Chapter 1

Introduction

Pakistan is one of the most resource rich countries in the world having a large amount of coal,
gas, gemstones, copper and gold reserves. Other resources also include oil, iron, titanium and
aluminum which are a necessity for any growing economy. Forests are limited to 4% of
Pakistans land; nonetheless the forests are a main source of food, lumber, paper, fuel wood,
latex, and medicine. The forests are also used for wildlife convservation and ecotourism. A
natural resource is anything that people can use which comes from nature. People do not make
natural resources, but gather them from the earth. Examples of natural resources are air, water,
wood, oil, wind energy, iron, and coal. There are two types of natural resources i.e. renewable
resources which grow again and come back again after we use it. For example, soil, sunlight,
water and wood are renewable resources. Non-renewable resources do not grow and come back.
For example, coal is a non-renewable resource.
Pakistan has an area of 80,943 km 2, lies between 6055 to 75 30 E longitude and 23 45 to
36 50 N latitude. Pakistan has an altitude ranging from 0 to 8611 m, therefore, has a variety of
climatic zones and a unique biodiversity. Pakistan has about 6,000 species of higher plants. It has
been reported that 600 to 700 species are used for medicinal purposes. Some of these medicinal
plants are , Aloe Vera, Marsh Mallow ,great burdock, pot marigold , gotu kola , chamomile,
Globe Artichoke , Chinese Yam , Siberian Ginseng , Great Yellow Gentian , Sea Buckthorn,
Taxus willichiana .
A total of 757 plants species have been recorded in the Khyber PukhtoonKhwa including 9
species of fungi, 5 species of lichens, 5 species of gymnosperms, and 65 species of
monocotyledons belonging to 8 families while 309 species of dicotyledons belonging to 71
families. The natural landscape of KPK is enriched with coniferous forest including Abies
pindrow (Pindrow Fir), Cedrus deodara (Deodar Cedar), Picea smithiana (Kachal), Pinus
wallichiana (Himalayan Pine) and Taxus wallichiana (Himalayan Yew). Mixed with broadleaved evergreen like Quercus floribunda (Green oak), Q. glauca (blue Japanese oak), Q. incana
(bluejack oak). Deciduous broad-leaved trees including Acer caesium (Indian Maple), Aesculus
indica(Indian horse chestnut), Cornus macrophylla (Dog wood) , Juglan sregia (Walnut),
Populus Cilliata (Himalayan poplar) , Prunus cornuta (Arupate) , Salix tetra sperma (Indian
willow) , Ulmus wallichiana(Himalayan elm). (Pakistan Research Repository, 2003).
Medicinal plants have been identified and used throughout human history. Plants have the
ability to synthesize a wide variety of chemical compounds that are used to perform important
biological functions, and to defend against attack from predators such as insects, fungi
and herbivorous mammals. At least 12,000 such compounds have been isolated so far; a number
estimated to be less than 10% of the total. Chemical compounds in plants mediate their effect on
the human body through processes identical to those already well understood for the chemical
compounds in conventional drugs; thus herbal medicines do not differ greatly from conventional
drugs in terms of how they work. This enables herbal medicines to have
beneficial pharmacology, but also gives them the same potential as conventional pharmaceutical
drugs to cause harmful side effects.
The use of herbs to treat disease is almost universal among non-industrialized societies and is
often more affordable than purchasing modern pharmaceuticals. The World Health
Organization (WHO) estimates that 80 percent of the population of some Asian and African

