country. The report should be always of how the changes
affect people's lives, for better or for worse. New ideas or progress in one
area may stimulate ideas in another. Development stories may include
education, the development of new technology, improvement of farming
techniques, road building and irrigation schemes. Citizens of more

developed countries may also appreciate stories about developments in

things which affect their lives or well-being, such as medical
breakthroughs, new technologies or initiatives to make transport easier,
quicker or cheaper.
Crime: Any crime can be news, whether it is a road traffic offence, break
and enter, corruption, forgery, rape or murder - but more serious crimes
or unusual crimes generally make bigger news stories.
Money: These stories include fortunes made and lost, school fees, taxes,
the Budget, food prices, wage rises, economic crises and compensation
claims.
It is not only large sums of money which make news; the little girl who
gives her only ten cents to a huge fund-raising event is more interesting
than the businessman who gives $100.
The underdog: This is one of the great themes of literature and drama
(David and Goliath, the Hare and the Tortoise, Cinderella). One traditional
role of the journalist is to defend the rights of the little person - the
soldier against the unjust officer, the innocent man against false charges,
the poor against exploitation.
Religion: There are two types of religious news story. First, there are
events involving people's religious lives, such as the building of a new
church or a pilgrimage. Second, there are statements by religious leaders
on moral and spiritual affairs, such as contraception or salvation. It is
important for the journalist to be aware of the relative numerical strengths
of Christianity, Islam and other religions - including traditional local beliefs
- in his or her country. The importance of a statement by a religious
leader in your society depends both upon the news value of what he has
to say and upon the size of his following.
Famous people: Prominent men and women make news. What people in
the public eye do, the lives they lead and what they look like, are all of
interest. It is especially newsworthy when they fall from power, lose their
money or are involved in scandal.
Health: Many people are concerned with their health, so they are

interested in stories about traditional remedies, medical research,

diseases, hospitals and clinics, drugs, diet and exercise.
Sex: All societies are interested in sex, even if they do not talk about it
openly. Many news stories about sex involve behaviour which goes outside
society's generally accepted standards.
Weather: The weather may affect the daily routine of people and is of
interest when it behaves unusually, with exceptionally high or low
temperatures, or exceptionally high or low rainfall.
Food and drink: The rich person plans feasts, the poor person wants
enough to eat and drink. Shortages and gluts, crop diseases and harvest
sizes, prices of food in the market or the launch of a new brand of beer these all make news.
Entertainment: Stories about music, dance, theatre, cinema and carving
keep us informed of developments in the arts, who is doing what, who is
performing where, and what it is worth going to see or hear.
Sport: Many people participate in sport and many others are spectators.
They all want to know sports results, news of sportsmen and sportswomen
and their achievements.
Human interest: There are often unusual and interesting aspects of
other people's lives which are not particularly significant to society as a
whole. Stories about these are called human interest stories. Examples
might be a child going abroad for surgery; a pilot recovering from injuries
received in an air crash and determined to fly again; or a man with a
collection of a million picture postcards.
News and entertainment

Most people agree that the purpose of the news media - newspapers,
magazines, radio and television - is to inform, to educate and to entertain.
However, the purpose of the news itself is to inform and to educate your
readers, listeners or viewers.
The entertainment can come from other areas - music and drama
programs on radio; cartoons and crossword puzzles in newspapers. It is

not the job of news to entertain.

This does not mean that news should be dull. If a news event has an
element of humour, you should always try to write the story in a way to
amuse
your
readers
or
listeners.
Nevertheless, the news should only be reported if it is real news. Do not
report non-news as if it was news only because the story is entertaining.
As you gain more experience, you may be able to write things which are
purely entertaining - such as a humorous look at current events. This is
not news, however, and should not be presented as if it was.
Make it clear to your readers or listeners what is news and what is not.
TO SUMMARISE:

To decide what you should report, you must sort out news from
non-news. To do this, ask yourself the following questions about
anything you think may be news:

Is it new?

Is it unusual?

Is it interesting?

Is it significant?

Is it about people?

To decide how to report it, ask yourself the following question:

How does this affect my readers', listeners' or viewers lives?

If it is not new or unusual, if it is not interesting or significant, and

if it will not affect your readers' or listeners' lives, then it is not
news. Do not publish it or broadcast it as news.

For example, which do you think is

more interesting:
a) A girl going to primary school,
to high school, or to university?
b) A man aged 25 marrying a girl
aged 20, or a man aged 55
marrying a girl aged 15?
c) A car killing a chicken, a pig or
a child?
Every one of these events might
be news for the community in
which it happens, but some are
more newsworthy than others.
You very likely answered that the
most interesting things were a girl
going to university, a man aged 55
marrying a girl aged 15, and a car
killing a child. If your answer was
different, though, it does not
necessarily mean that you were
wrong.
The same event can have different levels of interest in different societies,
and will be talked about in different ways. If a farm wall has collapsed,
killing a cow and a pig, which is more important? Clearly, the answer will
vary from one society to another, depending upon the relative importance
of cows and pigs.
For this reason, the content of the news can be different in different
societies. The way in which the news is judged, though, is the same
everywhere

NEWS SOURCES

In its infancy, news gathering was primitive by today's standards. Printed news had
to be phoned in to a newsroom or brought there by a reporter where it was typed and
either transmitted over wire services or edited and manually set in type along with
other news stories for a specific edition. Today, the term "Breaking News" has
become trite as broadcast and cable news services use live satellite technology to
bring current events into consumers' homes live as it happens. Events that used to
take hours or days to become common knowledge in towns or in nations are fed
instantaneously to consumers via radio, television, cell phones, and the Internet.
Most large cities had morning and afternoon newspapers. As the media evolved and
news outlets increased to the point of near oversaturation, afternoon newspapers
were shut down except for relatively few. Morning newspapers have been gradually
losing circulation, according to reports advanced by the papers themselves.
Commonly, news content should contain the who, what, when, where, why, and how
of an event. There should be no questions remaining. Newspapers normally write
hard news stories, such as those pertaining to murders, fires, wars, etc. in inverted
pyramid style so the most important information is at the beginning. Busy readers
can read as little or as much as they desire. Local stations and networks with a set
format must take news stories and break them down into the most important aspects
due to time constraints. Cable news channels such as Fox News Channel, MSNBC,
and CNN, are able to take advantage of a story, sacrificing other, decidedly less
important stories, and giving as much detail about breaking news as possible.
One study after another comes up with essentially the same observation.the
story of journalism, on a day-to-day basis, is the story of the interaction of
reporters and officials.- Michael Schudson
Sources of news are everywhere. A journalist is surrounded by sources of
potential news stories ore features. A conversation with a friend, a poster on a wall,
an unexpected juxtaposition-all might result in a story if you keep your eyes, ears
and mind open. Some sources will be routine points of contact for journalists while
others may be one-offs, some will be proactive, approaching journalists because
they want news access for their views or events, while other sources may not even
be aware that they are sources. A journalist should maintain a contact book having
list of people categorized and carrying vital information. Sources of news can be
listless, some sources are:
1. Academic journals- Research by academics, published in journals is a
frequent source of news stories. Here the journalist job is to spot a potential
story among qualifications and to render the story intelligibly to the readers.
2. Armed forces- in peacetime the armed forces can generate stories through
mysterious deaths or cases of bullying that comes to light. During times of
conflict military briefings become events in their own right.
3. Art groups- apart from providing information about forthcoming events, art
groups can generate rows about funding or controversial subject matter.

4. Campaigns- campaigners who want to influence public opinion on subjects

ranging from animal rights to environment are likely to come up with
opinions or events that might generate news stories.
5. Commerce & Trade- business organizations can be useful source of news
stories or comments about anything from interest rates, shares to shopping.
Also, consumer stories are a valuable source of information for evaluating
the image of an organization.
6. Council press offices- local authorities employ teams of press officers. They
react to journalists queries, coming up with information, quotes and
contacts while acting as buffer between decision makers and journalists.
Council press officers with an eye for a good story should be able to get
daily page leads in local evening newspaper because they know what turns
on the common people
7. Court hearings- court reporters dip in and out of several courtrooms
looking for cases that fit the news values. Hence, the importance of good
contacts with court staff, police, solicitors and others should be realized.
Some reporters will also go after background material like quotes from
victims and their relatives.
8. Entertainment industry- it is an increasingly important source for todays
media and celebrities gain immensely because of popularity through media
coverage. Films, serials and various other programmes gain only if media
has been highlighting them.
9. Government News Network- the government news network produces vast
numbers of news release on behalf of the government departments and
agencies on a regional and national basis. It also handles ministerial and
royal visits.
10.Health authorities & hospitals- outbreak of serious disease, funding crisis,
hospital closures and health promotion are all examples of news stories that
arise from health authorities. Hospitals are source of good news stories
carrying news about cures, new treatments and general triumph-overtragedy.
11.Libraries- though it is hard to believe but the truth is that not everything is
available on the Internet. Libraries retain a useful role in providing access to
reference books, company reports, local history achieves, indexes of local
societies, community notice boards and so on.
12.News Agencies- they are the foot soldiers of journalism at a national and
international level, allowing media organizations to cover stories in areas
where they have few or no staff. Agencies keep a check on offices and local
bodies and look out for news stories here. Newspapers, radio, television, big
news media houses, depend largely on the news agencies for general news
coverage. Some famous news agencies are AP (Associated press of America
print), Reuters (UK), PTI (Press Trust of India), etc.

13.News Releases- news or press releases are point of reference for the
journalists while covering an event. Badly written press releases can be
waste of time both for the journalist as well as for the organization.
14.Notice boards- Notices in shops, offices, libraries, colleges and elsewhere
may also become a source of news.
15.Other media- newspaper monitors other papers plus TV, radio, news sites
on the web. And, in turn, each medium monitors other media.
16.People- potential stories can be suggested by people you meet while at
work, rest and play. This can range from somebody mentioning that they
have just seen a police car parked in their street to other substantial
information provided by the common people.
17.Political parties- contacts within parties can be a fruitful source of stories
about rows and splits, while party spokespeople will be keener to let you
know about the selection of candidates or launch of policy initiatives.
18.PR companies- this industry provides the journalists and us a peek into the
media world every day. So it is a major source for the journalists.
19.Press conferences- press conferences are likely to be held to announce the
results of official inquiries or to unveil new appointments. Fewer press
conferences take place these days, as most journalists are too busy to go and
collect information that could be faxed or emailed.
20.Universities- universities are a source of a huge range of stories, whether it
is ground breaking research, an unusual degree scheme or an ethical
argument. They are also where you will find experts in everything from
aeronautics to the zodiac.

News organizations sometimes break embargoes and report information before

the embargo expires, either accidentally (due to miscommunication in the
newsroom) or intentionally (to get the jump on their competitors). Breaking an
embargo is typically considered a serious breach of trust and can result in the source
barring the offending news outlet from receiving advance information in the future.
Sources
Most sources are not confidential. At least in the United States, most news
organizations have policies governing the use of anonymous sources. Critics
sometimes cite instances of news organizations breaking these policies. Research
indicates that anonymous sourcing undermines credibility; however, in some
instances, journalists may have no other recourse.
Whether anonymous sources are used may depend on:
Whether the information is available any other way.
If getting the information out serves a greater good.

Whether competing news outlets might do so.

Many news organizations require use of anonymous sources to be approved by
someone senior to the reporter. Some also require the reporter to tell a senior
personthe identity. When a source requests anonymity, they are referred to as a
"confidential source". They may appear in articles:
With information about why they must be confidential: "One worker, who
requested anonymity out of fear of retaliation..."
Cited with authority: "sources close to the investigation", or "a senior
administration official"
As a mass noun: "Critics say..."
As a pronoun: "Some charge that..."
As a passive voice construct: "It is suspected that...", "CNN has learned
that..."
Sometimes, though rarely, sources are impersonal or unknown. A reporter may
sometimes, received the complete text on his doorstep, left there by an unknown
individual. Sources may also engage in disguise and/or voice alteration, nicknames,
aliases, or simply not mention their identity, as attempts to ensure their anonymity.
In some cases, this may be due in part to lack of trust between sources and reporters
or their news organizations. In reality, few journalists will accept information from
an anonymous source, though they may pretend to have done so in order to protect
the source's identity, or to protect themselves in case a court later orders them to
name the sourceJournalists can usually count on the support of their editors and
publishers when
refusing to identify a confidential source. In many countries, courts uphold the
sanctity of the informal privacy agreement between a journalist and his/her sources
on the basis of a right known as the protection of sources, in the belief that the
confidential nature of the journalist-source relationship underpins the existence of a
free press.
In some cases, courts will break the notion of reporter-source privilege, and demand
a reporter reveal their source under pain of contempt of court. Often, reporters will
resist such demands. In the 2005 Plame affair, New York Times reporter Judith
Miller was jailed for 85 days for refusing to identify vice presidential aide Lewis
Libby as her source until he gave her a personal release of confidentiality.

Confidentiality
Communications between a source and a journalist can be governed by a number of
terms of use, which have developed over time between journalists and their sources,
often government or other high-profile sources, as informal agreements regarding
how the information will be used, and whether the identity of the source will be
protected. These terms may apply to an entire conversation, or only part. Some of

the terms are not clearly defined, so experienced journalists use them with caution.
Press pool
Press pool refers to a group of news gathering organizations pooling their resources
in the collection of news. A pool feed is then distributed to members of the
broadcast pool who are free to edit it or use it as they see fit. In the case of print
reporters, a written pool report is distributed to all members.
Pool coverage is sometimes required because of the nature of the news event being
covered. For example, judges will often allow only one broadcast camera in the
courtroom during a trial. As a result, interested broadcasters will select one of their
own to provide the "pool camera" for the day, with that organization agreeing to
share the footage with all other broadcasters in the pool.
Similarly, a daily rotating pool is set up at the White House for organizations that
cover the president. They are allowed special access to certain events with the
understanding that the information and footage will then be shared with the rest of
the White House press corps. For instance, when the president meets with a foreign
dignitary, the two will sometimes make a statement together in the Office. Since it
is not possible to accommodate all interested journalists in that room, pool coverage
is the only practical way to handle the event.
At other times, pool coverage takes place as a more cost-effective way of covering
events that only occasionally "make news." For example, the major networks usually
rely on a pool feed of the daily briefing at the State Department for their live
coverage, since the press conference is usually only of national interest when there is
a significant breaking story relating to international diplomacy. Since "coverage" of
such an event consists merely of pointing a camera at a person standing behind, a
pool feed is a practical means of ensuring the event will be available as needed
without all five major news outlets paying for their own individual live crews.
Pool situations are also often set up because of the physical enormity of covering
certain events. One prominent example of this was the international broadcast of the
state funeral of John F. Kennedy, which involved four major venues and a lengthy
procession. Likewise, presidential inaugurations and political conventions tend to
involve pool coverage. While there are not necessarily formal rules, there tends to be a
set of informal
expectations for pool members. Primarily, all pool members are expected to "share
the load" equally. For example, in the case of ongoing events, a different station
might provide a pool reporter and/or camera every day. For one-time events, each
organization may have its own responsibility (such as providing all cameras or
mobile trucks). If there are different venues, each location can be covered by a
different member of the pool. If there is not a practical way to divide the
responsibilities, organizations in the pool will split the cost.
In addition, it is paramount that no pool members use their special access in order to

garner an "exclusive" for themselves. In the case of television, a pool photographer

