c1 - Grammar Lessons

The subjunctive form is exactly the same as the infinitive without the 'to' before the
verb.
We often use it in 'that' clauses, after certain verbs:
to advise (that)
to ask (that)
to command (that)
to demand (that)
to desire (that)
to insist (that)
to propose (that)
to recommend (that)
to request (that)
to suggest (that)
to urge (that)
- Jane recommended that he apply for a new job before the end of the year.
- Alex insisted that Harry join her at the company Christmas party.
- The bank manager asked that she bring in an ID card to validate her account.
We use the subjunctive when we talk about something that
is important or necessary.
- Next year it will be essential that all members of the sales team give their opinion
at the annual meeting.
Please note how it can be used in different tenses. It can be used to talk about
events in the past, present or future:
- The manager suggested the receptionist go on another training course before
being allowed to speak English with visitors.
- Imagine that we were on holiday right now!
- If I were to own a dictionary, I would know how to spell!

Or in the negative:
- Safety regulations require that visitors not enter the factory without the
appropriate head gear.
The subjunctive tends to be rather formal and an alternative is usually possible.
junctive
uld + infinitive
sent simple
+ subject + to + infinitive
It is essential that every member pay a fee before using the golf course.
It is essential that every member should pay a fee before using the golf course.
It is essential that every member pays a fee before using the golf course.
It is essential for every member to pay a fee before using the golf course.
There are some fixed expressions which use subjunctive forms:

It is best (that)
It is crucial (that)
It is desirable (that)
It is essential (that)
It is imperative (that)
It is important (that)
It is recommended (that)
It is urgent (that)
It is vital (that)
It is a good idea (that)
It is a bad idea (that)
- It is not a good idea that Jim be here when Catherine arrives.
- It was essential that she attend the meeting and she didn't show up!
- It is recommended that he drink a glass of water with his tablets.
Continuous and passive forms
The Subjunctive can be used with continuous and passive forms.
- It is essential that you both be waiting for me at the train station.

- It is an excellent idea that a limo be waiting for the VIPs at the bottom of the
aircraft steps.
- Oliver requested that we be given permission to visit the production line.
- I suggested that you be taken into consideration for the position.
The 'Unreal' Past
After certain expressions e.g. if only, it's time, what if, assuming, say,
suppose/supposing, would rather/sooner and I wish we use past tenses (active and
passive) to describe things in the present, past or future which are imagined. We
call this the 'unreal' past.
We can use the past simple or the past continuous after these expressions to
talk about the imaginary present and future:
Would Rather + Past Tense

To talk about an action when we want someone to do something:
- I would rather he came this afternoon. I'm busy this morning.
Would Rather + Past Perfect
To talk about past action:
- He would rather I hadn't phoned him so late.
Would Rather + Past Tense
The Past tense is used here, but its meaning is present or future:
- I'm going to make a chocolate cake.
- I would rather you didn't make it!
Would Rather + Than
To make a choice:
- Would you rather go shopping or go for something to eat?
- I would rather look in the shops than eat a big meal.
If Only
To express regrets about the past or the present that we would

like to change:
- If only I hadn't said it!
To talk about the past:
- If only I had studied science at university and not philosophy!
To complain:
- If only the sun would shine for a while.
To express a hope or wish:
- If only I had more savings in the bank.
Subordinate clauses
Time
Common conjunctions of time
include: when, as, after, before, while, until and since:
- Jane waited until she'd finished university before getting married.
Less common conjunctions of time include: as soon as, once,

whenever, now (that), the minute/moment(that), immediately and by the
time (that):
- I'm so angry that you didn't call me the moment you got back.
- Hurry up! By the time we get there, the party will be over!
Reason
We usually give a reason with the conjunction because:
- We've decided to only have three people in this office because it's too small to
take any more.
In speech, because is often shortened to 'cos /koz/.
Other conjunctions of reason are since, as and for. (Note: since and as both
introduce reasons that are already known.)
- Lola, since you raised the subject, perhaps you could start by telling us your
concerns.
In formal speech and writing, we often use given that to introduce a reason that is
already known:
- Given that there are so few women in powerful positions in business, the number
of women in politics is quite surprising.
In informal English, we would use because or as:
- She decided not to move to the countryside, as it was full of old, retired people.
Purpose
The most common conjunction of purpose is so that ... (not). We often omit that:
- Would you mind coming in a little earlier tomorrow so (that) I can welcome our
visitors?
We can also use infinitive clauses after in order and so as:
- The committee will be holding a number of events in order/so as to raise money