countries presently use herbal medicine for some aspect of primary health care. An herb is a
plant or plant part used for its scent, flavor, or therapeutic properties. Herbal medicine, also
called botanical medicine or phytomedicine, refers to using a plant's seeds, berries, roots, leaves,
bark, or flowers for medicinal purposes. Herbalism has a long tradition of use outside
conventional medicine. It is becoming more main stream as improvements in analysis and
quality control, along with advances in clinical research, show the value of herbal medicine in
treating and preventing disease.
Taxus wallichiana commonly known as Himalayan Yew is a temperate Himalayan multipurpose
tree specie of great medicinal value and ethno botanical importance.
Taxus willichiana is of great importance all over the world and specifically in the countries
where it grows, because of its multiple uses and economical benefits. But its very unfortunate
that this specie is endangered due to its vast importance and uses and the most important use is
that it produces Taxol in its bark. Taxol is very effective anti-cancer drug which is used in
chemotherapy against breast and ovarian cancer.
Taxus wallichiana medicinal history is extraordinary as compare to other yew species. It is
extensively used for its pain killing abilities, anti-inflammatory, anti-fungal, anti-bacterial, anticonvulsing, anti-pyretic and anti-cancer activity, also for infertility. This plant is used
traditionally for the treatment of high fever and painful inflammatory conditions ,bronchitis,
asthma, epilepsy, snake bites and scorpion stings. The leaves of this plant are used to make
herbal tea for indigestion and epilepsy. Taxus willichiana is also very impotant because it is used
for door frames, cabinet work and wood turning and wood inlaying, also for candlesticks, knife
handles, gates and fences, poles, bars and 'wattle and daub' in walls of rustic constructions.The
bark of the tree is also used to make butter tea, and the wood from the tree is used for timber to
build lodgings in the area.
The climate recorded for Taxus willichiana should be moderately cool but they can survive in
harsh winters. Average precipitation is less than or equal to 600 mm The average snow fall is
about 660 cm.Reasons for eradication are Anthropogenic disturbances, exploitation of bark &
leaves for taxol (IUCN red list, 2014),deforestation and agricultural growth accompanying with
intensifying pastoral populations.
Aims and Objectives
1
2
3
4

Assess the existing status, distribution and density of Taxus wallichiana in selected hotspots
with special focus on regeneration.
Identify current and potential threats to Taxus wallichiana and suggest measures for
conservation in Ayubia National Park.
Develop GIS Maps of frequency distribution and density of Taxus wallichiana in selected
hotspots.
Huge amounts and pure form of drugs can be produced which are less antigenic.

Chapter 2
Review of literature
2.1 Taxus wallichiana
Taxus wallichiana commonly known as Himalayan Yew is a temperate Himalayan multipurpose
tree species of great medicinal and ethno botanical importance. According to Red List category
of IUCN, 2014, the specie is categorized as endangered. In high alpine regions of the Himalayas,
where agricultural outputs are low, it provides a critical source of income which contributed a lot
in diminishing this specie; as a result it is now considered to be endangered and is at the verge of
extinction.
The leaves and bark of Taxus wallichiana have been massively exploited for the extraction of
Taxol which has unique property of preventing the growth of cancerous cells, and are being used
in the treatment of breast and ovarian cancer .Another important cause of it being endangered is
the use of its bark in burial places.
Natural regeneration in Taxus wallichiana is very low due to long seed dormancy. In the
controlled conditions the pericarp of the seed acts as the barrier for seed germination.
2.1.1 Habitat
Taxus wallichiana ranging from small to large under story or lower canopy tree in mountainous
areas, requires a habitat of moist, temperate, warm temperate, tropical sub mountainous to high
mountainous forest. It produces both flowers and conifers, deciduous or evergreen, or even
mixed forests.
Taxus wallichiana produces a large, broadly spreading shrub on rocky slopes and cliffs, elevation
ranges from 900 m to 3,700 m a.s.l and an acidic to neutral soil.
It can germinate quickly in large numbers and long life span upon seeds dispersal by birds on
suitable site. Taxus wallichiana occurs both in pure stands or is often seen mixed in the under
story of Quercus, Abies and Picea, or in mixed conifer forest.
2.1.2 Growth and Structure
It is a medium-sized evergreen coniferous tree and can grow up to 10m - 28m in height with a
trunk diameter of up to 4 m. The process of shoot elongation and root induction in Taxus is very
slow. The bark is reddish while the shoots are green at first, becoming brown after three or four
years.
The leaves are thin, flat, slightly falcate (sickle-shaped), 1.52.7 cm long and 2 mm broad, with a
softly mucronate apex, they are arranged spirally on the shoots but twisted at the base to appear
in two horizontal ranks. It has both male and female cones on separate plants. The seed cone is
berry-like having a dark brown seed 7mm long surrounded by a soft, juicy red aril of 1 cm
diameter while pollen cones are spherical shaped of 4 mm diameter, produced in early spring.
2.1.3 Medicinal Uses
The Himalayan yew like many other species of yew grows in temperate zones at high altitudes.
Taxol is very effective anti-cancer drug which is used in chemotherapy against breast and
ovarian cancer. Taxus wallichiana medicinal history is extraordinary as compare to other yew
species. It is extensively used for its pain killing abilities, anti-inflammatory, anti-fungal, antibacterial, anti-convulsing, anti-pyretic and anti-cancer activity, also for infertility.