is expected to turn over all of the material that was taped rather than keeping certain
select shots for his or her own employer. Print pool reporters are prohibited from
including any detail in their own stories that was not included in the pool report;
even it is only a matter of local color.
Attribution in News Writing
There is no easy answer as to when and how often you give attribution in your
stories. You report attribution in print and broadcast news just as you do in
normal speech. The placement of attribution at the end of the sentence is fine for
print, where your eyes have a chance to review the facts in the sentence after you
are informed of the attribution. The broadcast audience does not have the luxury of
reviewing your new story from the electronic media.
Placing the attribution first in broadcast news stories makes a direct sentence and
allows the audience a chance to judge source credibility as the facts is heard, rather
than waiting for a delayed attribution. In newspaper stories, attribution should be
placed after the text needing attribution. In broadcast stories, attribution goes first.
We have already answered one of the important questions surrounding
attributionwhere
should it be placed? Attribution goes after the text in print stories and it goes
first in broadcast scripts. The second question is-when should attribution be used?
The easiest rule to remember when deciding if attribution is necessary is crime.
Crime reports always require attribution. Attribution demonstrates that you are
relying on official sources for information in your story. It is irresponsible not to
use attribution when describing a crime to which a person's name is linkedYou should
also include attribution if the story:
Implies blame
Is controversial
Had doubtful validity
Might be disputed
Might be questionable
When opinions are offered
Direct and indirect quotations
Often things are not so black and white so either/or and that is where you will
probably start wondering about whether or not you should include attribution. You
will just have to use your own judgment in most cases. Keep in mind that
attribution increases your story's credibility and makes the story stronger. By
naming your sources of information, you enable your readers, viewers or listeners
to judge the value of your facts. Attribution allows the readers or audience decide
about credibility. If you have doubts about the quality of the information in your

story, attribution can be used to alert the audience to this potential problem.
Anonymous telephone information inserted in a story should be identified as such.
(Plus, you have to question "why" someone is willing to call you with a story, but
are too scared to leave his or her name. This is usually a case of someone wanting
you- the reporter- to grind an ax for him or her.) Exclusive stories from other
media should credit those organizations, unless you can cross- check the
information.
Broadcast news writers can often get away with a shorthand style attribution.
Because time is the limiting factor in broadcast news, it is often necessary to
condense the source of your information or to eliminate it altogether. In broadcast
news, you quite often shorten long government titles to "officials" or "authorities,"
especially when that information is of routine value or little importance. Print
reporters should be more specific when using attribution. You might exclude the
reference altogether, as in the case of sources that mean little to the outcome of the
story.
There are generally four types of attribution recognized by reporters:
1. On the record. All statements are directly quotable and attributable by
name and title to the person who is making the statement.
2. On background. All statements are directly quotable, but they cannot be
attributed by name or specific title to the person commenting. The type of
attribution to be used should be spelled out in advance "A White House
official" . . . "an Administration spokesperson."
3. On deep background. Anything that is said in the interview is usable but
not in direct quotation and not for attribution. The reporter writes it on his or
her own.
4. Off the record. Information given "off the record" is for the reporter's
knowledge only and is not to be aired or made public in any way. The
information also is not to be taken to another source in hopes of getting
official confirmation.
5. Guidance. Information given as guidance is to help reporters with the
status or timing of an event. The information is considered to be similar to
"on background" statements.
When the source of information for a story says nothing about being quoted, the
reporter can presume that the information is on the record. After all, the subject is
talking to a reporter about a developing news story. Sometimes, a source asks to go
off the record, and it is up to the reporter to decide whether to accept the
information on this basis. (Some reporters will tell the newsmaker that as a
reporter, any information could find its way into a story. Because of that, I will not
listen to anything told me "off the record.") Once the reporter allows the person
being interviewed to go "off the record," he or she may not use the material.
Some reporters refuse to accept material with the condition that it may not be used

in any form. They may bargain with the source, asking if they can go to another
source to obtain confirmation. Or they may ask if the material can be used without
using the source's name.
A source may ask to go on background, usually so that the source can provide the
reporter with information that will clarify an event or situation. The source cannot
be named but may be described as a "city hall official," "a state legislator," or some
other general term. To some sources, background means no direct quotes; others
permit direct quotes. The reporter must be clear about the terms of the agreement
with the source. You need to be aware that different stations may have varying
policies towards attribution. Many editors and news directors refuse to accept copy
that contains charges or accusations with no named source. They will not
acceptattribution to "an official in city hall" or a "company spokesperson." You need
to be aware of the policy of each newspaper or station you work for.

REPORTER
Reporters gather information and present it in a written or spoken form in news
stories, feature articles or documentaries. Reporters may work on the staff of news
organisations, but may also work freelance, writing stories for whoever pays them.
General reporters cover all sorts of news stories, but some journalists specialise in
certain areas such as reporting sport, politics or agriculture.

1) person who reports.

2)a person employed to gather and report news, asfor a
newspaper, wire service, or television station.
3)a person who prepares official reports, as of legalor legi
slative proceedings.

Examples from the web for reporter

They looked upon the world with the eye of the mod
ernreporter.

 The reporter has his hand upon it, and it is his grievo
usfault if he does not use it well.
And they wrote of it in the easy style of the trainedre
porter.

Passion
Says South Africa-based Evelyn Groenink: Lets face it, most investigative
journalists will never be played by Robert Redford or Cate Blanchett in a
Hollywood movie, no matter how brave and important the work they did or
do! Most investigative journalism is a thankless endeavour, time- and
energy-consuming, that will get your editor impatient and powerful people
annoyed with you.
If you like a stable income with regular promotions; if your deepest wish is
a management position with matching salary and if you enjoy being invited
to dinners and parties given by VIPs in your country or community, then
investigative journalism is probably not for you. But if you enjoy challenges,
have a passion for truth and justice, and want to serve your readership or
audience with stories that matter, no matter how much time and energy it
costs you and even if some powerful people will end up with maybe lessthanfriendly feelings towards you then, by all means, go for it!

Curiosity
Asking questions is where investigative journalism starts. The questions
can be about events in the news, or about things you see or hear about in
your day-to-day life.

 Initiative
As weve noted, many newsrooms operate on limited resources and all run
on tight deadlines. So an investigative idea you mention at a news
conference wont always be instantly adopted, particularly if it is un-formed
and vague. You need to take the initiative, do your own preliminary
checking and shape the idea into a solid story plan. If your newsroom still
isnt interested, you may need to take further initiative in identifying support
(such as an investigative grant) for the work needed. (See Chapters 2-3.)

Logical thinking, organisation and self-discipline

Investigative reporting takes time and, because of the legal risks it often
carries, must be verified down to the smallest detail. So you need to
become a careful planner to make the best use of your time, and
obsessive about checking and re-checking everything you discover, and
making sure your story fits together.

Flexibility
An investigation can take unexpected turns. Sometimes the question you
began by asking turns out to be a dead-end, or opens the door on another,
far more interesting but less obvious question. You need to be prepared to
rethink and redesign your research when this happens, and not stay
wedded to your first ideas.

Teamworking and communication skills

Movies often portray the investigative reporter as a lone wolf. Sometimes,
there are situations where secrecy is so important that a story cannot be
shared with others until certain safeguards are in place. But very often the
best stories come out of a cooperative effort that uses all the available
skills in (and even outside) the newsroom. An investigative story may call
upon knowledge of anything from science and health to economics and

sociology, and no one journalist, however strong their general knowledge,

can be an expert in all these. For example, if you are following a paper trail
through company audits and no-one in the newsroom has a sophisticated
grasp of accounting, youll need to identify an expert who can help you. So
good contacts and networking form part of your teamwork. And youll need
to be a good enough communicator to ensure that the team understands
the purpose of the story and the standards (accuracy, honesty,
confidentiality) expected of everybody on it.

Well-developed reporting skills

This doesnt mean you have to have a degree in journalism. But you need
enough of either training or experience, or both, to know how to identify
sources, plan story research, conduct good interviews (and sense when an
answer doesnt ring true), and write accurately and informatively. You also
need to know when you are out of your depth, and have the humility to ask
for advice or help. If you are relatively inexperienced, good teamworking
(again) will help you to tap into the skills of others when this happens.
Sometimes, people who dont have a reporting background do have these
skills. Researchers and community workers have often also been trained
to interview and identify and sift facts, although they may need the help of
newsroom workers to package a story attractively and accessibly for
readers, listeners or viewers. Well look at effective writing and storytelling
techniques in Chapter 7.

Broad general knowledge and good research skills

Understanding the context of your investigation can help you avoid deadends and spot relevant facts and questions. But if your investigation takes
you into an unfamiliar area, you must be able to familiarise yourself with at
least the background, conventions, terminology, role-players and issues of
that area quickly. The ability to have a searching, informative conversation
with an expert, use computer search engines, or locate and skim-read

useful books are all vital here. Above all, you must read everything,
whenever you have the time. You never know when a bit of background
will prove useful for your work.

Determination and patience

Investigative reporting will bring you up against all kinds of obstacles, from
sources who disappear and records that dont exist, to editors who want to
can the story because it is taking too long or costing too much. Only your
own motivation and belief that it is a worthwhile story will carry you through
what is often a slow process of discovery.

Fairness and strong ethics

Investigative stories may put the security, jobs or even lives of sources at
risk. They also risk putting their subjects at similar risk if reckless
accusations are made. So an investigative reporter needs to have a
strong, explicitly thought-out set of personal ethics, to ensure that sources
and subjects are treated respectfully and as far as possible protected from
harm. In addition, newsrooms that support investigative stories need to be
guided by ethical codes and have a process in place for discussing and
resolving ethical dilemmas. Sometimes public trust is your best protection,
and you lose this if you behave unethically. More on this in Chapter 8.

Discretion
Gossips do not make good investigative reporters. As weve seen, loose
talk can put the investigation and lives at risk. But in addition, it can tip
off commercial rivals who will then scoop your story, or alert interviewees
before you get a chance to talk to them. In a whole range of ways, talking
too much can sabotage the story.

 Citizenship
IJs are often attacked as unpatriotic, but we do not see our role like that.
We believe that what we investigate and discover is driven by concern for
the public interest and what will make our community better. Zambia-based
Edem Djokotoe warns: You might have the best research and writing skills
in the world, but if you arent driven by personal convictions to contribute
your skills to your society as a citizen, your story will lack purpose and
heart.

Courage
It isnt only subjects and sources that are at risk. Reporters may be
threatened with legal action or violence, jailed, or even assassinated for
their investigations. In the face of these risks, you may succumb to
pressure and censor yourself. You need to believe in what youre doing,
have the courage to carry on, and if possible have personal and
professional support structures (for example, family or partner, religious
community, counsellor, legal advisor, supportive editor and team) in place
for when times get tough.

A young reporter must have good memory for faces. He must cultivate
the sixth sense and grow particular brain cells assiduously if he is to
make full use of his opportunities.
Once he is out to achieve this he will find plenty of people in his circle
who are valuable to him as news supply source. He must know them
and develop this foible even though its mainspring is vanity.
The occasional task of a young reporter is to find a well known man or
woman upon an incoming aircraft at the airport or a liner -at the

seaport. Very occasionally his task is easy enough because an

outstanding personality can be easily known and approached at the
right moment. Moreover, if the reporter is associated with a good
newspaper, the personality may himself/herself be interested in being
accessible. He or she may be bursting with ideas and opinions in
search of a right outlet. The journalist is the right person to avail the
opportunity. Personalities can be known from the photographs.
Remembering from pictures:
A Successful reporter must have a good memory for pictured faces. He
must also take out information about the personality he wishes to
approach for interviews or news. A good memory for pictures is of
tremendous utility to a1 journalist in a strange environment. Every
journalist has the experience of going from pillar to post for
information or confirmation when minutes and seconds keep flying
past. He may be sometimes held up by the official folk unnecessarily.
What he should do is to care for every precious moment if he wishes to
be the first to get the news through. But he has got to do everything so
diplomatically that he does not lose any friend who can be of use as a
source of news.
No journalist expects that requests preferred to Secretaries and
Ministers of Departments will always be met but he must move on the
right track. As a result of the common experience of the current
generation, a studied courtesy and in many cases a measure of
personal friendship with high-ups would be of great value. Journalists
can make use of the gift of remembering faces if they wish to avoid any
embarrassing situations in their social career.

Luckily most of the government departments in democracies are

happy to deal with journalists and find useful outlets for their
publicity. These considerations have made the task of the journalist
easier but the qualities which go to the making of the successful
journalist require that he may make the maximum use of the facilities
available. If a young journalist knows the art of making short-cuts so
much the better.
Making friendships:
It is important for the reporting journalist to make right type of
friendships with his sources of information or news. He will find his
source of knowledge widened or restricted, according to the way in
which he can cultivate the friendships. Sometimes it is alleged that
journalists are too busy to keep a social life. In actual fact, the case is
the reverse. A journalist touches more of the social circles than any
man. He remains 011 the fringe of them all and can turn them to his
own professional use if he has the necessary capability.
A journalist is inevitably in many respects a public figure. He sees the
world, the both saint and the devil at close quarters and must on
occasions hobnob with people for whom truth is no terror. The only
temptation to which a journalist should not fall is superficiality, a
shallow outlook and. perhaps, a certain amount of cynicism. He
should have the sense to discriminate between what is superficial and
what is real.
He should not be easily bought over by vested interests by temptations
of cheap entertainment or the offer of wine and women. Once he falls a
prey to these temptations he will be ignoring his duty and not doing

the right type of reporting which he is expected to do as an unbiased

reporter. He must maintain a worthy outlook;" keep up his standards
steady and judgments firm.
A journalist has the advantage in forming his judgments of men and
things as he sees the inside aspects of movements which often present
a different side for the public view. While the man in the street sees
the superficial, the journalist has gone into details and witnessed
events from the deepest quarters.
Freshness of mind:
A journalist cannot afford to be stale in his ideas, concepts or pursuits.
He has to be on his mental toes all the time. He must do a lot of
reading and writing, be honest to himself. Find out more quickly than
others the precious little knowledge he is in search. His writings must
emit the bright sparks with every new contact. His every new story
must be an improvement over the earlier one.
Thrill of the hunt for news:
An ideal reporter must respond to the urge and thrill of the news.
News getting is not a matter of routine. He must be dynamic in his
approach so that he can get preference to the routine journalists from
the news agencies or other newspaper that may compete with him to
find access to the source of news. Unless he has a thrill for news, he
cannot prove to be a more efficient news-gatherer and interpreter of
the movements of which he is an observer and from which he has to
build the background for future coverage.

The competitive aspect of modern journalism adds to the thrill rather

than subtracts. The lust for a new fact in competition with others must
have the effect of throwing a heightened light upon it and of getting it
out of focus in relation to its setting. Thus, there is a constant war
between the journalist's conception of the public appetite and the need
to weigh facts carefully and to keep to a sense of values which is
intrinsic.
Sense of Responsibility:
An ideal reporter, however brilliant and imaginative, must maintain a
sense of responsibility. He must adjust his balance of things in such a
way that he can keep to the interests of his organisation without
sacrificing the public good. His over-enthusiasm should not land him
into a situation where he may be called irresponsible. He must realise
that he holds in his hand one of the reins by which mass movements
are forged and that he must use it purposefully and with care.

What Are the Different Types of

Reporters?
Reporters work in different areas and mediums; however, many
professional reporters are journalists trained in fact-finding, writing and

researching. If you have a flair for getting the facts right and working
under pressure, you might consider a job as a reporter. Schools
offering Journalism degrees can also be found in these
popular choices.

Overview of Jobs in Reporting

According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), reporters and
correspondents held more than 57,000 jobs in 2012. However, the BLS
predicts that jobs in the field will decrease by 13% between 2012-2022,
mainly due to decreased newspaper and magazine readership. However,
there are many other types of mediums where reporters can find work,
ranging from TV to radio to the Web. In each of these jobs, reporters
gather facts, conduct interviews and write stories. Some reporters cover a
wide array of topics while others stick to one subject. As a reporter, you'll
be able to direct your career toward the kind of reporting you'd like to do.

