The application of a deposit

tectogenesis in pit slope

geotechnical engineering:
a case example

P.M. Dight
Australian Centre for
Geomechanics
The University of Western
Australia
W.V. Bogacz
Archon Resource Technologies
and Strzelecki Metals Ltd

Abstract
The role of the tectonic stress associated with the mineralized systems has a profound influence on structural regime of the deposit,
and determines the structural controls on mineralization and the host rock deformation. Often the focus in structural geology is
on the deformation events leading up to the time of mineralization. These events clearly precondition the ground into which the
mineralization is deposited. The structural pattern around mineralized systems however is significantly affected by the tectonic
stresses prevailing at the time of the mineralization. In this paper the authors will show the relationship between the Tectogenesis
of the deposits and the prevailing structural regime. Understanding the tectogenesis allows practitioners to anticipate the
structural orientation of faults and shears most particularly at the pit scale and to develop a geometric model of the deposit to
assist in pit slope design, as this must be consistent with the tectonic regime. Much of the information can be readily determined
from carefully collected and interpreted stereonets supported by the analysis (tectogenetic analysis) of tectonic processes during
a deposit formation. It is possible to ascertain missing data resulting from biased data collection. Often the faults and shears
will have a fractal relationship. This can lead to order of magnitude prediction of where these features should occur. A practical
example will be shown for a major nickel project where these features were identified.

INTRODUCTION
In the geological literature, genetic models of primary metalliferous deposits can be classified into two categories: those where
structural control and tectonic deformation is not a factor, and those that are dominated and developed due to tectonic factors and
the accompanying specific tectonic regime which controls the placement of the mineralization and its distribution within the geological
sequence (host rock) of deposit. This paper is about deposits that have undergone tectonic deformation and where tectonic deformation
has significantly contributed to the formation of the deposit, including the placement of the mineralization with the patterns of mineralized
zones controlled by a tectonic regime active during the mineralizing processes.
As a rule and certainly for the deposit(s) presented in this paper this deformation developed during a specific late stage tectonic event(s)
governing the orebody rock wall preparation and emplacement in the process of the deposit formation. This is why the host rock and the ore
system (of any structurally controlled deposit) represent mutually depended tectonic genesis and as a consequence, the geometric pattern of
structures involved in the deposit formation. The scale ranges from a deposit to local and to microscopic scale (i.e. it is a fractal relationship).
Nevertheless, the variety of structural features and the complexity of the tectonic processes, and often the lack of clarity in understanding the
role and timing of the tectonic deformation in the origin of orebodies and the control on mineralization, can limit the practical application of
structural geology to the conceptual thinking in addressing and identifying solutions to geotechnical problems and mine development designs.
The interpretation of the relationship between tectonic deformation and the distribution of mineralization in a context of tectonic genesis
indicates that the positioning of the mineralization is integrally combined with the overall deposit tectonics controlling its formation
(tectogenesis). These developed or were generated within a tectonic regime existing during the mineralization stage(s) processes. A
degree of this deformation normally increases close to and within the orebody. This was observed in a majority of deposits analyzed
including but not restricted to Au, Cu, Ni, Mo, U and Zn-Pb. The impact of structures developed in such a progressive regime on rock
geotechnical properties, slope design and mine stability could be potentially significant.
This paper is designed to provide a basic understanding of tectogenesis and tectogenetic analysis as outlined in Figures 1 and 2. This
is an alternative method to traditional thinking applied when investigating tectonic deformation of deposits (Bogacz, 2, 3, 18 and 19). The
methodology has been successfully applied to the understanding of the nature of ore systems/orebodies and structural controls on mineralization
for numerous deposits in Australia and worldwide, including the largest metalliferous ore systems in Australia such as: Telfer (Au-Cu) in the
Proterozoic Patterson Orogen (Bogacz, 4), Mt Keith (Ni) of the Agnew-Wiluna Greenstone Belt of the Yilgarn Craton (Bogacz and Cadman, 5,