In India, extracts from its bark and leaves are used for the treatment of bronchitis, asthma,
epilepsy, snake bites and scorpion stings.
2.1.4 Other Uses
The lumber of Himalayan Yew is long-lasting and in solid and is used for door frames, cabinet
work and wood turning, wood inlaying, also for candlesticks, knife handles, gates and fences,
poles, bars and 'wattle and daub' in walls of rustic constructions.
The wood is also burnt as incense in Nepal and parts of Tibet. The inner yap also produces a red
rinse, often used in holy rituals by the Brahmins of Nepal.
The bark of the tree is also used to make butter tea, and the wood from the tree is used for timber
to build lodgings in the area.
In Pakistan the brushwood are used as feedstuff for animals and for burying the dead. . The
vegetation is poisonous but can be given as silage to goats if no other verdure is available. The
inner bark is used in various concoctions, essences, and adhesives and non-toxic part of these
yews is the plump aril round the seed, which is disbursed by local residents as jams.
Taxus contorta and Taxus wallichiana, because of their similarity with European Yew (Taxus
baccata), are rarely found in agriculture in Europe, but are used as ornamentals plants in Baguio,
Philippines.
2.1.5 Problems and Threats
The alkaloid complexes (taxanes) of the bark use for the anti-cancer remedy paclitaxel (Taxol)
which has become a major reason for misuse.
In Himalayas and western China, Taxus wallichiana has been heavily exploited for its leaves and
bark to produce the anti-cancer drugs.
50-90% of Taxol production decade in India, Nepal, and China take place in the last 2530 years.
Taxus wallichiana is very prevalent but sub inhabitants within that range are often disjunctive
and isolated.
The global population has experienced a foremost failure within the last 25 years which is still
enduring.
2.2 Research conducted on Taxus wallichiana
Zeng., et al (1994) found out that taxol in Taxus trees is an anti-tumor and its known
mechanism has promoted the chemical studies of taxanes diterpenoids and diterpene alkaloids of
genus Taxus. This paper is mainly focused on the chemical studies of Taxus and also on the
species closely related to it. The study conducted was based on the studies on chemical
constituents of Taxus wallichiana Zucc... To explore the source of taxol and other taxoids the
chemical constituents of its barks and needles were studied. From the bark 15 components were
taken 13 known compounds were identified by chemical and spectral methods as taxol.
In 2011 Abidi mapped the density of the Himalayan Yew population and extent of diseased
trees within Ayubia National Park, and concluded that only 847 Taxus wallichiana individuals
were recorded amongst 2807 observed trees from the 100 plots taken within Ayubia National
Park. Only 30% of the total tree counts were Taxus wallichiana indicating a very low specie
population within a protected areas.
It was found that the disease affecting the Taxus
wallichiana population are just normal damages occurring due to exploitation of the forest
rather than a pathogenic illness affecting the specific specie.It was suggested that unless