Different Kinds of Reporters

Assignment Reporters
Assignment reporters, sometimes called general assignment reporters,
cover the notable incidents in their news coverage areas. Working as an
assignment reporter means writing stories about community news events,
such as car accidents or celebrity visits, as they are assigned to you by
an editor.

QUALITIES OF A REPORTER
Role of a Journalist

The main duty of a journalist is to act as an interpreter of the world around. The
journalist observers the events, transmits facts about the event and acts as an
interpreter of these events and happenings. A journalist should therefore stick to
four ideals:
1. He should imbibe a never-ending search for the truth
2. He should be able to meet needs of the changing times, instead of waiting to
be overtaken by them
3. He should be able to perform services of some consequence and significance
to mankind
4. He should maintain a steadfast independence
A journalist is an important unit of the democratic system in our country. He is
supposed to gather facts, organize them and disseminate them to the masses. He
also explains the significance of the facts and offers opinions on contemporary
issues. He is expected to comment on matters of public interest in a fair,
accurate, unbiased, sober, decent and responsible manner.
A journalist must be cool, detached, and even skeptical as he approaches his
material. The right attitude is an important trait in a successful journalist. He
should have a high degree of skill in organizing material and in using the
language. He should not be lacking in confidence but should not be overconfident
or over enthusiastic. He should avoid distortion in the news story in
an effort to attain striking effect.
Attribution or the name of the source is another thing, which should not be
overlooked. The best attribution is the name of the precise source. The next best
is the name of the organization, office or group, represented by the source as a
spokesman. The least satisfactory, but sometimes the most necessary, is some
variation of the phrase, informed source, if the origin of the news must be held
in confidence.
Write like you talk is a phrase gaining much currency in modern journalism.
The stiff, formidable phrasing of the thirties is no longer considered a good
form. Instead, easy-flowing, lively and palatable language is becoming popular.
A great deal of importance is also attached to the vitality factor in journalists.
Every journalist has to religiously observe the newspaper edition deadlines.
There is no prescribed qualification for a reporter but not everyone can be a good
journalist. A good journalist is sometimes born but more often he is fashioned out
of the hard school of a rigorous test and training.
1. A good reporter makes regular contact with his or her sources.
She goes to the well when she's thirsty, but she also goes to the well when
she's not thirsty. There is no substitute for actually being there, for personal
contact. See your sources; speak to them when you need something from

them, but more importantly, when you don't need anything.

2. One of the most important qualities that a reporter must have is an ease
around strangers. Always be alert to the common ground that you share with
the people you deal with. Mention these topics in your conversations with
them. Familiarity doesn't breed contempt. It lowers barriers.
3. A reporter has to answer the question, "What's up?" with
more than, "Not much." Put sources on the receiving end of
information. A reporter is an information broker. Share information when
you can.
4. There has to be a certain distance between a reporter and the source, not a
wall or a fence but an air space. You serve the reader, not the source.
After months on a beat, working with the same sources, you will begin to
think like them and talk like them. You will be sympathetic to their point of
view. Be wary of this and of their efforts to use you. It is likely and
legitimate that they will try to persuade you of the merit of their views, to
sell you on their programs. You will have little contact with your readers,
but it is them you represent.
5. The language of your source is probably not the language of your readers.
Bureaucrats, scientists, educators and lawyers have their own jargon. Learn
this jargon but translate it into Standard English for your readers.
6. If you have obtained information from a source on the understanding that it
is off the record, then it is. Remember, a source is a source for life. You may
change beats, newspapers, even cities, yet your reputation will follow you.
The only way to be a successful reporter over the long haul is to operate
honestly. If you don't, you will be without that most valuable of all
commodities, good sources.
Make one more call. Ask your source, "Who else can help me?" "Who holds
an opposite view?" Work down the organization chart. If possible, talk to the
policeman who made the arrest, not the supervisor; the teacher rather than
the principal. Be polite but persistent with your sources. Insist on a
responsive answer to your question. Follow slow-developing stories by
checking periodically with your sources. If the event or issue is still on their
agenda, it probably should be on yours as well.
7.
The best reporters we know are bright, persistent, honest, personable,
curious and courageous. A good reporter is a generalist, able to deal with a
number of topics and talk with a variety of people. He or she can see the
unusual, the ironic, in the everyday. She can think through all the
possibilities and organize a large amount of information to find the
important parts.

8. A good reporter is quick. Once he is assigned a story, he goes after it. He

makes the calls and keeps trying if he doesn't make contact. He remembers
the sign that once hung in the Los Angeles Times newsroom: GOYA/KOD.
9. A good reporter is curious. He or she takes pleasure in the new, and in the
old, in the history or precedent that got us where we are. He enjoys reading
and appreciates the details.
10.A good reporter is pleasant. She adopts a friendly nature with those she
meets. She is a grateful guest, with a belief in the basic goodness of people.
She conveys to those she meets that she is tolerant of them and their ideas,
even though she does not like them or what they stand for. She subordinates
her ego and is a good listener.
11.A good reporter is honest. He seeks the truth and acts independently. He
does what he says he's going to do, and doesn't do something he promised to
avoid. He returns his calls, and he's willing to say no. He's obsessed with
accuracy and double checks his facts with callbacks. He sees both sides to
every issue. He doesn't treat people as a means to an end.
12.The good reporter is courageous. She approaches strangers. She takes
pleasure in being good, in being first. She develops a skin to deflect the
inevitable criticism. She is willing to make a mistake and willing to write
something that may hurt someone. She has a capacity for tempered outrage.
13.As Jon Franklin, reporter, author and teacher, said: "Back when I first
started, I thought intelligence was the most important attribute a reporter
could have. I have since changed my mind. You do have to be intelligent,
but the big thing is courage.
14.Courage to open your mind and let the whole damned confusing world in.
Courage to always be the ignorant one, on somebody else's turf. Courage to
stand corrected. Courage to take criticism. Courage to grow with your
experiences. Courage to accept what you don't understand. Most of all,
courage to see what is there and not what you want to think is there."

Good Reporter should have following elements in his news story:

Accuracy
Every statement, quotation, name, date, age and address must be verifiable. In
addition, accuracy of general impression is also important. This involves the way
the details are put together and the emphasis given those details. A reporter must
judge what is important or unimportant, what will be played up or played down.
The overall article must give an accurate portrayal of an event or situation, and
poor selection of details or improper emphasis of details can distort the truth.
In general, accuracy is difficult because reporters are dealing with many facts;
they must gather information and write quickly, and many people are involved,

from source to reporter to editor. To ensure accuracy, check and double check
every detail and question sources carefully. You can't always rely on sources to
give complete, accurate information any more than you can rely on them to just
"tell" everything needed for an article. Indeed, some sources may intentionally
misinform, so reporters often need to check with more than one source.
Balance
Balance, closely related to accuracy, is the selection of significant details as a
result of informed judgment on the part of the reporter. Balance involves giving
facts proper emphasis and placing them in proper relation to other facts. A
balanced story is also a complete story, where the reporter presents both sides of an
issue, particularly if it is controversial.
For example, if you write a sports story for your high school paper, every
statement could be correct, but if only the action of the home team is reported, the
reporter is guilty of writing an incomplete and unbalanced story.
If you are covering a convention and write about a minor speech in great detail
while giving little detail about a major speech, you produce an unbalanced
article.
Objectivity
News is a factual report of an event, not a report as seen by a biased person or
seen as a reporter might wish it to be seen. The reporter should be as impartial and
honest as possible. In fact, if a reporter does have a bias, sometimes he or she
declines to do the story, or, more often, bends over backwards to make sure both
sides are covered equally. Is total objectivity humanly possible? We all have
backgrounds, biases, and emotions that help make up who we are as people, and
turning them off completely is pretty impossible. Sometimes biased reporting can
happen inadvertently because the reporter tries to be clever or make a story more
interesting.
Concise & Clear
The inverted pyramid structure of writing, with the most important information
first, beginning with the lead paragraph that tells the whole story in miniature,
helps the reporter to present information in an easy-to-understand manner. Think in
terms of writing simply so that the average reader can understand, even if they
have no background or previous knowledge of the subject.
Whenever you begin to write an article, think of this story, and remember that you
must explain in such a way that not one member of your audience would
misunderstand. You must somehow make readers "see," regardless of their frame
of reference or how complex the topic is.
Also think in terms of eliminating any unnecessary words, any words not

absolutely essential to the meaning. Students sometimes complain that if they

write too concisely, they take away creativity and interest. It will be boring, they
protest. On the contrary, concise writing is more crisp, immediate and
interesting. Think about your textbooks. Nothing is worse than reading
textbooks, say students. Why? Because, they're usually long and overwritten.
Recent
Timeliness is of the utmost importance in news coverage in general and news
writing in particular. Other factors being equal, an editor will choose one story
over another because of its timeliness. On occasion, however, timeliness may not
necessarily mean events are current. With the assassination attempt on President
Ronald Reagan in 1981, came comparisons and stories about the assassination of
John F. Kennedy in 1963.

Reporters' Rights and

Responsibilities

These are some general tips on rights journalists have, how to obt
uphold. For more, please visit theStudent Press Law Center or the
Freedom of Information Laws

Also known as sunshine laws, these allow reporters, students, and

idea behind them is that people should have freedom to be inform
are reluctant to turn over records, and law enforcement officials an
tendency to be non-compliant. But dont give up if someone refuse
could just be a temporary obstacle, so explore further before stopp

Most records of a public agency or meetings by a public agency m

exemptions vary. Usually officials are compliant and requests for in

some tools you can use to get the information you want.

One is a Freedom of Information Act request, which you can make

Press Law Center has a great letter generator on their Web site. M
for so that your request can be processed quickly. FOIA laws are no
request, and you dont have to have a reason for your request.

Another tool you can use to get information is the Clery Act, which
daily campus crime and to compile yearly statistics on serious crim

A law to watch out for is the Family Educational Rights and Privacy
prevent unnecessary releases of students education records by
because the definition of education records is a bit fuzzy, now it
that have nothing to do with a students schoolwork or academic p

These are not the only tools you can use. More laws include studen
accreditation, academic standards and student indebtedness for c

Reporters Privilege

Reporters privilege is protection against compelled disclosure of s

testify and giving up a sources identity or information they gather
if journalists hang under the constant threat of subpoenas, their jo
difficult. Occasionally confidential sources are key to revealing a st
so proponents of reporters privilege argue that journalists should

The U.S. Supreme Courts 1972 decision in Branzburg v. Hayes set

set generally is that if something is in the interest of national secu
plans for a bombing, the journalist must divulge the information an

Shield laws and court-recognized reporters privilege laws differ by

privilege, but CRP allows for a broader definition of journalists, a
organization for protection.) Wisconsin has CRP but no separate sh
journalists, who sometimes arent included in CRP laws. Students a
confidential sources to begin with but if you do promise a sourc
something that you cant deliver on.

Libel and Defamation Law

Generally, its more important to have a good, independent press
potential libel/defamation.

Legal liability applies to everyone who had their eyes on and respo
the writer whos sued, but the staff or the college (they have more
the newspaper, theyre usually safe. Libel cases against student p
journalists are students and are still learning, but cases do happen

Libel is any published communication words, photos, pictures,

true statement, then it cant be libel. Any printed content can be li
radio broadcasts are usually also defined as libel. (Slander is anoth
of libel can still count as libel. To have a successful libel claim, the
Publication that the statement was communicated to someone

in a newsroom constitutes publication.

Identification Was the plaintiff identified by name? Can it reason

statement? Note: Only individuals, not groups, can sue for libel, an
than 25 members, it is widely accepted that the statement cant d
subject to claims of libel.

Harm The plaintiff has to prove that the statement harmed his o
their academic community, their work community, etc.

Falsity The plaintiff has to prove that the statement made abou
statement need only be substantially true.

Fault The plaintiff must prove that the defendant did something

Red flags that a statement could potentially be libelous: if its abou

criminal activity, calling someone a liar or a thief, negative statem
religious insensitivities, associating someone with known criminals
status, and negative statements about lawyers (they really know h
Epithets and insults are generally not regarded as libelous.

Public officials and public figures have to prove a higher level of fa

According to the Student Press Law Center, Because a statement

speakers opinion are generally protected, even when they are not
question as pure opinion? If it cannot be reasonably verified, it is

SUMMARY
News values determine how much prominence a news story is given by a media
outlet. In practice such decisions are made informally by editors on the basis of their
experience and intuition, and analysis shows that several factors are consistently
applied across a range of news organizations Boyd 1994 states that: "News
journalism has a broadly agreed set of values, often referred to as newsworthiness:
events suitable for news which tend to be proximity, relevance, immediacy, and
drama."
Hard news stories make up the bulk of news reporting. Hard news consists of
basic facts. It is news of important public events, international happenings, social
conditions, economy, crime, etc. thus, most of the material found in daily papers,
especially from page items or news casts, deal in the hard news category. The main
aim of the hard news is to inform.
Soft stories have a human interest, entertainment focus or a statistical and
survey approach. This gives a journalist a chance to be creative and have fun with
the news. One major advantage of softer news is that many of the stories have a
longer shelf life. They can be used at any time the practitioner or reporter deems
appropriate.
Sources of news are everywhere. A journalist is surrounded by sources of
potential news stories ore features. A conversation with a friend, a poster on a wall, an
unexpected juxtaposition-all might result in a story if you keep your eyes, ears
and mind open. Some sources will be routine points of contact for journalists while
others may be one-offs, some will be proactive, approaching journalists because
they want news access for their views or events, while other sources may not even
be aware that they are sources

BEAT SYSTEM

BEAT REPORTING
BEAT REPORTING
OBJECTIVES
To understand the meaning Beat Reporting
To discuss the different types or beats of reporting
Beat reporting is the craft of reporting on an issue or particular sector,
organization or institution over time. Beat reporters build up a base of knowledge

on and gain familiarity with the sector, allowing them to provide insight and
commentary in addition to reporting straight facts. This distinguishes them from
other journalists who might cover similar stories from time to time
A news beat is an institutional or issue area that generates enough news and reader
interest to make it worthwhile for a newspaper to assign a reporter to cover it on a
regular basis. Traditional beats are government agencies, such as the police
department, courts, schools, and city hall. Certain issue areas such as health,
business, and environment are also regular beats on most newspapers. Beats could
also be imagined quite differently. For example, if they chose to do it, newspapers
could assign reporters to explore and write regularly about, say, childhood, work,
ethics, psychology, or any other area or fields that might help readers understand
the world they live in.
What makes a beat a good beat for both writer and reader is variation in levels of
analysis. That is, a good beat has stories that can be told with lots of concrete detail
but also with broad themes that speak to abstract issues and ideas. Beats are places
(literally or figuratively) where ideas flourish as well as where events happen. A
good beat reporter always operates at both the micro level and the macro level of
analysis. To paraphrase the old 1960s slogan, you have to think globally, report
locally.