for charity.
Result
The most common conjunction expressing result is so:
- The baby was crying for half of the night so I'm feeling exhausted today.
Note the difference between so and because:
- Jim hated his new job, so he resigned last week. (so + result of hating the job)
- Jim resigned last week because he hated the new job. (because + reason for
resigning)
We can describe the result of a particular quality or characteristic using these
patterns:
so + adjective/adverb + (that) clause
I'm afraid it was so expensive (that) I couldn't a
such + (adjective +) noun + (that) clause
It was such an expensive coat (that) I couldn't a
too + adjective + for + infinitive clause
It was too expensive for me to buy.
(not) adjective + enough + for + infinitive clause
It was not cheap enough for me to afford it.
We can use so much ... that after a verb to express the result of an action:
- Kate shouted so much at the rugby match that she couldn't speak the next day.
We can never combine so much + adjective:
- Sorry, I was so busy that I forgot to call you to cancel our appointment.
(We cannot say: -Sorry, I was so much busy that ...)
Condition
The most common conjunctions to express condition are if and unless:
- I won't be able to come to the conference unless I cancel my holiday.
Other conjunctions expressing condition are as long as, providing and in case:
- I'll go on the hen night with you on Saturday as long as we can book a taxi home.
Other conjunctions
We can use the conjunctions as if and as though to say how someone behaves or
does something:
- The CEO continues to act as though he's unaware of the serious complaints
against him.
- She behaves as if she can go on holiday whenever she wants.
We use except that, when, where and if to express exception:
- What can I say except that I'm sorry? I really didn't mean to upset you.
- I keep my office locked except if I'm only away for a few minutes.
Other commonly confused verbs:

borrow
To take/receive a loan
Can I borrow some money from you?
lend
To give a loan
I will lend you 100 pounds.
To show ability
I can speak three languages.
To request (informal)
Can I help you?
To express a possibility
I may arrive a little later than I thought.
To request (polite)
May I help you?
To come into contact with someone/To be introduced to someone
I met my boyfriends parents for the first time yesterday
To arrange to see someone
I will meet you outside the restaurant at 10 p.m.
To be familiar with someone
Ive known Ben for ten years.
To understand a fact or truth
He knows a lot about the market in Poland.
can
may
meet
know
Dont waste your time indoors! Go outside!

waste
To fail to use something valuable in an effective way

Dont waste electricity! Turn the lights out!
To pay out
I spent all my savings on that new car.
To pass time
He spends all of his spare time at the animal shelter.
emigrate
To leave a country in order to settle permanently elsewhere
Carl emigrated from the UK in 2012. Now he lives in S
immigrate
To come to live/settle in a foreign country
My friend Anna immigrated to the UK in 2014. She lov
spend
Simple
[had + past participle]
The Past Perfect expresses the idea that something occurred before another
action in the past. It can also show that something happened before a specific
time in the past.
- You had visited London before you moved there.
- Had you visited London before you moved there?
- You had not visited London before you moved there.
The past perfect refers to a time earlier than a past action. It is used to make it
clear that one past event/action happened before another event/action in the past. It
does not matter which event is mentioned first in the structure on the sentence.
- I had never seen such blue skies before I visited Kenya.
- I couldnt hand in my essay because I had left it on the bus.
- Alex knew her way around Paris because she had visited the city many times
throughout her childhood.
- Had Polly ever studied German before she moved to Berlin?
- Sally had never eaten a curry before last night.