appropriate measures are taken to protect Taxus wallichiana and increase its population within
ANP and across its other habitats in Pakistan the endangered species is at risk of serious losses
while future anti- cancer medicinal developments are brought to a halt.
A study was conducted on In Vitro Callogenesis and Organogenesis in Taxus wallichiana in
2013 ( Hussain., et al ) The Himalayan Yew Taxus wallichiana, is an average sized mild forest
tree species of Asia extending from Afghanistan through the Himalayas to the Philippines. It has
been deeply misused for its foliage and bark that can be used to create the anti-cancer drug
Taxol. Because of its long seed inactivity period, its normal rebirth from kernels is very low.
Recently (Paul., et al 2013) revealed that anthropogenic disturbances led to risk of extinction of
Taxus wallichiana, which is an endangered Medicinal Tree in Arunachal Himalaya he further
concluded that species extinction is the major biodiversity crisis in the 21 stcentury. This
extinction of many important species is due to anthropogenic activities.. Taxus wallichiana, an
endangered tree species has the anti-cancerous chemical Paclitaxel (Taxol) and is widely
distributed in temperate forests. Due to its high economic demand, unsustainable extraction, and
over-harvesting, the species is now in the endangered category and is near to extinction. Due to
its long dormancy period it is slow to reach maturity while the consumption of fruits by birds,
monkeys, rats are causing regeneration failure. In situ and ex situ conservation should be
initiated. Furthermore awareness is highly required. This will conserve the species, boost the
rural economy and also provide employment opportunity for the local inhabitants.
Rahman., et al (2013)had a thoughtful view of taxus wallichiana in order to have better
understandings of its Anti-microbial and pharmacological activities in 2013 .The main focus
was on medicinal uses of Taxus wallichiana compare to other yews. The focus was on the
analgesic, anti-inflammatory, anti-fungal, anti-bacterial, anti-convulsant, antipyretic and anticancer activities of Taxus. The remote lignins from Taxus wallichiana exhibit numerous
biological activities that include high activity as analgesic, anti-inflammatory, anti-fungal, antibacterial, anti-convulsant, anti-pyretic and anti-cancer agents. Further studies are required to
better understand the role of this lignins, which will make it easy to understand its basic role in
human physiology.
From all the researches and studies conducted on Taxus wallichiana it can be concluded that we
are blessed with a tree which possess unique properties . It is a vital source of medication for
several life threatening diseases specially cancer. It has been deeply misused for its foliage and
bark that can be used to create the anti-cancer drug Taxol. Because of its long seed inactivity
period, its normal rebirth from kernels is very low. . Due to its high economic demand,
unsustainable extraction, and over-harvesting, the species is now in the endangered category and
is near to extinction .It is suggested that take such essential measures to eliminate the need to cut
down protected forest and endangered species and provide alternative measures for providing
fuel wood, and to use the natural resources in sustainable pattern in order to have them in future .

CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY

3.1 Study Area

Ayubia National Park is one of the fourteen declared National Parks in the country that falls in
the IUCN-Category V i-e it should be protected, sustained and the associated conservation
practices should be applied to maintain its natural importance and other values created by
interactions with humans.(Pakistan Research Repository, 2003)

Figure : Map Showing Area and Location Of Ayubia National Park

3.2 Location
The geographical location of park is 33 52N-73 09E covering about 3,312 hectares (8,184
acres) area in North of Murree in the Himalayan range mountains in the province of Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. It is internationally known as a hot spot in the West-Himalayan
mountainous range because it serves as a habitat for many endangered or threatened species.
(Wildlife of Pakistan, 2014)
3.3 Climate
The climate is recorded to be moderately cool in summers but harshly cold in the winters. While
it remains mildly warm during May and June, the area becomes colder with the arrival of
monsoons in late July and early August. West winds bring rain which eventually turns into snow.
(World Wildlife Adventures, 2010)
3.4 Precipitation
The precipitation from South- West Monsoons falls during July to September which may reach
or exceed 600 mm. The average snow fall is about 660 cm. (Saima et al., 2009)
3.5 Data Collection:
Secondary data was collected from:
Books
Journals
World wide web
Researches
Pakistan forest institute
NGOs (wwf)
Environment protection agency &
Through personal communication with medicinal plants experts .
Study area
Personal survey was also done to have clear view of specie and to know the specie from near and
to observe it carefully . The collected information was carefully studied and analyzed.
3.6 Survey Method
A total of 3 hotspots were taken in the Ayubia National Park. In each hotspot 10 plots were taken.
Size of each plot was 0.1 hectare in a circle having radius of 17.83 m.
For equal distribution of these plots and to avoid biasness, a network was drawn on the known
scaled map of the area. Sample plot was taken in the center of each grid and a distance of 100m
was taken between two plots.
In the map, position of the plots was taken with the help of topographic sheet of the area and its
location on the ground will be determined through GPS.