SUMMARY
A news beat is an institutional or issue area that generates enough news and reader
interest to make it worthwhile for a newspaper to assign a reporter to cover it on a
regular basis. Beats could also be imagined quite differently. For example, if they
chose to do it, newspapers could assign reporters to explore and write regularly
about, say, childhood, work, ethics, psychology, or any other area or fields that
might help readers understand the world they live in.
There are tremendous public interests in crime stories and no newspaper can afford
to ignore them without damage to circulation and credibility. Crime is a part of life
and it is newspapers duty to inform the readers of what crimes are going on in
their city, state or country. However, crime reporting should not aim at satisfying
morbid curiosity or sensation mongering.
Together, the people and the journalists work on efforts to fight attempts to weaken
the civil justice system, to protect the rights of all to the right to trial by jury, and to
force government and businesses to make human health and safety the top priority.
The main consideration in editing is to tell the story in the fewest words
possible. Condensation is essential because there is more material than can be used.
The second consideration is clarity, which is obtained by avoiding intricate sentence

structure and by using familiar words. The third consideration is forcefu

BEAT SYSTEM
Beat reporting, also known as specialized reporting, is a genre
of journalism that can be described as the craft of in-depth reporting
on a particular issue, sector, organization or institution over time.
Beat reporters build up a base of knowledge on and gain familiarity
with the topic, allowing them to provide insight and commentary in
addition to reporting straight facts. Generally, beat reporters will also
build up a rapport with sources that they visit again and again,
allowing for trust to build between the journalist and his/her source of
information. This distinguishes them from other journalists who might
cover similar stories from time to time.[1]
Journalists become invested in the beats they are reporting for, and
become passionate about mastering that beat.[2] Beat reporters often
deal with the same sources day after day, and must return to those
sources regardless of their relationship with them. [3] Those sources
may or may not be pleased with the reporting of the reporters. [3] It is
pertinent that beat reporters contact their sources quickly, obtain all
necessary information, and write on deadline.[3]
Daily beat reporting, in contrast to investigative writing, presents
credible information from reliable sources.[4] Often, investigative writing
is attributed to unofficial sources (Karrirer). According to media
sociologists, beat reporting occurs because of the limited time
reporters are given to cover stories.[5] For big scoops, beats are not

necessarily as useful as other journalism types.[5] Some of the best

inside stories, for example Bay of Pigs and Watergate, did not come
from beat reporting.[5]
Beat reporters collect information from each person they meet while
reporting.[6] They routinely call, visit, and e-mail sources to obtain any
new information for articles.[6] When reporters have experience on a
specific beat, they are able to gain both knowledge and sources to
lead them to new stories relating to that beat.[6] Beats are able to help
reporters define their roles as journalists, and also avoid overlap of
stories within the newsroom

Beat reporting
is the craft of reporting on an issue or p
a r t i c u l a r s e c t o r , organization or institution over time.
Beat
Beat reporting
is the craft of reporting on an issue or particular
sector,organization or institution over time.
Beat
reporters
build up a base of knowledge onand gain familiarity
with the sector, allowing them to provide
insight andcommentary in addition to reporting
straight facts. This distinguishes them
fromother journalists who might cover similar
stories from time to time

A news beat is an institutional or issue area that generates

enough news and reader interest to make it worthwhile for a
newspaper to assign a reporter to cover it on aregular basis.
Traditional beats are government agencies, such as the
policedepartment, courts, schools, and city hall. Certain issue
areas such as health, business, and environment are also regular
beats on most newspapers. Beats couldalso be imagined quite
differently. For example, if they chose to do it, newspaperscould
assign reporters to explore and write regularly about, say,
childhood, work,ethics, psychology, or any other area or field
that might help readers understand theworld they live in. hat
makes a beat a good beat for both writer and reader is variation
in levels of analysis. That is, a good beat has stories that can be
told with lots of concrete detail but also with broad themes that
speak to abstract issues and ideas. Beats are places(literally or
figuratively) where ideas flourish as well as where events
happen. Agood beat reporter always operates at both the micro
level and the macro level of analysis. To paraphrase the old
1960s slogan, you have to think globally, reportlocally

UNIT -2
TYPES OF REPORTING
Crime reporting

There are tremendous public interests in crime stories and no newspaper can afford
to ignore them without damage to circulation and credibility. Crime is a part of life
and it is newspapers duty to inform the readers of what crimes are going on in
their city, state or country. However, crime reporting should not aim at satisfying
morbid curiosity or sensation mongering.
Although crime reporting is usually assigned to one of the junior reporters in a
newspaper, it is a highly responsible and specialized job. The reporter should not
only have the ability to sift the grain from the chaff, and the truth from lies, he
should also have good contacts in the police and other departments of the
administration as well as working knowledge of the penal codes and law on libel
and other relevant matters.
Besides, he must observe a code of honour. He should be as objective and as
humanly as possible so as to avoid resorting to sensationalism or cheap gimmicks
to catch the attention of the readers or the viewers. He should not suppress news of
public interest. Nor should he seek to settle personal scores with police officers or
lawyers or judges. And he must be careful that in the course of his work, he does
not unnecessarily invade a citizens privacy.
There has been much criticism of press reporting of crime and not all of it is
baseless. Some reporters have been found guilty of unethical standards, thus
causing much pain and sorrow to their victims or their families and friends.
Crime Reporters try to glorify the activities of criminals or sometimes make heroes
of them. This practice should be discouraged as much as a resort to sensationalism.
The crime reporter much never violates standards of decency and good news taste.
There are several types of crime news-murders, fires, accidents, robberies,
burglaries, fraud, blackmail, kidnapping, rape, etc.
Fires
The reporter must get his facts correct about the essential elements of a fire story
the number of persons killed or injured, the extent of damage to property, the loss
of valuables, etc. he must also find out if the fire brigade responded in time or was
guilty of delaying the fire-operations through sheer lethargy or incompetence or
lack of water supply. He should question eyewitnesses about any acts of bravery or
cowardice. All these are essential ingredients of a fire story.
The lead in a fire story would normally suggest itself. If, for instance, lives have
been lost, it needs highlighting in the lead. If possible, the reporter must list the
names of the dead and the injured. Homicides
In cases of a major murder, the reporter should rush to the scene as soon as
possible after receiving a tip and gather all the relevant facts. In nine cases out of
ten, crime reporters, say, in Delhi depend on police information about murders and
there is a time lapse before they can begin their investigations.
This often hampers their search for the truth. The reporter must, in any case,
exercise great care in how he handles the story. Otherwise, he runs the risk of

causing offence.
In reporting dowry deaths or alleged dowry deaths, the reporter must refrain from
leveling uncorroborated statements by one party or the other. He must therefore get
his facts correct by talking to the investigation police officer, the girls in laws and
her parents, and, if possible, with the neighbors.
Accidents
Most accidents are reported on the basis of police bulletins or information supplied
by police spokesmen. However, wherever possible the crime reporter must rush
to the scene of a major accident to give authenticity to his story.
Arrests
It is a serious matter to report that a person has been placed under arrest. When
such a report is made, the exact charge against the arrested person could be given
and it should be documented by either a record or attribution to a responsible
official. If such documentation cannot be obtained, the reporter has better to check
the facts. The person in question may not have been under arrest at all. In many
states an arrest is not formally accomplished until a prisoner is booked. The news,
in any case, must be handled with care.
Accusations
It is commonly written that someone is being sought for robbery, suspected of
arson or tried for murder. This is journalistic shorthand, which has gained
acceptance through usage, but it is neither precise nor correct.
Persons are sought in connection with a robbery, unless a charge has actually been
made, in which case they are charged with robbery. Persons under suspicion are
not necessarily going to be charged with a crime and it is generally not privileged
matter to indicate that suspicion is attached to any individual by name. Where the
police suspect someone, but lack proof, that person may be held as materialwitnessthat is far different from being accused of as a criminal. Therefore, cases
of suspicion are not usually given too extensive and detailed news treatment if no
privileged material is available for use. The practice of reporting that a defendant is
being tried for murder, while widely used, is obviously prejudicial and could be
more accurately, if less drama stated, as being tried as a charge of murder.
Confessions
The use of the word confession to describe statements made by a person to the
police or the prosecuting authorities is dangerous when it is not a matter of public
record. The fact that a police chief or a prosecutor has claimed to have a
confession, except in open court, may be used only at the risk of the news
organization. Most press-bar voluntary agreements forbid the use of confessions
until they are admitted in open court. The records are full of supposed confessions
that backfired later for a variety of reasons and of persons who admitted crimes
they could not possibly have committed. Unless and until it is established in fact
that a person has confessed, approved procedure for reporters is to use such terms

as statement, admission, description or explanation. They convey the shade

of meaning that is warranted by circumstances and do not subject the news
organization to unnecessary risks.
There are a few fundamental precautions which a crime reporter must take
account of:
The first is that the police and prosecutors rarely will give them information
on a silver platter. That means, a tremendous amount of interviewing and
research must be done in a very short time so that a coherent story may be
written
There is no guarantee of police accuracy; and therefore police versions of
names, addresses and other facts must be checked
Police and journalistic terminology are not identical. The legal term for a
slaying is a homicide, but many news organizations loosely and incorrectly
refer to such crimes automatically as murder.
3.1.2. Court reporting
Even the big newspapers of India do not have the resources to cover all the
courts of their main circulation area. The reason being that there are too many
courts. Newspapers neither have the time nor the space to cover everything that
happens in the courts. Paper covers only those stories in which their readers are
interested.
A country governed by laws needs many courts, each with a different
jurisdiction. The emphasis of the news media is on criminal courts, High courts,
and the Supreme Court. The media are less interested in covering Civil Courts.
One of the reasons for this lack of interest may be that the Civil Courts are
jammed with cases, the suits remain pending there for several years and it is
assumed that in the mean time, members of the public would lose whatever
interest they may have showed initially.
If we go through the old files of a newspaper, we will find that the volume of
court reporting has increased in recent years. One of the reasons for the increase
may be the courts are now getting more active in the field of social justice. Public
interest litigations are also increasing. As the number of petitions increase, one
notices a corresponding increase in the coverage of courts and the judgments
they deliver.
There are only a few big newspapers in India who have full time correspondents
or reporters exclusively for their court beat. These reporters generally have
adequate legal background. Other newspapers mostly hire stringers to cover court
stories. (In journalism, a stringer is a freelance journalist, who is paid for each
piece of published or broadcast work, rather than receiving a regular salary. They
are heavily relied upon by most television news organizations)
Many of the stringers are professional advocates. Many part-timers also cover

stories in their respective areas and come from teaching, law and other
professions. A newspaper, which does not have a full time law reporter, may send
its regular staff correspondent to cover an important court story.
The first time that one covers the court beat as a court reporter; one usually feels
amidst the technicalities and complex language. A trainee reporter aiming to be a
future court reporter must at first acquire some understanding of the court
jurisdictions, its procedures and its hierarchy. At the apex we have the Supreme
Court of India. Then there are the High Courts, Session Courts, Magistrate Courts,
etc.
If the reporter is acquainted with the jurisdiction of different courts, then one can
easily locate the specific court for a particular matter. Similarly, if one is familiar
with the hierarchy in the courts; one can easily guess where the appeal would be
filed.
Much of a reporters success in the coverage of the courts depends on ones
contact and sources, and ones ability to gain access quickly to records. For areporter,
the key person in a court is the clerk of the court. A court clerk prepares
and keeps the records. He can make available copies of transcript for a fee. Court
reporting involves diligent checking of records. The judge who presides a trial is
seldom ones source. But a reporter should, as soon as possible, introduce oneself
in person to the judge. A court reporter should also have good contacts with the
lawyers working on a case and if possible with the respective parties. Where a
case attracts much public attention, reporters may be under pressure from rival
lawyers for a more favorable description of their individual positions. The reporter
must then ensure impartial reportage in all fairness to the proceedings in court.
Court reporters must understand the judicial process from beginning to end. They
should know what happens when a suspect is arrested, charged, arraigned, tried,
and sentenced or released. Experienced reporters say the best way to learn the
process is to spend time at the courthouse. As stated before, begin with the court
clerks, who keep track the list of cases and the calendar. Find out how to get
copies of the court record, filings, and testimony. Read the case files including
motions and pleadings before the trial and keep track of what's reported about
the case if you can't be in court every day, which frequently happens.
Defense attorneys are some of the best sources of information on the justice beat.
They often are more willing than prosecutors to talk with reporters about cases on
which they are working. Do your best to understand legal jargon, but avoid using it
in your stories. If you don't know what something means, ask the person you're
interviewing to explain it.
3.1.3. Health reporting
Health reporter usually informs the public about major epidemics, diseases and
their cures, new medical discoveries, medical irregularities, etc. they are either
specialized in their field of medical of take the assistance of doctors, medical

practitioner, etc. the common man cannot understand most of the medical terms so
it is the duty of the health reporter to explain these terms and present the report
which is easily understood by the common man.
Every change of season witness some major breakouts of epidemics and thus the
people must be informed about these diseases and the necessary measures to be
taken to avoid the occurrence of these diseases. The health reporter in no way
should frighten the common man but present remedies and cures for the diseases.
Crosschecking is extremely necessary if the reporter is not specialized in the
medical field. Therefore, most of the newspaper relies of medical practitioner,
doctors, scientist, and others to present the articles or features for the newspaper.
The health reporter is supposed to cover researches, developments in the field of
medicine and pharmaceuticals and new experiments in medicine and medical
surgery. He collects this information from different departments of medical
fraternity.
Many well-known health and medical science reporters writing in a few major
newspapers have become the primary source for secondary pick-ups by many
radio, newspaper, and television reporters. Thus, a small handful of powerful,
skilled writers wield an enormous amount of influence in this field. These days,
most of the health reporting also covers fitness tips given out by experts in the field
of yoga, acupuncture, meditation, and others.
The public is poorly served by the coverage of medical science in the general press.
Scientists and physicians blame the press, claiming that journalists are careless in
their reporting, subject to competitive pressures, and ignorant of the scientific
process. Journalists accuse the medical community of limiting access to
information and erecting barriers to the public dissemination of medical research.
In many areas of health news reporting, the underlying problem is an interactive
dynamic that involves scientists and journalists. Both parties share the
responsibility for accurate communication to the public.
Health Reporters usually deliver medical news as if they are reporting on a hostage
crisis. Information is delivered rapidly, but little time is taken to provide a context
for the story. Instead, the reporting is sensationalized: The journalist overstates a
scientific finding and, as a result, the public is misled about the implications of that
finding. This sort of reporting has its roots in newsroom pressures to dramatize
stories by sounding alarms.
To avoid inaccurate stories, health reporters need to examine the credibility and
biases of scientific sources. Such examination is often not done, however, possibly
because reporters are misled when the public relations efforts of scientists,
institutions. The major sources for a health reporter are the doctors or medical
officers.
A journalist's audience should be told explicitly whether the journalist's source of
information could benefit financially from the media attention or whether the

source is funded or employed by an institution that will benefit. However, such

conflicts of interest are often not apparent to reporters or their audiences.
The public is generally unaware of the scientific process and is therefore likely to
give more importance to awareness and full details of diseases and remedies by a
renowned medical practitioner. This follow-up should be done, because journalists
themselves may not completely know the complete medical process works. Certain
medical terms are likely to be misinterpreted and thus it is the duty of the health
reporter to clarify such doubts. The health science community should promote
contact with themedia when confirmatory or no confirmatory studies emerge in an
area that has already received attention from the press. General assignment
reporters typically wrote medical news stories and Reporters who specifically
cover medicines are now commonly found at many major news organizations.
Thus, Those who understand the complexities of newsworthy issues in medicine
and public health should
Examining the media's coverage of medicine seems to show that medical news
reporting is less than ideal. Medical scientists and journalists share the
responsibility for this problem. Thus, the medical science community can
encourage accurate medical reporting and reporters will also have to take active
measures to improve the situation.
Health Reporters should be able to assume that press releases are accurate, findings
are not overstated, and conflicts of interest are acknowledged. The health reporter
should deal with failures to be accurate, to identify vested interests, to follow up on
stories, and to cover important health issues as the patients are the ones who stand
to suffer the most. The health reporter must remember that it is the public that
ultimately benefits from medical scientists' contributions to improved media
coverage.
3.1.4. Civic Reporting
Newspapers have traditionally been the most community oriented of mass media.
Newspapers have been given a good deal of credit for building the democratic
community life cities and towns. These days, however, the media and their
audiences have been so thoroughly fragmented that the newspaper seems on the
verge of becoming just another specialized commercial product for a niche market.
Together, the people and the journalists work on efforts to fight attempts to weaken
the civil justice system, to protect the rights of all to the right to trial by jury, and to
force government and businesses to make human health and safety the top priority.
Public Citizen is very interested to report the news reporters for information in a
variety of cases: products liability, medical malpractice, cases involving children,
cases involving drugs or medical devices for women, cases where punitive
damages were awarded, cases where defendants withheld documents or engaged in
other types of abuse or misconduct, and cases where discovery documents or
testimony revealed a company decision to risk foreseeable injuries or deaths in

order to save money or increase profits.