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Bogacz, 3), Argyle diamond deposit of Kimberley region (Bogacz and Dight, 6), Gibraltar (Au) Mine (Dight, 7), Sunrise Dam (Au) Mine (Dight, 8)
and Chariot (Au) Mine (Dight, 9). In the exploration the application of tectogenetic analysis has allowed identification of deposits, e.g. the Arenal
(Au-Ag) deposit in grass root environment in the northern Uruguay (Paydirt, 10) or uranium-rich Paralana Mineral System, which includes the
large Mt Gee (U) deposit within the Mt Painter Inlier of Curnamona Craton, South Australia (Bogacz, 11, Bogacz et al., 12).

Figure 1 Deposits tectogenesis and its practical application conceptual diagram (after Bogacz, 18, 19)

CONCEPT OF TECTOGENESIS
Metalliferous deposits, regardless of whether they are considered as originally structurally controlled or not, can be described as an
association of the host rock and the mineralization. The distribution of the mineralization, including the positioning of high grade zones within
the host rock, determines the ore system (orebody). Any ore system displays its own unique geometry, but as a rule, it is closely linked or
follows the geometry and the pattern of specific tectonic structures confined within major tectonic features which normally determine the
reach (limits) of orebody. In most cases, tectonic structures to which the mineralization is confined display secondary development. As a
consequence, structures and tectonic processes controlling the formation of mineral systems represent tectonic features formed at a later
stage compared to the original structural geometry created during the host rock tectonic evolution and metamorphic recrystallisation.

Figure 2 Application of structural geology and implication of tectogenesis to predictive thinking (after Bogacz, 18, 19)

If the tectonic evolution of the host rock represents pre-existing rock wall preparation type processes, then tectonic deformation controlling
emplacement of the mineralization into favorable, mostly rejuvenated, structural settings would be associated with a specific and separate
stress regime during the processes forming the mineralization. This regime can be explained by tectogenetic analysis (Bogacz, 3).
Tectogenesis (tectogenetic analysis) is an integrated method of understanding of deposits, particularly the processes leading to their tectonic
development from a regional and deposit to local and also microscopic scale, which has recently been positively defined by ore petrogenesis studies
(Bogacz and Kucha, 1). Tectogenetic analysis allows productive structures to be separated from those which were non-productive and not active

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(passive) during the orebody/deposit forming processes. Tectogenesis is a predictive method allowing identification of areas with the potential to host
structurally controlled mineralization. A powerful element of the method is to develop deposit scale predictions of dominant structures and structural
geometry/trends together with localized structures corresponding to the tectonic development that has led to the formation of the deposit.

TECTOGENETIC ANALYSIS
Tectogenetic analysis is designed to provide information on a uniform interpretation of tectonic deformation and tectonic genesis of any
ore system for any deposit (Bogacz, 3). Among numerous aspects of this analysis, the following are investigated in particular:
The specific structural regime during the formation of a deposit in which mineralization is, or could be confined.
The deformation mechanism(s) responsible for the formation, geometry and tectonic boundaries of a deposit, including the structures
and tectonic processes controlling the ore system.
The geometric, geomechanical (e.g. shear, extensional) and kinematic variability of tectonic structures propagating and/or controlling
the host rock deformation and mineralization development.
The structural geological factors and stress regime during the deposit (host rock) and orebody formation.
Tectogenetic analysis can also be described as an assessment of the host rock geomechanical regime which generated the tectonic
deformation environment, which was then favorable for the formation of the ore system. When correctly applied, a consistent relationship
between tectonic deformation of the deposit and the pattern of mineralization-carrying structures can be identified. If the formation of this
model could be linked with the structural geological factors, e.g. the surrounding granite or other magmatic body up-doming, or larger
basement fracture activity, the explanation of origin (tectonic genesis) for the tectonic deformation and corresponding orebody model,
which is the mineral (ore) system tectogenetic model, could be determined. If achieved, such model can be easily applied from a deposit
exploration stage, everyday geotechnical work and mine design through to development and mine expansion stages (after Bogacz, 19).