17.83 m radius
Or 0.1 ha area

3.7 Personal Observation

As we went deep down into the forest to find our selected hotspots, we observed different aspects
of the forest and the plant species variation inhabiting it. As for Taxus, we noticed that most of
the trees were older and mature; the roots of these trees were very deep and thick.
A major number of these trees were grown on the lower depths of the mountains and were
inaccessible. Almost all the mature trees were damaged somehow.
Also we noticed that the natives lacked awareness about the importance of Taxus, and it was
being cut down relentlessly.
The management of the Ayubia National Park was also found inactive, in a manner that during
the hours we spent in the forest, no one queried our presence even in restricted areas.
3.8 Field Investigation
The plots were taken in 3 hotspots i-e
Sumundar : Mar 6010 feet (1831 m).
Mushkpuri : 9452 feet (2,800 m).
Pipeline 2 : 8,200 feet (2499 m).

Figure : Map showing the selected hotspots.

CHAPTER 4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1

RESULTS

4.1.1

DENSITY

According to the survey conducted 844 trees were studied in 3 hotspots among which only 239
were found to be of the specie Taxus wallichiana, the total density of Taxus wallichiana clearly
indicates the extinction in the species population. The total density was found to be 80
trees/hectare.
4.1.2

FREQUENCY

However the specie occurred in 29/30 plots resulting in a frequency of 96.667% showing that the
trees though less in number are scattered in different areas of the park along with other species.
4.1.3

DAMAGES

The total big trees damaged were 48 out of 111 in all the 3 hotspots. While the total numbers of
damaged trees were 15, 24, 9 in i) Sumandar Mar, ii) Mushkpuri track, iii) Ayubia Pipeline 2
track respectively.

Damages

Trunk
8% 2%

10%

Over lopping
37%

4%

Crown
Skin

13%

Dry
26%

Brown Fungus
Full damaged

Figure 4.1( Pie-Chart Depicting the Amount and Type of Damage in Taxus wallichiana)

4.2

DISCUSSION

In the beginning of our study we were briefed about the importance of the concerned specie i-e
Taxus wallichiana.It is known as the Himalayan yew and exists natively from Himalayas to the
Philippines. In Pakistan the specie is found to exist in the Ayubia National Park and Chitral
National Park, with a few sites of Swat. Conservation status of yew was placed in a DD category.
Data Deficient (DD) is a category applied by the IUCN to a species when the available
information is not sufficient for its proper assessment and conservation and due to this it is on the
verge of extinction. (IUCN red list, 2014).We began our study in the Ayubia National Park with
the selection of 3 main regions, namely Samundar Mar, Mushkpuri top and Pipeline 2.
The main reasons found during the field survey to bring the specie to this status is its illegal
lopping for fuel wood, excessive use of its long lasting bark in different wood products and

conserving the graves while the Taxol extracted as an amazing anti-cancer drug and coversion of
its habitate for agriculture.
The Himalayan yew has been subject to heavy exploitation for its leaves and bark. Decline rate
have been particularly heavy. This decline has been compounded in some areas by increasing
deforestation and agricultural expansion associated with rising rural populations. The specie is
currently classified as endangered by the IUCN. However it is present in protected areas, and at
least some conservation and propagation measures are underway, with an eye to its commercial
value in the medicine trade. Plantations should be established and programes to be carried out to
in order to encourage its protection and cultivation in community forests. Awarness compaign in
local population should be run about the sustainable use of taxus wallichiana because of it
medicinal importance .People should be provided with alternative source of fuel in order to
minimize its cutting by local communities .Government interests are another effective way of
protecting this valuable specie . NGOs that are running for conservation of endanger species
should take such incentives in the form of environmental friendly subsidies and taxes .
Reforestation is imperative for the number of tress which are removed or harvested.
4.2.1

SUMUNDAR MAR

This hotspot is located at 6010 feet which is a lower elevation area as compared to other hotspots
we covered. The track was moderately developed but the road was well constructed, providing
easy access to tourists and natives. In this hotspot the number of Taxus trees and the regeneration
was found to be lowest and the reason behind this decline in Taxus wallichiana is the lower
elevation providing opportunities to cattlemen to lead their cattle into pastures and also lopping
of trees for fuel wood by the natives. The total fully grown trees in this hotspot were 34 while the
regeneration was 26 and the specie occurred in 9/10 hotspots. In Sumundar Mar the trees were
either over lopped, dried, fully damaged or the trunk was partially damaged, also a natural brown
fungus was found to grow on the trees.