Reporters around the country are increasingly turning to civic journalism to find
better stories and report them in ways that re-establish a bond with readers, viewers
and listeners. They do so to:
Tackle tough issues.
Discover new local stories.
Interact with readers and viewers in new ways.
Use the web to improve reporting.
Mostly two or three junior reporters, supervised by a senior one is appointed to
cover local news, administration problems and important judgments of the district
courts. A senior reporter assigns the coverage among the junior reporters who
actually go into the field and bring news of local interest. There may be a fire or
theft or important crime to report like a murder or dacoity. Then there may be court
proceedings of a sensational nature wherein important crime cases are heard and
adjudged upon. These reporters are called district reporters. Each reporter has an
area assigned to him, which may include one or more large towns with the addition
of smaller towns and larger villages. In some cases, a district office is established
in prominent towns to enable the reporters to cover the ground with a senior
reporter in charge. The senior man also acts as the manager of the office, who
keeps the accounts and is responsible for the advertisement and other revenue,
which is received.
The Civic reporters have considerable responsibility as an important link in the
chain of news collection of interest to the newspaper. The senior as well as the
junior reporters keep their respective diary of engagements and see that nothing is
missed which may give the lead to other newspapers. If the locality or the town is
large and a populous one, the reporter may find himself, with a full diary of routine
engagements every day.
The civic reporter needs to be active men who have the opportunity of making a
wide circle of friends. They develop influence in the local administration and can
dig their news ahead of other contemporaries representing other newspapers. One
important qualification of a local or civic reporter is knowledge of law so that he
does not commit any errors leading to libel. He must be above board and not have
extreme likes and dislikes of individuals, businessmen or influential personalities
in the area.
The telephone is a very important means of receiving and collecting information
about any event-taking place in the area. A civic reporter has his link with police
officers and corporation administrators who inform him of anything important
taking place around. However, it is not advisable to simply depend on one or the
other individual source for making the story.
Immediately on receiving the hint of an important event, the civic reporter is
supposed to either rush himself or send his juniors, depending on the importance of

the news, to cover it. If necessary, a photographer may also be taken along
although many newspapers prefer junior reporters to know as to how to handle the
camera and have working knowledge of photography. In the case of important
news, even movie cameras are sometimes maintained by newspapers to obtain TV
films for supply to the TV Organizations on specific charges.
3.1.5. Political reporting
Political reporters in a democracy have one central mission: to provide citizens
with the information they need to make an informed choice between the candidates
for elective office. To do that, journalists need to examine the candidates'
backgrounds and qualifications, their positions on the key issues, and what the
candidates are saying in campaign appearances and advertising. Reporters who
cover politics look at the candidates' supporters, too, since their interests can often
shed light on what a politician will do if elected.
A political reporter should have intelligence, instinctive perception of ground
realities, good judgment of people and a strong historic sense. Since politics is the
main focus of newspapers, too many new entrances would like to be political
reporters hoping that it would be a ladder to the coveted office of the editor.
But the fact remains that there is a dearth of good political reporting in India who
have the skills to report insight, and do reporting that captures in flesh and blood
of the players in the political field. A skilled political reporter is able to expose the
naked ambitions of political leaders and the hypocrisy of political parties.
Politics is the game for power, a game for supremacy and ironically this game is
played in the name of the people for evoking national greatness. The majority of
politicians in India have acquired office because they were misfits everywhere
else and are driven by a desire to make up for their past failures and frustrations.
Thus, the sad thing about Indian democracy is that it is these politicians who
guide the destiny of some 900 million people. Bereft of ideas, intelligence and
character, they exploit caste, religion and language to stay in power and the
country slip from crisis to crisis.
Therefore, it is the duty of the political reporter to never glorify a minister or a
politician but truthfully present their achievements and failures. Programmes of
political parties should be critically evaluated and the flaws commented upon, so
that the people are not carried away by their patriotic portrayal. The performance
of government needs constant review and herein is the wisdom and maturity of
the political reporter set on a national spectacle.
A lot of things are happening behind the scene in politics. Diplomacy, lobbying,
image-building and hatching conspiracies are only few of them. Nothing much is
visible to the outside world but the tip of an iceberg. The real challenge of
political reporting is in unmasking these happenings in the political world.
Connections and inside sources are the strengths of a politics reporter.

Party conferences, campaigns and rallies and press conferences are normal
reporting events. But to add news value to these the reporter should have inside
information or exclusive stories. The best selling newspapers in any country are
those with a strong political bureau satisfying the political curiosity of the readers.
Inadequate political coverage usually judged by the quality of reporting, brings
down the circulation of a newspaper. The honest and well-meaning politician
deserves the support of the reporter and the peoples support. One of the basic
duties of political reporting is to bring to national focus such deserving leaders
and to warn the nation against criminals in political garment.
The political reporter must have a sound knowledge of history and the ability to
see the chain of events before it happened and the wisdom to translate the
thoughts into memorable words.
3.1.6. Culture reporting
The term The Culture Beat refers to the way a newspaper will assign reporters to
cover various sites where news originates-city hall, the police reports, sports,
entertainment, local, etc.
Culture reporting is characterized by its punchy style, rough language, and
ostensible disregard for conventional journalistic writing forms and customs. The
reporter attempts to present a multi-disciplinary perspective on a particular story,
drawing from popular culture, sports, political, philosophical and literary sources.
It is styled eclectic or untraditional. Culture reporting remains a feature of popular
magazines. It has a good deal of entertainment value.
Culture reporting also focuses on the personal lives of people, primarily celebrities,
including movie and stage actors, musical artists, models and photographers, other
notable people in the entertainment industry, as well as people who seek attention,
such as politicians, and people thrust into the attention of the public, such as people
who do something newsworthy.
Culture reporting today is the province of newspaper gossip columnists and gossip
magazines and has become the focus of national tabloid newspapers like the
National Enquirer, magazines like People and Us Weekly, syndicated television
shows like Entertainment Tonight, Inside Edition, The Insider, Access Hollywood,
and Extra, cable networks like E!, and numerous other television productions.
It differs from feature writing in that it focuses on people who are either already
famous or are especially attractive, and in that it often covers celebrities
obsessively, to the point of these journalists behaving unethically in order to
provide coverage. Paparazzi, photographers who would follow celebrities
incessantly to obtain potentially embarrassing photographs, have come to
characterize celebrity journalism.
It is the most common kind of reporting where reporters are placed at the most
strategic news-breaking points like hospitals, courtrooms, police headquarters,

airports, railway stations, universities, government and corporate offices and health
and recreation centers. Unlike editorial writing, the culture reporting is impersonal.
A culture reporter is should essentially be an honest storyteller, who should rise
above his prejudices and subjectivity. He should be fair and impartial and present
in all aspects of the story. Complete objectivity may be required as the primary job
of a reporter in any beat is to tell the truth.
Civil administration reporting
The government establishes the civil administration and the area concerned are
the local, municipal, social and national levels of the society. Civil administration
reporting will thus carry news stories relating to all these sections of a country.
Civil administration of a country exercise certain authority normally in the
function of the local government; or hostile territory. It exercises executive,
legislative, and judicial authority.
Civil administration reporters thus have to work with civil authorities and civilian
populations in the area of operations.
Civil administration reporters are the specialists who can quickly and
systematically identify critical requirements needed by local citizens in bad
situations. They can also locate civil resources to support help operations, help
support national assistance activities. The reporters report on the plan to establish
and maintain liaison or dialogue with civilians and private organizations.
The civil administration reporters provide a prime source of nation-building skills.
Their prime focus of reporting is in the fields of public administration, public
safety, public health, legal systems, labor management, public welfare, public
finance, public education, civil defense, public works and utilities, public
communications, public transportation, logistics, food and agricultural services,
economics, property control, cultural affairs, civil information, and managing
dislocated persons.
One of the main components of civil administration is the police who are appointed
with the duties to keep a check on the society. Reporting police news is difficult
and potentially dangerous. But if reporters and editors are properly prepared and
sufficiently cautious, mistakes will be held to a minimum. Police news tells us
about ourselves, and how we handle police news tells us something about our
journalistic ability. Ideally, police news is used to inform the public, not to aid
directly in conviction. Keeping this perspective is important in handling police
news effectively.
Police reporters need to know exactly how crimes are defined in the community
they cover. In the United States, for example, a "burglary" and a "robbery" are not
the same thing. Burglary involves breaking into a building to commit a crime.
Robbery is stealing money or property by force. Developing a glossary of essential

terms can prevent embarrassing mistakes. A police press release may provide the
basic facts about a crime, but good reporters dig deeper. They go to the scene to
look for details and to talk with neighbors or eyewitnesses, whenever possible.
The coverage of civil disorder imposed major responsibilities on the reporters. On
the one hand, they must expose themselves to danger if necessary to determine the
magnitude of any street incident. But whatever they do, they must always be
conscious that careless reporting or the provocative appearance of still or
television cameras can cause untold harm in a tense situation, particularly in the
crowded inner cores of many cities and towns.
Education reporting
As Education, is the organized teaching and training of students, the reporters job
will revolve around these areas. Education is a body of theoretical and applied
research relating to teaching and learning. Thus, the reporter has to focus on these
both areas of education. The education reporter works in different areas or
disciplines such as psychology, philosophy, computer science, linguistics,
neuroscience, sociology and anthropology.
The education reporter focus on the education systems as these can be used to
promote doctrines or ideals as well as knowledge, and this can lead to abuse of the
system. These days, the education reporters focus on adult education as they have
become widespread in many countries. However, education is still seen by many as
something aimed at children, and adult education is often branded as adult learning
or lifelong learning.
Adult education takes on many forms, from formal class-based learning to selfdirected
learning. Lending libraries provide inexpensive informal access to books
and other self-instructional materials. Many adults have also taken advantage of
the rise in computer ownership and internet access to further their informal
education.
The reporter has to report about the Education reforms. Educational reforms are
plans, programs, or movements which attempts to bring about a systematic change
in educational theory or practice across a community or society. As the public
attention focuses on standards based education reform in response to the high
expense and poor outcomes of education, it is the duty of the reporter to bring forth
such information.
The teaching method must be teachable! Many educators now believe that
anything that more precisely meets the needs of the child will work better.
Programs that test individual learning, and teach to mastery of a subject have been
proven to be far more effective than group instruction with compromise schedules.
Philosophers identify independent, logical reasoning as a precondition to most
western science, engineering, economic and political theory. Therefore, every
educational program that desires to improve students' outcomes in political, health

and economic behavior should include a Socratically-taught set of classes to teach

logic and critical thinking. Substantial resources and time can be saved by
permitting students to test out of classes. This also increases motivation, directs
individual study, and reduces boredom and disciplinary problems.
To support inexpensive continuing education a community needs a free public
library. It can start modestly as shelves in an attended shop or government
building, with donated books. New programs based on modern learning theories
should be quantitatively investigated for effectiveness.
The education reporter has to report education plans, durations, costs, and
scholarships of various educational programs started by national and international
universities. Thus much research with educationists, institutions and expertise is
required to prepare the report. As always, crosschecking of facts is important.
Also, the education reporter has to present counseling help to the students as they
often get confused because today we have so many options available in the
education and vocational fields.
Thus, the education reporter must be aware with different departments of
education, have good contacts with colleges and universities and get an insight into
the psyche of the students about their preferences and choices. These reporters
have to regularly attend functions like convocations, academic events of colleges
and universities to know the progress and the launch of new educational programs.
INTRODUCTION
News Reporting
News reports are classified into two broad types:
1. Straight news reports
2. Investigative or interpretative reports
Straight news reports present what has happened in a straightforward, factual and
clear manner. They draw no conclusions, nor offer any opinions. There is no
attempt to probe deeper than the surface happenings, or they provide elaborate
background information, or even to examine claims made. The main sources are:
Government officials, elite groups, news agencies, eminent people, businessmen
and others.
Both these types of news stories merely present the claims, without in any way
trying to question or rebut, or ask why. Investigative reports, on the other hand,
would make an effort to go behind the claims and see how valid they are. They
report happenings in depth, present fairly all sides of the picture in the context of
the situation, and generally, put some meaning into the news so that the reader is
better able to understand and analyze the event.
Disaster stories e.g. famines and floods get pride of place in the daily press, and
these provide many human interest stories. Developments in science, industry

and agriculture are increasingly coming to be considered as interesting news, as

also the exposure of corruption in high places, the exploitation of the lower classes
and workers, and social injustice and inequalities resulting from the social,
economic and political structures. Of course, all the news reported is not news of
the highest interest to everybody. Politics interest some, sports others, crime still
others. However, it is rare that newspapersouch in the information needs and
interests of the poorer sections of the society.

.
TYPES OF REPORTING
Crime reporting
There are tremendous public interests in crime
stories and no newspaper can affordto ignore
them without damage to circulation and
credibility. Crime is a part of lifeand it is
newspapers duty to inform the readers of what
crimes are going on intheir city, state or
country. However, crime reporting should not
aim at satisfyingmorbid curiosity or sensation
mongering.Although crime reporting is usually
assigned to one of the junior reporters in
anewspaper, it is a highly responsible and
specialized job. The reporter should notonly
have the ability to sift the grain from the chaff,

and the truth from lies, heshould also have

good contacts in the police and other
departments of theadministration as well as
working knowledge of the penal codes and law
on libeland other relevant matters.Besides, he
must observe a code of honour. He should be
as objective and ashumanly as possible so as
to avoid resorting to sensationalism or cheap
gimmicksto catch the attention of the readers
or the viewers. He should not suppress news of
public interest. Nor should he seek to settle
personal scores with police officers or lawyers
or judges. And he must be careful that in the
course of his work, he doesnot unnecessarily
invade a citizens privacy.There has been much
criticism of press reporting of crime and not all
of it is baseless. Some reporters have been
found guilty of unethical standards,
thuscausing much pain and sorrow to their
victims or their families and friends.Crime
Reporters try to glorify the activities of
criminals or sometimes make heroesof them.
This practice should be discouraged as much
as a resort to sensationalism.The crime
reporter much never violates standards of
decency and good news taste.There are
several types of crime news-murders, fires,

accidents, robberies, burglaries, fraud,

blackmail, kidnapping, rape, etc.
Fires
The reporter must get his facts correct about the
essential elements of a fire storythe number of
persons killed or injured, the extent of damage
to property, the lossof valuables, etc. he must
also find out if the fire brigade responded in
time or wasguilty of delaying the fireoperations through sheer lethargy or
incompetence or lack of water supply. He
should question eyewitnesses about any acts
of bravery or cowardice. All these are essential
ingredients of a fire story.The lead in a fire
story would normally suggest itself. If, for
instance, lives have been lost, it needs
highlighting in the lead. If possible, the reporter
must list thenames of the dead and the injured
Homicides
In cases of a major murder, the reporter should
rush to the scene as soon as possible after
receiving a tip and gather all the relevant facts.
In nine cases out of ten, crime reporters, say,
in Delhi depend on police information about
murders andthere is a time lapse before they

can begin their investigations.This often

hampers their search for the truth. The
reporter must, in any case,exercise great care
in how he handles the story. Otherwise, he runs
the risk of causing offence.In reporting dowry
deaths or alleged dowry deaths, the reporter
must refrain fromleveling uncorroborated
statements by one party or the other. He must
therefore gethis facts correct by talking to the
investigation police officer, the girls in laws
andher parents, and, if possible, with the
neighbors
Accidents
Most accidents are reported on the basis of police
bulletins or information suppliedby police
spokesmen. However, wherever possible the
crime reporter must rushto the scene of a
major accident to give authenticity to his story.
Arrests
It is a serious matter to report that a person has
been placed under arrest. Whensuch a report is
made, the exact charge against the arrested
person could be givenand it should be
documented by either a record or attribution to
a responsibleofficial. If such documentation

cannot be obtained, the reporter has better to

check the facts. The person in question may
not have been under arrest at all. In
manystates an arrest is not formally
accomplished until a prisoner is booked. The
news,in any case, must be handled with care.
Arrests
It is a serious matter to report that a person has
been placed under arrest. Whensuch a report is
made, the exact charge against the arrested
person could be givenand it should be
documented by either a record or attribution to
a responsibleofficial. If such documentation
cannot be obtained, the reporter has better to
check the facts. The person in question may
not have been under arrest at all. In
manystates an arrest is not formally
accomplished until a prisoner is booked. The
news,in any case, must be handled with care
Accusations
It is commonly written that someone is being
sought for robbery, suspected of arson or tried
for murder. This is journalistic shorthand, which
has gainedacceptance through usage, but it is
neither precise nor correct.