SIMPLE INTERPRETATION
Some Principles
Many of the principles of tectogenesis can be identified in simple testing. The example given here is from a direct shear test Figure 3.
The initial fracturing is predominantly extensional until the shear displacement overrides the initial fracturing Figure 4. Hence the strain is
critical to understanding the tectogenesis. Examples of such structure patterns can be readily recognised in nature and experimental work,
and were reported since the early 20th century (Figure 5a, after Ramsay and Huber, 20; Figures 6b and c, after Cloos, 21, 22).
Figure 6 shows the structural controls for the Mt Keith deposit (the subject of the case study shown in this paper) where the tectonic features have
a dominant role in the formation of the deposit then on the pit wall stability. Another example of using simple mechanical models to understand the
structural controls can be found using a UCS test on brittle rock (Dight, 15) case the structural pattern is very similar to a deposit of volcanic origin.
Using such examples help to understand the brittle behaviour of many systems at the time of mineralization and the expected pattern of structures.
Hence there is a close relationship/interference between the orientation of the dominant shears, the extensional features and the stresses applied
at the time of mineralization. The stress orientations have also been observed to still hold a similar orientation today (Dight, 16).

Figure 3 A simple direct shear test model note the principal stresses, these are unique

Figure 4 The structures that are initially created during shearing, predominantly extensional

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Figure 5a Observation of structural movement in a rock mass (after Ramsay and Huber, 20)

Figure 5b Clay experiment. Shearing and feather-jointing in the course of simulation of a strike-slip fault (after Cloos, 21, Figures 6 and 7)

Figure 5c Feature joints (after Cloos, 22)

Examples of Tectogenetic Interpretation

Tectogenetic analysis has been applied in the interpretation of more than 300deposits in various geological, tectonic and geotechnical
regimes/conditions in Australia and worldwide. The results are overwhelmingly consistent: application of tectogenesis allows the explanation
of dominant and relevant to the mineralization/orebody formation and deformation sets of structures, their geometric, kinematic and
tectogenetic relationship, all leading to the understanding of tectonic processes which took place within the deposit.
This allows not only identification of structures controlling the orebody/deposit formation, but also their separation from pre-existing and
post-dating structures. Below are presented a few simple examples of tectogenetic analysis/interpretation.

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In Figure 6 on the left side is the interpreted geology and geometry of the nickel Mt Keith orebody illustrated in section (after Hopf and
Head, 14). Tectogenetic analysis indicated that deposits nickel mineralization is structurally controlled, including at deposit scale. This is
schematically presented in the diagram on the right side.

Figure 6 Left: Interpreted geology and geometry of the Mt Keith orebody in section (after Hopf and Head, 14) Right:
The deposits tectogenetic interpretation (after Bogacz, 3)

Figure 7 is a photo and the interpretation of tectonic setting/structure sets and tectonic processes explaining the observed tectonic
deformation. These include flexural- slip mechanism of folding/movement, i.e. reverse-slip movement on the bedding surfaces and
corresponding (not accidental) concurrently developing specific stes of shares and faults.
All these structure sets contribute to the shortening of the geological sequence and in the past, sliding of rock mass in particular along
the bedding surfaces and bedding parallel clay-rich horizons into the pit was a major geotechnical problem.

Figure 7 Structural setting (top) and tectogenetic interpretation (bottom diagram) in the Leigh Creek coal mine (South Australia)

In more detail, explanations of a local geometric and kinematic setting from Tarcoola gold mine (South Australia) and from the Golden
Mile gold mine in Kalgoorlie (Western Australia) are shown. These lead to the understanding of tectonic processes and contributing to the
understanding of a deposit scale tectogenesis.