Figure 4.2
4.2.2

MUSHKPURI TOP

We started our expedition at DungaGali (8200 feet) towards Mushkpuri Top (9452 feet) and
ended at the Lalazar( 8484 feet). The hotspot has one of the highest peaks of Ayubia National
Park i-e the Mushkpuri Top. The Mushkpuri top has great importance in terms of tourism due to
its awe-inspiring landscape. The track was intricate and in a way appealing for trekkers, also the
scenic beauty was very fascinating and a rare sight as very few people have reached the top. Due
to this inaccessibility of this site the species of Taxus wallichiana were found to exist in a higher
number. More of the fully grown trees were damaged due to over trimming from precipitation,
dryness, trunk or crown damage but the regeneration was creating a balance with the mature
trees. Total grown trees were 42 while the regeneration 42 and species occurred in all 10/10
plots.

Figure 4.3
4.2.3

AYUBIA PIPELINE 2

This was the most intriguing trail as it ran deep through the dense forest and was known to be the
route of British horse riders, and presently of the Asiatic leopard. Due to its seclusion from the
natives this track had the most abundant number of trees including the regeneration of the specie
Taxus wallichiana amongst all the hotspots covered. Also the damaged trees were least found.
Total full grown trees were 35 while regeneration was 60 and species occurred in all 10/10 plots.

Figure 4.5
COMPARISON OF HOTSPOTS WITH RANDOM PLOTS TAKEN IN THE PARK:

Apart from our selected hotspots, we took 20 random plots in the Ayubia National Park. This
data was collected in order to record the number of Taxus wallichiana and their damages in
comparison with the hotspot data. According to the data, the number of Taxus trees found was
very less in number, and completely damaged, whereas the hotspots were abundant with Taxus

availability and also the health of the plant was satisfactory. We concluded that the hotspots were
specified as hotspots because of the same reason.
The comparison is shown through these graphs;
18
18

16

16

16
14
12

11

10
10
9

10

Taxus Trees in sample plots

Ayubia National Park

10
9

8
5

Taxus Trees in sample plots

Samundarmar

Taxus Trees in sample plots

Mukhshpuri
Taxus Trees in sample plots
A.Pipeline 2

3
4
2
0
1

Figure 4.6 (Abundance of Taxus trees in selected hotspots as compared to the random
plots)

14
12.05

12
10
8

A
B

6
4

4.33

2
0 0
random

0
hotspot

Figure 4.7 (Comparison of damages)

CHAPTER 5
Conclusion & Recommendations

CONCLUSION
In our study we recorded a number of plant species in the forest alongside Taxus wallichiana.
The Taxus wallichiana occurrence was found to be distributed widely, but in a good measure.We
concluded that the Taxus wallichiana specie was mostly regeneration and the mature trees were
damaged due to natural or anthropogenic causes. We also concluded that the regeneration plants
were maintaining a balance with the damaged trees.
The natives lacked awareness about the importance and conservation of the specie. They were
uncompromisingly cutting and overusing Taxus wallichiana for domestic use, fuel wood, and
fortification of graves. In order to overcome the difference of age old way of thinking, the NonGovernmental Organization has been working to provide gas burners and also has initiated the
utilization of manure to produce bio gas as an alternative of fuel wood.
RECOMMENDATIONS
A conservation team should be made by the management for the inspection of trees on regular
basis, for the purpose of recording damages, and for taking mitigatory measures for restoring the
specie.The team should be responsible for allowing only the authorized persons and permitted
tourists in the park and make sure natives do not enter and carry out unnecessary lopping. Areas
where species are in more number should be demarcated to seclude it from rest of the species to
highlight their importance and protect them. Trees that are more prone to damage should also be
highlighted or demarcated so that the inspecting team members can easily spot them and proceed
with the conservation and preservation procedures.
Initiate simulated growth of Taxes to generate the production of Taxol in advanced numbers.Put
Barbed-wire fencing around the regeneration plants in order to protect them from the livestock of
the natives, and also the wild animal species of the forest.
In order to conserve this natural resource community based management should be commenced
involving management of the Ayubia National Park, the conservation team and the community.
Change the mindsets of the natives and religious extremists to refrain them from the excessive
use of its bark and fruit.