City News Desk

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Planning and Coverage of News

News coverage of breaking news often includes reporting the

loss of life, money or property. While no one enjoys that,
breaking news creates opportunities to grow your audience,
strengthen your brand and shake up the competitive media
landscape. Be ready to dominate news coverage the next time
you're faced with a huge unfolding story

Develop a Breaking News Coverage PlanBe

Ready to Use Your News Coverage Plan
Your plan will be wasted if it just sits on a shelf when news
breaks. Designate the people you trust to enact your plan if
you can't be there and make sure everyone knows who is in
authority.
Part of making sure your plan is ready is to review it regularly.
The faces in your department change over the years. Make
your news coverage plan part of a new employee's orientation
so that no one is left behind.
Also, consider updates in technology. With the growing
importance of social media, you'll want to update your
playbook. If your newsroom computer system is down, cell
phones and social media may become the best way to
communicate.

Take action now to prepare your news coverage. Your plan

needs to be in writing and available to every member of your
staff. Include instructions for every type of breaking news you
can think of -- natural disasters, plane crashes, hostage
situations, bombings -- so that no one is forced to adapt your
directions for a snow storm if there's a terrorist attack
Some key questions to answer: Who's in charge if the normal
managers are not there, when will normal job duties and work
hours be expanded and how will your staff be able to tend to
their own family needs?
Name Your Coverage

Once you're ready to hit air, the internet or the printing

presses, make sure to name your breaking news
coverage. This will be an important part of your branding,
both in traditional media and online
Your audience may think everyone has the same news
coverage unless you look for ways to stand out. That's why
you need a cohesive name and graphic look to serve as an
umbrella for your stories.

The name doesn't have to be clever and your graphic

elements shouldn't be too detailed. The goal is to get this
done from the start of your coverage, not a week later.

Promote Your Complete Coverage

Breaking news can cause your audience to scatter to every
media source that can be found. A simple-to-follow promotion
plan can get your users back inside your tent, and add others
who are searching for information.
Include the elements of your complete coverage. If a tornado
hits your city, simply saying "we have the full story" isn't
specific enough. You should list the story angles you are
pursuing.
That can be as straightforward as, "We will show you the
devestation, talk to people who saw the storm coming toward
them, tell you who's leading the efforts to rebuild their homes
and show you how you can help." The list shows you have at
least four elements as part of your breaking news coverage.

Look for the Human Element

When disaster strikes, the natural tendency is to concentrate
on big-picture aspects -- how many thousands of homes are

without power, how many buildings were destroyed and the

total price tag of the damage. That's not the whole story.
People respond best to personal drama, not institutional data.
Find the little old lady without heat during the blizzard or the
pregnant woman who goes into labor in a hurricane. Your
audience will remember those stories the next day, not the
news conference with the governor.
If you're not considered the top news source versus your
competition, this is the way to draw attention. If the "news
leader" forgets to show breaking news through the eyes of the
people, you have the opportunity to take the title away.

Advance the Story

In long-term breaking news situations, there comes a point
when the shock wears off. You've shown people the damage
from the earthquake and talked to survivors. Now what?
Switch to investigative follow-up stories to keep your news
coverage fresh. There will be plenty of stories in the days to
come without constantly rehashing what happened.
In the case of an earthquake, talk to geologists about what
causes a quake and the likelihood that another one will
happen. Find out from city leaders whether building codes are
up to date. Show your audience how emergency responders

took action -- do they have the manpower and gear needed?

Don't forget to look back in history to see if there were other
quakes in your area and what happened then.

Help the Community Recover

To grab a leadership role, look for ways to help your
community. While you may feel as though you can't take on a
community project, you might be surprised at how easy it is.
That's because the American Red Cross and similar
organizations can do much of the work for you. That's their
expertise. What you can provide is much-needed publicity.
Have someone on your staff designated to take the lead so
you can concentrate on news. Maybe you can sign
partnership agreements now so that you get a jump start on
the competition.
Some of those partnerships can include other media. A TV
station or newspaper that is working to promote a blood drive
can get help from a local radio station group that can air more
announcements during the day.
Remind Your Audience of Your News Coverage

In some forms of media, this is called proof of performance

(p.o.p.) advertising. You need to remind people of how your
coverage succeeded compared to the competition.
You don't want to brag that "when 1,000 people were killed in
the flood, we were the first to tell you!" or something equally
uncaring. The words and the tone need extra attention so that
you don't appear to be making light of a tragedy.

One strategy is to produce an advertisement that is both a

p.o.p. and a public service announcement. A 30-second
commercial could say that "while we were first on the air when
the deadly wildfires began, our efforts don't stop there. We are
working with several local charities to help burned-out
families. To help us, call this number."

It's impossible to know when your community will be faced

with breaking news. The time you spend planning will pay off
in news coverage that dominates your competition and helps
your long-term management goals.

Hard News Human

Intereststories
News reporters may be asked to occasionally write a human
interest story. These "soft news" pieces feature stories about
events or issues that get people's interest in a general way.
Such stories take a break from the more serious news
material to highlight something light or funny, something
unusual and often something inspiring. When it's time to pen
one of these more human news stories, a beginner might
have questions about how to go about this kind of reporting.
Some common guidelines apply to writing most human
interest stories.

Writing a Human Interest Stories

Find good source material. The first part of writing any news
story, including a human interest story, is to get adequate
material from sources. Think about what will be most useful

and relevant, and approach the most central sources who are
most involved in the story.
Go to a home or business. Find the most involved people

and interview them at the appropriate scene. This can help

provide photo ops and help you to get better source material.
Use phone interviews. If you can't always locate your

main sources personally, get them on the phone to get more

details about an issue that you want to cover

Write the lead-in or "lede." In its less usual spelling, the

word lede refers to the introduction of a news story. It's part of
the jargon around journalism in general. Writing the lede
involves using an unstated main idea and crafting a
compelling, often anecdotal, first sentence that draws readers
into the story.

Use a hard news hook or a more entertaining one. In

hard news stories, the reporter often uses a lede that just
encapsulates the facts. This is one conventional approach,
where the other is to leave the facts for later and write a
sentence that appeals to a philosophical element or other
human area of interest.

Include the facts. Soon after the lede, the story should
concisely go into the facts of the article, introducing the reader
to the various players and revealing what the story is actually
about.
Use the "Five Ws." These main ideas for journalism are

often called the five Ws, although one is actually an H. Think

about when, why, who, what and how when writing.

Conclude your story. Write a conclusion that brings

everything together.

5
Do a final edit. The edit is the stage where you can go over
the piece, not just for typos and spelling and grammatical
errors, but for larger style issues or problems with the flow of
the piece.
Check name spellings, etc. Besides using spell check or
looking up long words in a dictionary, the writer will need
to make sure proper nouns are also correctly spelled.

This means using good reference materials from source

documentation.
Read over the story for flow. Editors will frequently
complain about a story if it does not progress well from
one element to the next. Whether these complaints are
well-founded depends on whether the various pieces of
the story are tied together in a reasonable and coherent
way

NEWS DEVLOPMENT AND FOLLOWS UPS

Writing a single basic breaking news article is a pretty

straightforward task. You start by writing your lede, which is
based on the most important facts in the story.
But many news stories are not simply one-time events but
rather ongoing topics that can last for weeks or even months.
One example would be a crime story that unfolds over time the crime is committed, then police search for and finally

arrest a suspect. Another example might be a long trial for an

especially complex or interesting case
Reporters must often do what are called follow-up articles for
long-lasting topics such as these. At this link you can read
about developing ideas for follow-up stories. Here we'll
discuss how to write follow-ups.

The Lede
The key to writing an effective follow-up story starts with the
lede. You can't write the same lede every day for a story that
continues over an extended period of time.
Instead, you must construct a fresh lede each day, one that
reflects the latest developmentsin the story.
But while writing a lede that includes those latest
developments, you also need to remind your readers what the
original story was all about to begin with. So the follow-up
story lede really combines new developments with some
background material about the original story.

An Example

Let's say you cover a house fire in which several people are
killed. Here's how your lede for the first story might read:
Two people were killed last night when a fast-moving fire
swept through their house.
Now let's say several days have passed and the fire marshal
tells you the fire was a case of arson. Here's your first followup lede
A house fire that killed two people earlier this week was
deliberately set, the fire marshal announced yesterday.
See how the lede combines important background from the
original story - two people killed in the fire - with the new
development - the fire marshal announcing that it was arson.
Now let's take this story one step further. Let's say a week has
passed and police have arrested a man who they say set the
fire. Here's how your lede might go:
Police yesterday arrested a man who they say set the fire last
week that killed two people in a house.
Get the idea? Again, the lede combines the most important
information from the original story with the latest development.

Reporters do follow-up stories this way so that readers who

may not have read the original story can figure out what is
going on and not be confused.

The Rest of The Story

The rest of the follow-up story should follow the same
balancing act of combining the latest news with background
information. Generally, the newer developments should be
placed higher in the story, while the older information should
be lower down.
Here's how the first few paragraphs of your follow-up story
about the arrest of the arson suspect might go:
Police yesterday arrested a man who they say set the fire last
week that killed two people in a house.
Police said Larson Jenkins, 23, used rags soaked with
gasoline to set the fire at the house that killed his girlfriend,
Lorena Halbert, 22, and her mother, Mary Halbert, 57.
Detective Jerry Groenig said Jenkins was apparently angry
because Halbert had recently broken up with him.

The fire started around 3 a.m. last Tuesday and quickly swept
through the house. Lorena and Mary Halbert were
pronounced dead at the scene. No one else was injured.
Again, the latest developments are placed high in the story.
But they are always tied to background from the original event.
This way, even a reader learning about this story for the first
time will easily understand what has happened.

Devlopment News
The term development journalism is used to refer to two different
types of journalism. The first is a new school of journalism that began
to appear in the 1960s. The idea behind it is similar to investigative
reporting, but it focuses on conditions in developing nations and ways
to improve them. The other type of involves heavy influence from the
government of the nation involved. While this sort can be a powerful
tool for local education and empowerment, it can also be a means of
suppressing information and restricting journalists.
The first type of development journalism attempts to document the
conditions within a country so that the larger world can understand
them. Journalists are encouraged to travel to remote areas, interact
with the citizens of the country, and report back. It also looks at
proposed government projects to improve conditions in the country,
and analyzes whether or not they will be effective. Ultimately,
the journalist may come up with proposed solutions and actions in the
piece, suggesting ways in which they might be implemented. Often,

this form of journalism encourages a cooperative effort between

citizens of the nation and the outside world.

FOLLOW UPS
A follow-up is a journalist's term for a story which is written so that you can
report more of a story which has already been published or broadcast. Those
extra details can be new facts, later developments, reactions or new issues
which have been raised by the original event. What all follow-ups have in
common is that they depend for some of their news value on a story which
has gone before.
Why are follow-ups needed?

Follow-ups are needed because one story on its own may not cover all
aspects of an event or controversy properly. Although life goes on secondby-second, day-by-day, journalists cannot report it all. Journalists have to
concentrate on bits of life and report them to their readers or listeners in 20
centimetre stories or 40-second news reports, three-minute current affairs
segments or half-page features. Journalists impose space and time limits on
their reports which do not always reflect how important the event is in the
real world.
Journalists also attempt to show continuing events in self-contained
"chunks" called news stories. With the amount of information now available
from throughout the world, you have no alternative if you are to share out
your limited time effectively.
However, just because you as a journalist have described an event in a
single-column story or a 30-second report does not mean that the event
itself has been described completely. There are often side-issues which have
not been touched or later events which will need reporting themselves.

We have to distinguish follow-ups from what we call breaking stories, which

are reports of events (or controversies or debates) which are still happening
as we report them. The hourly reports on a hijacking are part of a breaking
story, the report of the eventual trial of the hijackers is a follow-up.
We normally catchlines the latest version of a breaking story UPDATE (for
example "HIJACK UPDATE") because it still relies on the same news angle
(what is happening at the hijack) but gives us a more up-to-date report. By
contrast, we would normally catchline a follow-up according to the angle of
the follow-up story itself. For example, we might write a follow-up story
about the Transport Minister announcing new security measures to prevent
further hijackings. We might catchline it "SECURITY PROMISE". (For more
details on this, see Chapters 44 and 45: The breaking story.)
Because events are often connected, it is not always easy to know the
difference between a follow-up and a new story or an update of a breaking
story. However, a special feature of a follow-up is that it relies for its
significance or interest on at least one previous story. Remember though
that just because your follow-up describes the effect of a previous story, you
cannot expect all of your readers or listeners to remember the original story,
even if they did see or hear it. Later in this chapter we will discuss how you
should use background information to remind your audience of the original
story.
The term follow-up will have no meaning to your readers or listeners; it is
simply a label we use as journalists.
We use follow-ups for a variety of reasons:
Continuity

Follow-ups show how different parts of life are connected. Whenever we

finish writing a story, at that point we limit our report of the event or debate
to a single moment in time. Follow-ups help us to set stories in context over
a longer period of time and to explain cause-and-effect. Most events are like
dropping a stone into a pool of water: the stone forces ripples to spread out,
disturbing the water in all directions. Just because we stop reporting an
event (such as the stone dropping) does not mean that the ripples
themselves stop spreading. We must watch and report the ripples too.