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At Tarcoola (Figure 8) the structural deformation presented is developed in the host rock due to a dominant role of the bedding-foliation
parallel normal dip-slip movement along a low-angle dipping zone/structure. This zone/structure clearly determines two deformation
domains: weakly deformed on the top and intensely deformed on the bottom. The bottom domain had taken most of tectonic stress and
therefore bedding-foliation is rotated to a steeper attitude, acuate tending to be sigmoidal in shape as a result of its splitting off of the
contact zone. There are developed small drag folds (e.g., in the bottom right corner of the photo) indication a reverse slip kinematics.
At Golden Mile gold mine (Figure 9) intensive normal dip-slip tectonics in the host rock is commonly observed. An example of the
interpretation of a small scale sigmoidal tectonic structure, initially prepared based on pre-existing two (west and east dipping) sets of
fractures sets, formed as a result of late stage extensional normal-dip-slip shearing processes is shown. Indications of a normal dip-slip
tectonic regime (1 steep or vertical) in various scales are commonly observed throughout the Golden Mile and structures related to this
regime certainly influence open-cut mine geotechnical properties/stability.

Figure 8 Tarcoola gold mine (South Australia); structural controls in the underground face

An interpretation of quartz controlled mineralization at the Fraser open-cut gold mine, Southern Cross, Western Australia (Figure 10),
provides an additional example for sigmoidal development of structures controlling mineralized zones. Note the offsets and gross of the
mineralized structures in the open-cut are focused in a specific lode/body with regard to the main trend of quartz reefs and shears. Important
is a dextral movement along the main reef (left part of the photo) because this kinematics allowed the development of extensional lower order
offset structures. North-South elongation of the sigmoidal lode is determined by the location and kinematics of the main reefs.

Figure 9 Golden Mile gold mine, Kalgoorlie (Western Australia); interpretation of a sigmoidal structure developed due
to normal dip-slip shearing in extensional tectonic regime

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Figure 10 Fraser Gold mine, Southern Cross (Western Australia) note the offsets and gross of the mineralization focused
in a specific sigmoidal lode structure

Applications in geotechnical analysis

An initial investigation at an Australian mine (MineA) was undertaken because there was doubt about the grade distribution. The
investigation concluded that there were structural controls and that these could be related to the deposit formation, hence the deposit
could be intrusive of nature (Bogacz and Cadman, 5); in 1996 it was not popular to consider that nickel deposits could be intrusive (e.g.
Hill et al., 13, Hopf and Head, 14); it was not until 2005 that this was recognised officially as a possible model for Ni deposits in Western
Australia (e.g. Rosengren et al., 23).
Figure 11a is a published diagram of the structural controls inferred for the deposit. The initial model had the deposit as an extrusive
deposit that had been subject to sinistral strike slip shear (e.g. Hopf and Head, 14). Figure 11b shows that the structural controls also
apply to the distribution of grade (shown in plan) thus confirming doubts with regard to the application of the extrusive model.
The defect data for MineA can be seen on stereonets in Figure 12. The data has been simplified for presentation. It would be expected
from a review of the defect data that there is possibly a fold with a plunge axis at 25 to the SW. However in a brittle environment the
concentration of poles in the SW appears to be associated with the presence/interference of shear structures, including deposit scale west
dipping structures (on south wall left side of the photo, Figure 13 (Bogacz and Cadman, 5)).

Figure 11 a) Geotechnical model MineA, northern part; b) deposits grade distribution; both plan view

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These significantly contributed to the deposit formation and the geometry of the MineA orebody, which is schematically illustrated on
diagrams in Figure 6, i.e. split area of the top part of the orebody (left diagram) and its marginal areas on the contact with the main bottom
and top shears potentially limiting the orebody development (right diagram). Corresponding to this shear activity are derived/second order
structures, which are represented by the poles distribution on stereonets in Figure 12. The concentration of poles in the SW part of the
stereonets is approximately the normal to the axis of the maximum principal stress direction. Stress measurement undertaken using
acoustic emission shows similar orientations. These orientations also have an impact on slope stability where crushing is observed in SE
corners of the pit and toppling in the SW and NE corners of the pit (Dight, 17).
In Figure 14 then is the tectogenesis interpretation of major shear structures at MineA deposit shown in plan alongside a simple direct
shear test. The pattern of structures is very similar. The dominant structural controls strike across the pit at an acute angle to the pit wall
(approximately 20) and cause significant structure impacts on stability.