To satisfy curiosity

When we arouse the reader's or listener's curiosity with a news story, we

have a duty to satisfy that curiosity. With issues or events which are selfcontained, a well-written news report or feature article will tell your audience
everything they want to know. However, very few events and issues can be
packaged so conveniently. Many news reports raise questions, particularly:
"But what happens now?" Having given your audience an appetite for the
story, you have a duty to provide answers to those kinds of questions. Every
time you think that you have finished with a story, put yourself in the place
of your readers or listeners and ask: "Is there anything else I want to know
about it?" If there is, perhaps you should research and write a follow-up.
To add balance

Because of a shortage of time or because sources were not available when

you needed them, you are often forced to run stories which are not properly
balanced. The follow-up gives you a second chance to provide that balance.
If the Finance Minister announces a controversial new tax, you need to
report what the opposition and people affected by it think. If you cannot get
them in time for the first story, you must write a follow-up which
concentrates on the reaction rather than the measure itself. Such reaction
stories are vital in maintaining your reputation for fairness.
Also, major events or controversies produce large amounts of information.
Your readers or listeners need time to absorb all that information. Giving it
all in a single story may only confuse them, so you can split it up into a
series of follow-up stories run over a number of days or weeks.
To cover missed stories

No matter how good a journalist you are, you will occasionally miss stories
which the competition gets. Perhaps the first you know of this is when you
hear the story on another station or read it in another newspaper. By that
time, it is usually too late to report the same story yourself. It is usually best
to accept that you have been beaten for this story, and try to produce a
follow-up.
The follow-up in this case still needs to have the information from the
original story (which you did not carry), but should have a fresh news angle.
For example, the competition may beat you to a story about a government

decision to deport someone. Rather than repeat this in your next edition or
bulletin, try to interview the person or a relative, to get their reaction for a
follow-up. The story will be up-to-date, and anyone comparing your story
with the competition's will not think that you are copying from them.
^^back to the top
The structure of follow-ups

Although follow-ups rely on previous stories for their news value, you should
still treat them as separate stories when writing them. They should be
written in the inverted pyramid style, with the most important aspect (the
news angle) first, in the intro. Although the news angle will usually refer to a
previous story, your story will not be news if it only reports something your
readers or listeners already know. The strength of the follow-up is that it
tells your audience about a new aspect of an old story, preferably in a
refreshing and lively way.
For example, the original story may have been that the Finance Minister
imposed a consumption tax of 10 percent. In the follow-up, the opposition
attacked the tax, so you would write:
The Opposition has attacked the Government's new consumption tax as
unworkable.
Labour leader Filo Toro said the 10 percent tax would be a nightmare to
administer and impossible to collect.
Finance Minister Jo Hero announced the tax in an emergency debate in
Parliament on Wednesday etc...

Background

All follow-ups must contain at least one paragraph of background to put

the whole story in context. That background can come anywhere in the
story. The more essential it is to understanding the latest aspect, the higher
up the story it should come.
If the follow-up is full of new and very important material, you may have to
put the background near the end of the story, even in the last par. If you do

this, it is sometimes useful to insert a few words of background higher up

the story, again just to place the story in context.
For example, in your consumption tax story, the third par on Hero's
announcement is enough to set the story in context. The real background
details (what will be taxed and how) can come at the end of your story.
With major events or arguments, you may have to do several follow-ups
over a period. You could use the same background pars, but it is more usual
to shorten the background as you get further away from the event. Besides,
each follow-up may provide material which needs including as background in
subsequent stories.
Sources

Some follow-ups, such as a reaction, automatically suggest a different

source to that used in the original story. With other kinds of follow-ups it
may be more natural to go back to the original source for more information.
Such stories could be news of a plan, with the follow-up a story about the
plan in action. In this case, you might go back to the same source for new
information.
However, it is better to find new sources for follow-ups. They not only add
variety (with a new name or voice), but they also add a different view, even
though your new source may only be another spokesman from the same
department.

The diary

A journalist without a diary is totally at the mercy of events. The diary allows
you to plan ahead and keep track of current events and controversies. If you
see the chance for writing a follow-up some time in the future, make a note
in the diary to remind you. (You must, of course, look at the diary every day,
otherwise the reminder will be useless.)
It is important to enter details of possible follow-ups whenever they suggest
themselves. The police may announce that they are charging a man with
murder. If you run the story, you should also make a note in the diary of
where and when he will appear in court. An association may launch a charity
appeal; you should make a note to check how much they raised.

If you are working with other journalists, it is a good idea to keep one
central newsdesk diary so that everyone is kept informed about what stories
might be coming up. In such a case, your entry needs to be slightly longer
than a single word, but not too long that it wastes space - a reference to the
original story is usually enough. A diary entry for Monday, June 12 could look
something like this:
Anniversary follow-ups

It is also useful to do the process in reverse - to go back over old stories to

find ideas for follow-ups and updates. One useful method is to go through
the diary, cuttings or copy files for six months, a year or five years ago.
There will be many stories which have developed since, but you have not
covered recently.
Anniversaries are a useful time to update stories. If a politician promised
action a year ago, now is the time to ask him what he has achieved. If police
were hunting a murderer six months ago, ask whether they have any new
clues.
Some people regard this as manufacturing news. This would be true if all
you are doing is rewriting old stories. However, events often have long-term
effects, promises should be kept or explanations provided as to why they
were not. Journalists have a duty to monitor the consequences of events or
controversies which we regarded as newsworthy in the past. Very often, the
journalist will be the only person who tries to make people accountable and
reminds them of their responsibility to keep promises.
Prelims

Preliminary stories (called prelims) are the opposite of follow-ups. Prelims

are stories you write before the event happens. When you are told about an
important forthcoming event, as well as putting the date, time, place and
other details in your diary, you can also write a preliminary story. These are
particularly useful on "slow news days", when there is not much happening
elsewhere.
Be careful, though, to guard against giving free publicity to any forthcoming
event which is not itself newsworthy. The organisers of a sale, a concert, a
demonstration or a conference will want you to write a prelim story to
promote the event. If it is newsworthy, write your prelim story. But if you

have any doubts, you can always wait till the event happens, when you can
judge the newsworthiness directly and decide whether or not to write a news
story. Remember that your job is to serve your readers or listeners, not the
organisers of events.
FOLLOW UPS IN News
Business news stories can be described as hard news, follow-ups or
backgrounders.
An example of a hard news story would be the announcement by Apple
Computer
that it is taking a second quarter loss of about $700 million. These events
often
result from company announcements, but enterprising reporters also can
unearth
breaking news. In the case of the Apple announcement, journalists had
known and
anticipated a significant loss but they didn't know its size and composition
until
Apple made the announcement.
Another form of hard news story is the quarterly earnings report, which is
often
treated perfunctorily. Earnings reports, however, can often be the starting
point for
solid follow-up or analysis pieces. Follow-up stories add detail to stories that
have already been reported. In the Apple example, reporters might have had
enough information to write a hard news story for one day but might have
needed
to follow-up with other details the next day.

Both hard news and follow-up stories lend themselves to a treatment that
some
editors call the "forward spin." This approach is especially favored by
weeklybusiness journals that can find it difficult to compete with the daily
sections on
breaking news.
In the forward spin, the writer looks at a story as having three elements:
action,
impact and countermoves. The action component means that some event
happened.
The impact component means that the reporter tries to find all of the parties
affected by the action. And in the countermove, the reporter tries to
anticipate how
the affected parties will respond. This model clearly is an attempt to answer
any
question a reader might have about what an action or event might mean to
her or to
a broader audience.
The elements of follow-up stories may include:
History the writer should ask questions like: Does the main theme
developed have roots in the past? What are they? Are there historic details
that can be used to lend points of authenticity and interest to the story?
Scope How widespread, intense and various is the development the
reporter is writing about?
Reasons All contemporary cause to explain why something is happening

now. Causes might be economic, social, political/legal or psychological.

Impactswhat are the consequences of a development?
Countermoveshow might the affected parties be responding?
Futureswhat might the future hold?
A backgrounder often explores the "how" or "why" an event occurred. It
might
spin off a news event or it might appear after the reporter has collected
enough
information on a topic.
Profiles have the profiles of people or companies. Before writing the story,
the
reporter should develop a main theme statement that provides guidance by
developing a "well shaped idea." The main theme statement is brief (two or
three
sentences); emphasizes action, impacts or countermoves; is written to
stress the
most important element or elements; and is very simple, omitting all details.
TO SUMMARISE:

Follow-ups are stories you write so that you can report more of a
story which has already been published or broadcast.

Journalists write follow-ups to:

show how different parts of life are connected

answer questions left unanswered by earlier stories

provide balance and reaction

cover missed stories.

You should still treat follow-ups as separate stories. They should be

written in the inverted pyramid style, with the most important
aspect (the news angle) in the intro.
All follow-ups must contain at least one paragraph of background to
put the whole story in context.
Some follow-ups, such as a reaction, can use different sources to
those used in the original story.
Make a note of possible follow-ups in your newsdesk diary whenever
they suggest themselves.
Make a note of any possible anniversary follow-ups.
When you are told about an important forthcoming event, as well as
putting the date, time, place and other details in your diary, you can
also write a preliminary story.

Unit -3
DEFINITION
The interview an exchange between a journalist or presenter and a source of information is a difficult
art. It requires good preparation, a knowledge of technique, heightened people skills, in other words
paying attention to others. It should be thought of in terms of goal-focused strategy.
- OBJECTIVES There are five different types of interview:
Explanation interview. Get information from your interviewee about his or her expert subject, or about
something he or she is well-positioned to talk about.
Portrait interview. Bring out the personality of the interviewee on the air.
Witness interview. Have a witness to an event.
Declaration interview. Ask the reaction of someone involved in the news, or of a politician for their
immediate reaction to a story or meeting in which they have taken part.
Vox Pop interview. Survey a slice of the population to give a reflection of public opinion about a news
story.

- HOW TO PREPARE AN INTERVIEW?

1st Research
Research is crucial. The pertinence of your questions and your capacity to resist being manipulated
depends on how good your research has been.
2nd Making contact beforehand
Making contact with the person before the interview should give your interviewee a better understanding
of what is expected of him or her, and in what context the interview will be used. It also means you can
assess whether or not someone will make a good interviewee
3rd Preparing the questions
How you prepare your questions will depend on two criteria:
a) Who am I interviewing?
A politician, a colleague, the man in the street, an expert, a celebrity. You will tailor your questions in quite
a different way for each.
b) What is it for?
A news bulletin, a current affairs programme, a general interest broadcast. The format and the
atmosphere should be adapted for the different types of programme

th Preparing your equipment

Make sure your recorder is working properly (microphone, cable, tape,
cassette, mini-disc, plug, batteries, etc) by doing a quick recording and
listening back to it.
If the interview is to take place outdoors, take along a microphone windshiel
THREE INTERVIEW TECHNIQUES
The non-directive interview: Begin with "Tell me about...", never use a
question. This approach leaves the interviewee free to say whatever he or
she likes without limiting him or her to the parameters of your own
knowledge of the subject. You can then go back over the most important
points raised, "sum up" each along the lines of "you were saying...". This
method of interviewing is best for bringing out lots information, but it is the
most difficult to master.

The directed interview: Only use questions, more or less open ones. The
interviewer knows about what they are discussing, and sometimes even
knows the answer he will get, but needs the interviewee to confirm the
information.
The semi-directed interview: Alternate the questions between those which
guide the interview to where you want to go and those which may invite
interesting and enriching elaboration
MAIN TYPES OF QUESTIONS
Closed questions: Reply is either yes or n
Eg. "Are you in favour of free speech?"
Multiple choice questions : The reply is induced.
Eg. "Are you in favour of the death penalty, or of life imprisonment?"
semi-open questions: Replies are short and precise
Eg. These questions in general start with How many? , Who? , When?
and Where? Open questions: Detailed replies, open to explanation and
justification, etc.
Eg. "What do you think about free speech
SOME TRICKS OF THE TRADE
Think through the strategy of your questions
Start with a question that is more or less innocuous as a sort of warm-up
and to put your interviewee at ease. On the other hand you can also throw
yourself right in with a difficult one, if you want to knock your interviewee off
balance or create an atmosphere of controversy.
Alternate between open and less open questions to re-focus you
interviewee on the subject or let him or her a little more freedom. If they are

rambling, ask closed questions that demand precise answers. If you want
them to open up a bit, ask broader questions to let relax themUse the "sum
up" if your interviewee is trying to dodge answering an important point, reformulating it as a question "So what youre saying is" More often than
not, he or she will return to what they were trying to avoid
Structure your questions, with the most interesting at the start. Then, if
youre running out of time, you will have got in the most important ones.
This is the same principle as the "inverted pyramid" of news writing
Avoiding the well-known pitfalls:
The interviewee answers your question with a question. Just stay quiet,
wait for him or her to answer your question. If he doesnt, ask the same
question again. In rare, extreme cases, remind him the rules of the game:
You are the interviewer, its your job to ask the questions. He agreed to the
interview, and in doing so agreed to answer them. This should be said
firmly, but not in an aggressive manner
The interviewer starts to answer your questions saying "Yes, indeedbut
one important question I feel I should address is" or "thats and
interesting question and it raises another", and proceeds to ask himself a
question he wants to answer. Be vigilant. Keep going back to the issue you
want to explore, politely but firmly, until you get a real answer .

- THE RISK OF MANIPULATION

A badly-prepared interview can leave the door open to manipulation. The
journalist doing an interview should always be vigilant and sufficiently well
briefed to be able to exercise judgement and discernment.

Qualities of Good Interviews and press conference

1. Come to the interview well prepared with background

knowledge of the subject, familiarity with your recording
equipment, a consent form that the interviewee will sign giving
you permission to use the tape recorded interview for research
purposes. You should also mention that the interview will be
archived as part of a larger project documenting the lives of Latino
migrants in the United States.
2. Make the narrator as comfortable as possible; polite, friendly
behavior will put your interviewee at ease. Interviews should not
begin abruptly. Take the time to introduce yourself and to talk
about your project. For example, Hello Mr. Jones, Im Jill Savage.
How are you today? Thanks for taking time to let me interview you
about your migration experiences for my oral history project. Lets
find a quiet place where we can sit down and talk. Where would
you like to sit to do the interview? How would you like to proceed
with the interview?
3. Take time to find a quiet spot in which to conduct the interview.
Remember that even the sound of clocks, pets, chatter, add
distracting noises to the recordings and may also distract you and
the interviewer, affecting the overall quality of the interview &
recording. Set up the recorder between yourself and the
interviewee. Before you turn on the recorder, ask if the narrator is
ready to begin.

4. Begin the interview with a few simple questions that the

interviewee can answer easily and comfortably.
5. Ask questions one at a time and do not rush the interviewee to
respond. Allow the interviewee time to think and respond. Do not
become anxious by silence. Silences will make for a better
interview; pause at least ten seconds before asking a new
question.
6. Speak clearly so that the interviewee can easily understand
and hear you. Keep the questions as brief as possible so that
what you are asking will be clear to the interviewee. Repeat the
question if you need to.
7. Ask as many open ended questions as possible. These
questions encourage the interviewee to tell stories rather than
providing yes/no responses.
8. When constructing your questions, write them in clear, plain
English. Remember that your interviewees are not academics.
For example, do not ask: How has gender impacted your
migration experience. Rather, ask, What was your experience
like as woman crossing the border? How did being a woman
affect your decision to migrate? How was your experience as a
woman different than that of other migrants you know? Tell me

about what your experiences as a single man were like

immigrating to the United States.
Another example. Do not ask: Did you access social networks?
or what social networks if any did you access? Instead, consider:
Were there people (family members, friends, or co-workers, for
example) that you depended on to help you with your trip? Or
Were there family members or friends that you were able to
depend on when you first came to the United States? Then you
can ask follow up questions if they answer yesFor example:
Who were they? And, in what ways (or how) did they help you?
Was that common practice?
9. Listen actively to the interviewees answers and then ask follow
up questions like, how did you feel about that? or what
happened next? to bring out more details before you go on to the
next question on your page. Respond appropriately to the
interviewee. Pause or say something like that must have been
difficult if the interviewee describes a painful memory. Also, if the
interviewee is clearly overcome by emotion, ask if they would like
to take a break and/or stop the interview and return to it later.
10. Do not contradict or correct your interviewee and keep your
personal opinions to yourself as much as possible. Do not ask
leading questions like: Tell me about that winter, you must have
had a miserable time.

11. Do not rush the end of the interview. Have a good closing
question that helps the interviewee summarize or come to a
conclusion. You might consider asking them if there is anything
they wish to say that they may not have already told you, before
pausing the recorder.
Always thank your interviewee for the time and generosity in
helping with your project. Remember to have the interviewee sign
the release form.