Figure 12 a) Pole, b) trace stereonets, and c) interpreted stress field pattern for MineA

The important aspect of the geotechnical application of tectogenesis as it moves the structural concepts into the field. The tectogenetic
model of structural features indicates a particular location and signature spacing which when understood can be used to predict location
(Dight, 7, 8 and 9). If the expected pattern can be recognised, information in blind spots resulting from directional bias can be anticipated
and where appropriate can lead to appropriately designed investigations. There are strong correlations between the structural features
identified and the stress regime with particular reference to defect morphology which helps in the interpretation of structural data. Lastly
it means much more information can be extracted from good field data acquisition than is traditionally the case.

Figure 13 MineA a deposit scale west dipping major shear structures; early stage open-cut, south wall

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Figure 14 Deposit scale geotechnical model and tectogenetic interpretation of major shears in plan view

CONCLUSIONS
The distribution of mineralization within the host rock determines the ore system (orebody) of any primary deposit. Understanding of
tectonic evolution of the host rock and ore genesis identification alone is not sufficient to explain the origin of metalliferous and other
(e.g. diamond) structurally controlled deposits. This is because the tectonic deformations controlling the deposits mineralization display a
unique timing and development. The understanding of the ore system can be achieved by application of a tectogenetic analysis.
Tectogenesis (tectogenetic analysis) is an integrated method of understanding of deposits from a regional and deposit to local and
microscopic scale, where it is positively defined by petrogenesis. This method also allows the separation of productive structures from nonproductive and not active (passive) structures during the orebody/deposit forming tectonic processes. Tectogenesis allows predictability of
potential locations of orebodies within areas of mineralization. Also allows prediction of local dominant structure geometry and patterns, and
lower order structures corresponding to their formation in the overall tectogenetic setting(s) of deposits as parts of a deposit scale tectonics.
Tectogenetic analysis can be described as an assessment of the tectonic geomechanical regime during mineralization. It has been
applied to the interpretation of orebodies recognized as non-structurally controlled, and those that are structurally controlled. The
results are compelling that in both cases structural deformation is critical in explanation the geometry of the ore mineralized system, the
distribution of high grade or barren zones and in establishment of the link between tectonic deformation and the ore system. This allows
the generation of an ore system tectonic genesis (tectogenetic) model.
The application of tectogenetic criteria or analyses, as an alternative method of structural investigations, allows the implementation of a
conceptual tectogenetic model. A feature of the model is the ability to predict of position of the mineralization. The tectogenetic model is
easy to implement in the everyday work of a professional geological and mining team at any stage of exploration, geological assessment
of the deposit and mine development.
The creation and implementation of a tectogenetic model of the ore mineralized system has a significant impact on:

The generation of exploration targets and mine expansion.

Providing better targets for drill hole locations.
Improving the reserve calculations (and can be used in conjunction with variography).
Targeting better grade control.
Improving grade reconciliation.
Providing a unifying framework for geotechnical parameter assessment.

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In this way, a much more efficient use can be made of the expenditure for exploration and development.
Tectogenetic analysis provides a key to the chaos surrounding mineralized systems.
Implication in open-pit geotechnical engineering are significant as the method of Tectogenetic Analysis and application of Tectogenesis
thinking allow prediction of structures and often their location which are critical in a mine assessment in terms of their geometry, potential
location and geotechnical importance. Determination of main (first order) structures and prediction of areas with presence of lower
order structures, their variability and intensity of development/concentration throughout the open-cut in this method is predictable. Thus,
the method and the understanding of Tectogenesis provide important criteria for optimal open-pit and underground mine design and
geotechnical engineering tool.

REFERENCES
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18. W.V. Bogacz, Tectonic genesis of metalliferous deposits: developing an integrated tectonic deformation and mineralisation
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