PRESS
The press is independent of government. Governments are
composed of human beings, and human beings can and do
commit wrongs. The press and government should not become
institutional partners. They are natural adversaries with different
functions, and each must respect the role of the other. Sometimes
a free press can be a distinct annoyance and an embarrassment
to a particular government, but that is one of the prices of liberty.
A free press is responsible to its readers, and to them alone.

Independence is at the very heart of any statement of ethical

principles respecting the conduct of the press. The proprietors of
a newspaper may choose to ally it with a particular political party
or interest, but an increasing number of newspapers and journals
are politically independent as well as independent of government.
This means not that they refrain from endorsing a certain political
party or a candidate for public office, but rather that they owe no
prior allegiance and that they make the endorsement voluntarily,
as an exercise of their independence. From this it follows that an
independent press must cherish that role by resisting pressures of
all kinds - from local as well as national government, from special
interest groups in the community, from powerful individuals, from
advertisers. This is a noble standard that is sometimes more
difficult to follow in a small community than in a large one. It may
be relatively easy for a large, well-financed newspaper to risk the
displeasure of a particular interest group or advertiser. But on a
small paper, where the support of such an advertiser or interest
has a direct bearing on the ability of management to meet the
payroll, it takes courage to resist pressure. From this also flows
the point that the newspaper and its staff should exemplify
independence in their actions. Not only should they be
independent in fact, but also they must be seen to be
independent. A newspaper that rewards its friends with

unwarranted, flattering stories or fawning editorials will not long be

respected. A newspaper whose reporters also are on the payroll
of a special interest group or who accept free trips or lavish gifts
will find it hard to be convincing in its criticisms of corruption or
other unethical practices in government.
Occasionally, newspapers attempt to justify the acceptance of
gifts or services. A reliable reporter will hardly be corrupt.
Admittedly, in small communities, journalists sometimes may
encounter problems in maintaining an independent role.
There are pressures to participate in volunteer services, in clubs
and business associations, and even in local government.
Conflicts of interest may arise frequently. Journalists cannot
expect to be walled apart from the community in which they live.
But neither can they serve two masters with opposing interests. A
diligent
editor or reporter will at least be aware of the conflicts and keep
his or her professional responsibilities foremost in mind.
A newspaper has the right to be captious, or partisan, or
untruthful, or bigoted, or whatever else its conscience allows it to
be. And although newspapers are answerable to the laws of libel,
within a very large compass they continue to set their own

responsibilities. The underlying idea is that, from the clash of

opinions and ideas presented by a free press, ultimately
something resembling truth emerges. In practice, however, truth
does not always emerge unless someone digs it out.
And there is no single patented version of what constitutes truth.
In a community where only one newspaper exists, a reader may
not encounter differing opinionsunless the newspaper chooses to
present them. Radio and television are not always effective
substitutes

Press conference
Press conference

_______________________________________________________
What are press conferences?

Press conferences (also known as news conferences) are occasions when

someone with something to say which they believe is newsworthy calls
reporters together so that they can tell them all at once. The person
calling the press conference usually makes an announcement or
statement first then allows reporters to ask questions.
The terms, media conferences or media calls, are also used occasionally,
though usually about an event to which a company publicist invites the
media - not necessarily just journalists - in order to promote a product,
performance or a celebrity, e.g. a visiting singer or actor. In this chapter
we will concentrate on press conferences for journalists.
All sorts of people organise press conferences for all sorts of reasons. A
politician may call one to announce a new policy or to deny an allegation.

A scientist may call one to reveal a discovery. A police chief may call
reporters together to give details of a crime or to ask for public help in
solving a case.
Advantages

The main advantage of a press conference to the person calling it is that

they do not have to repeat themselves to several different reporters at
separate interviews. It also means that their announcement will have
maximum impact by being in all the media at the same time (assuming
that all the reporters think it is newsworthy).
The main advantage to the journalist is that it reduces the chance of
individual newspapers or broadcast stations missing the story. It also
allows them to share the workload of questioning the interviewee. If one
reporter forgets or overlooks something, another reporter will probably
think of it.
Disadvantages

There are disadvantages to the media in press conference, the major of

which is that it is more difficult to get an exclusive story from press
conferences. When every reporter hears the same words from the
interviewee, they cannot keep secrets from each other. There are ways of
getting round this problem which we will discuss later.
Press conferences can also give false importance to the topic being
promoted. Promoters try to convince journalists that by getting them all in
the same place at the same time the topic is of great importance, when
often it is nothing more than free publicity or advertising.
Logistics

For the journalist, press conferences are similar in nature to speeches,

and can be covered in much the same ways (see Chapters 19 and 20:
Speeches and meetings). Here we will discuss the logistics or method of
covering press conferences.
It is usual for the person who called the press conference to say what they
want first then allow the journalists to ask questions. The speaker controls
the situation from the start. They even control where and when the press
conference takes place, although if journalists do not like the place or the

time of the press conference they should let the organiser know. This is
especially important if someone plans to hold a press conference after
your deadline for stories.
Many journalists regard press conferences as gifts from the organiser, not
to be questioned. Remember, if someone calls a press conference it is
usually because they need the publicity you can give them. That gives you
some control over the situation.
As with covering speeches and meetings, there are several things you
need to remember to make your task easier.
Preparation

As a journalist, you should never go out to cover any story without

knowing roughly what to expect. Some research is vital. This can range
from asking your editor or chief of staff what the press conference is
about to a full-scale search through your local reference library for
background material.
Press conferences are usually called to present the latest development of
something, whether it is a financial policy or a mass murder. Your
background material must, therefore, be as up-to-date as possible. It is
not wise to attend a press conference at which a scientist is going to
reveal a new source of energy without knowing something about what
energy sources are currently available.
Your newsroom library or cuttings files should provide you with
information. Don't forget to look in your picture library when appropriate,
for example, in technical developments.
Ask other people in the newsroom. If a politician calls a press conference
and politics is not your round, go to the political correspondent for advice.
Also use your contacts outside the newsroom for background information.
It is bad manners to ask a political opponent to provide you with questions
for the politician, but an off-the-record talk with a critic might produce
valuable background on which to base some questions.
Once you have done some research, try to prepare some questions in
advance. These should be good enough to provide you with a story if the

announcement itself is not very newsworthy. Remember, people who call

press conferences will not always have your skill in recognising a news
angle.
Your questions do not have to be on the topic the organiser of the press
conference wishes to talk about. For example, if a public figure has been
accused of corruption then calls a press conference to announce a new
move in foreign policy, it is quite fair to ask them questions about the
corruption allegations. They may not wish to answer them, but that
should never stop a good journalist from asking questions.
Many people are suspicious of reporters' questions, and may ask you to
provide written questions in advance. This is acceptable if their sole
purpose is to give you more accurate answers. It may, however, be an
attempt to stop unpleasant questions. If you suspect that this is the case,
you should try to get a promise that you will be allowed to ask other
questions at the press conference itself. These are called supplementary
questions. If they will not agree, you must ask yourself (and your editor)
whether the press conference is worth attending.
On arrival

As with covering a speech or meeting, you should try to arrive in good

time for a press conference. Because some journalists are bad timekeepers, many organisers will wait until the major media organisations are
present before starting the press conference. However, you cannot rely on
this. Besides, it is bad manners to arrive late for any appointment.
Positioning is quite important, especially at large press conferences. You
should always sit near to the speaker, so that you do not miss anything
said (even whispers to an aide or adviser). If there are many journalists
present, sitting in the centre of the front row will ensure that you are not
overlooked at question time. It is important that you hear questions from
other reporters. If you are seated at the front and you cannot hear the
question, you can be sure that the interviewee will not hear it either, so it
will have to be repeated anyway.
If you work for radio or television, or wish to record the press conference
to support your notes, arrive with enough time to set up your microphone

in front of the interviewee. For recording question time, you should either
sit beside the interviewee holding the microphone so that you can point it
towards questioners at the right moment, or use a tape recorder which
has two microphones (usually stereo machines), one positioned in front of
the interviewee, the other pointed towards the questioners.
If you work for radio or television, you should also ask for an individual
interview when the conference ends. Apart from the fact that you can get
better quality sound and pictures in a one-to-one interview, every news
organisation likes to give its audience the impression that it is the main
supplier of news on an event. A babble of questions from other journalists
at a press conference destroys that impression for broadcasters. Radio
and television reporters should make a note of all interesting questions whether their own or from other reporters - and ask them again during
their one-to-one interview.
When the conference starts

Establish straight away whether what is being said is "on the record" (in
which case everything can be quoted); "background" or "unattributed
material" (in which the information can be quoted but not the name of the
informant); or "off the record" (in which neither the information nor the
informant can be quoted). "Off the record" information is for the reporter's
personal information. Too much "off the record" information will
undermine the credibility of your story, so try to get the interviewee to
make statements "on the record" whenever possible. (See Chapter 59:
Sources of information and Chapter 60: sources and confidentiality.)
You should also establish at the start who the speaker represents on this
occasion, if it has not already been made clear. For example, is the Police
Minister speaking as a minister or as an MP? Quite often, an organisation
may provide a spokesperson to give a press conference. This could be a
public servant, a secretary or a press officer. Ask immediately whether
they are speaking personally, for a department or for the government.
As with a speech or a meeting, you should make good notes of what is
said. Mark the important points in your notes as you go along. A
statement may not be clear or may raise an interesting question. Make a

quick note of anything you will want to ask at question time.

Question time

Always try to ask at least one question, if only to show your presence.
Phrase all your questions either (a) to clarify statements you did not
understand or (b) to get new information. Avoid asking friendly questions
simply to cover up an embarrassing silence.
It is difficult to get an exclusive story from a press conference, because
every reporter hears all the statements, questions and answers. If you
have gone to the press conference with some information which you think
will give you an exclusive story and it is not mentioned during the
conference, do not mention it during question time. Wait until the other
reporters have left then ask your questions. If speakers are unwilling to
give a private interview, tempt them with a statement like: "There is
something important I want to ask you that I don't want anyone else to
hear." It may spark their interest and you will probably get your interview.
Not only should you note what is said at a press conference, but you
should also be aware of what is not said. If you go there expecting a
certain announcement and it is not made, don't shrug your shoulders and
leave. Ask about the topic. They may have something to hide.
At the end

Do not be in a hurry to get away, unless you are facing a tight deadline.
Hang around on the chance of getting background information, picking up
a bit of gossip or simply developing contacts.
If you have arranged a face-to-face interview, remind your interviewee
and take them somewhere quiet to conduct it. If several reporters have
been granted individual interviews, make sure that you get your turn.
If you work for a newspaper or television, you should ask for any pictures
you think you might need. For example, if a police chief says they are
hunting an escaped criminal you should automatically ask if they have a
picture of the man for publication. Also, if you want to illustrate your story
with a picture of the speaker, think how you can get a better picture than
simply a shot of him at the press conference. For example, if the Health

Minister is launching a campaign to test people for chest cancer, will he

pose for pictures with an X-ray machine - preferably being x-rayed
himself?
Writing the story

There are several things which you must include in your story. These are:

The names and identities of speakers;

The key points of any announcements, denials or questions, plus

necessary background details;

Plenty of strong quotes.

Unlike a speech or meeting, your story does not have to include details
such as the time and place of the press conference. In fact, it does not
have to include the fact that the news came from a press conference at all
unless that is of significance to the story as a whole.
If a public figure calls a press conference to deny an allegation, that fact
should be reported. If a police spokesperson is simply conducting a
regular weekly press briefing, that detail is not necessary.
Certainly you should never include the fact that it was a press conference
in the intro, unless that is significant. Such a case would be if a minister
was expected to announce a major policy change and then cancelled the
scheduled press conference at the last minute.
In the following example, we mention the press conference in the intro to
the Right story, because the cancellation of the press conference is the
news. It shows that there is disagreement in Cabinet - a fact which we
report in the second paragraph. In the intro to the Wrong story, the news
is the theft of the aircraft, so the press conference itself should not have
been mentioned:

PRESS BRIEFING

A short, factual oral summary of thedetails of a current o

r projected military operationgiven to the participants or
observers.
2.
any set of concise instructions or a summary ofevents.
3.
meeting at which detailed information orinstructions are
given, as for military operations,etc
4
the facts presented during such a meeting

Meet the press

Meet the Press[5][6] is a weekly American television news/interview
program airing on NBC and hosted by Chuck Todd. It is the longestrunning television series in American broadcasting history, though the
current format bears little resemblance to the original that debuted on
November 6, 1947.[7] Under hostTim Russert, Meet the Press was the
highest-rated of the American televisionSunday morning talk shows in
2006.[8] As of the end of 2013, it was struggling in the ratings and
ranked third, with NBC management uncertain as to the future
direction of the series.[9]
The show has been hosted by 12 different moderators, beginning
with Martha Rountree. Chuck Todd became the current moderator in
September 2014, replacing David Gregory, who left the network in

August 2014.[10] The show began using a new set on May 2, 2010, with
video screens and a library-style set with bookshelves, and different,
modified intro music, with David Gregory previewing the guests using
a large video screen, and with the Meet the Presstheme music in a
shorter "modernized [style]... the beginning repeated with drum beats"
(see "High-definition broadcasting" below for additional information).
[11]

Meet the Press and similar shows specialize in interviewing national

leaders on issues of politics, economics, foreign policy and otherpublic

affairs.
Over the past few years, the program's usual time slot over the NBC
network is from 9 to 10 a.m. local time in most markets, though this
may vary by markets due to commitments by affiliates to
religious, E/I or local news, paid and public affairs programming. It
also varies several weeks in the summer due to morning coverage
of French Open tennis or the Monaco Grand Prix by NBC Sports. In
earlier years, the program would air at noon every Sunday. The
program also re-airs Sunday afternoons at 2 p.m. ET and early
Mondays at 4 a.m. ET onMSNBC (and also over the audio simulcast
of MSNBC on Sirius/XM Satellite Radio), along with an early Monday
morning replay as part of NBC's "All Night" lineup. The program is also
distributed to radio stations via syndication byWestwood One and
aired as part of C-SPAN Radio's replay of the Sunday morning talk
shows.
The longevity of Meet the Press is illustrated when one considers that
the program debuted during what was only the second official

"network television season" for American television. One historical

landmark of the program is that it was the first on which a sitting U.S.
president, Gerald Ford, appeared on a live television network news
program, which occurred on the November 9, 1975, broadcast

SUMMARY
News reporting is a type of journalism, typically written or broadcast in news style.
Most news is investigated and presented by journalists or news Reporters, and can
be distributed to various outlets via news agencies. News is often reported by a
variety of sources, such as newspapers, television, and radio programs, wire
services, and web sites.
Reporters enjoy no special rights beyond those of other citizens. They must be
aggressive in pursuing facts. Indeed, one of the most important functions of a free
press is to serve as a watchdog. But its staff members have no dispensation to be
rude or discourteous. Television has many sins of its own, but one thing it purveys
very quickly to viewers is whether reporters at a news conference are behaving
arrogantly or with unnecessary brusqueness.
News is, anything out of the ordinary, it is the current happenings. It is
anything that makes the reader surprised and curious. News is anything that will
make people talk. News is the issue for discussions and debates. Any event, which
affects most of the people, interest most of the audiences and involves most of the
people, is news. Thus, news can be called an account of the events written for the
people who were unable to witness it.
The main purpose of the intro or the lead is to make the reader want to read on,
motivate them to move further into the news story and state the important facts
first.
Every news agency copy news story must carry at the top a suitable slug. Generally
the slug is one word, which is often the key work in the story. Thus a story about

rain would have a key word, which is often the key word for reporting about rain.
Slugs are nouns and not adjectives and a master slug should be used with sub-slugs
for individual story.