- We were not able to go to the festival because we had not booked in advance.
We also use the Past Perfect to show that something started in the past
and continued up until another action in the past.
- We had had that car for twenty years before she passed away.
- They felt bad about finally deciding to divorce because they had been together for
more than thirty years.
It is also used to explain or give a reason for something in the past.
- I'd slept for over twelve hours so I wasn't tired.
- It had snowed in the night, so school was cancelled.
Finally, it is used as part of the third conditional a past action (which cannot be
changed)
- If I had known you were coming to town, I would have asked you to my house for
dinner.
Continuous
[had been + present participle]
We use the past perfect continuous to show that something started in the past and
continued up until another time in the past. Note how similar this is to the present
perfect continuous tense. However, the duration does not continue until now, it
stops before something else happened in the past.
- They had been waiting for over an hour before Sheila arrived.
- Vesna had been working at the restaurant for three years when she got the sack.
- How long had he been waiting for the bus to come?
- Carl wanted to go to bed early because he had been running around all day.
- James had been teaching at the university for more than a year before he moved
to Istanbul.
Using the past perfect continuous before another action in the past is an excellent
way to show cause and effect.
- Martin was sleepy because he had been watching TV all evening.
- Mustapha became ill because he had been drinking too much alcohol.
- Betty failed her exams because she had not been going to all her classes.
STATE VERBS
It is important to remember that state verbs cannot be used in any continuous
tenses. Instead of using the past perfect continuous with these verbs, you must use
past perfect simple.
INCORRECT
- The castle had been belonging to the Royal family for years before the
government bought it.
CORRECT
- The castle had belonged to the Royal family for years before the government
bought it.
We use 'shall' (positive) and 'shan't' (negative) + infinitive as a modal verb to give additional meaning to an expression or questio
Shall can be used in a positive sentence in the first person (I or we). It

is used in the question form:
to make a suggestion:
- Shall we try that new French restaurant at the weekend?
- Shall we have poached salmon for dinner?
to ask someone for their opinion:
- What kind of outfit shall I buy for my sister's wedding? A trouser suit or a dress?
- Shall I phone him or wait for him to phone me?

to offer the speaker something (a service you wish to perform for them):
- Shall I meet you at the station or are you going to get a taxi?
- Shall I make you a packed lunch for your trip?
With other persons (he, she, it, you and they), we use shall in
the positive or negative:
to express an order:
- He shall not leave his room today!
- She shall go to the ball!
to make a promise:
- You shall receive the payment by the end of the month.
- They shan't pay for the meal. Everything is free here. PLEASE NOTE THE
SPELLING OF THE NEGATIVE FORM!
to give an order:
- He shall wait for me outside my office!
- Kim shan't ever set foot in this building again!
to threaten someone:
- They shall pay for what they did to my family!
- He shall come to regret that decision!
NOTE:
In the past, 'shall' was used as an alternative to 'will' with 'I' and 'we'. However, in
modern English, 'will' is normally used. When we do use 'shall' in place of will, it
has a more personal, subjective future feel.
- I shall go and see my MP and I shall ask him to explain this new legislation.
Dare can be used as a modal verb:

- it is followed by the infinitive without 'to',
- questions and negative structures are formed without 'to',
- there is no 's' in the third person singular of the simple present.
He dare not enter the room.
Dare she sing on a stage?
- in question tags, the modal 'dare' is repeated
You daren't go in, dare you?
As a modal verb dare has two forms:

dare for the present;
and dared for the past.

'Dare' means 'to have the courage to do something'. However, in negative sentences
it often means to lack the courage to do something.
- She dare not phone her father. (She hasnt got the courage.)
- Dare he tell her that he loves her? (Is he brave enough to tell her?)
The modal verb 'dare' is mostly used in interrogative and negative sentences.
The contracted negative is darent.
- She darent tell her husband that she is overdrawn in her bank account.
The verb 'dare' can be used both as a normal verb (taking the auxiliary 'do' in the
interrogative and negative forms, -s in the 3rd person singular and a to-infinitive)
and as a modal verb, without do, s, and to.
- How did he dare to speak to me like that? (normal verb)
- I did not dare to ask any questions during the presentation. (normal verb)
- How dare you interrupt me? (modal verb)
- We dare not ask for a pay rise. (modal verb)
Meanings:
To venture, to have the courage or impudence (like the modal auxiliary 'dare'). In
this sense it is used mainly in negative statements:
- She doesnt dare to answer his letter.
To challenge, to defy:
- I dare you to knock on the door and then hide!
Expressions with Dare
Note the following combinations with the verb 'dare'.

How dare you (he, she, etc.) do something = how can you (he, she, etc.) be so rude
and bold = I am very surprised and shocked by what you are doing.
- How dare he accuse me of stealing his coat!?
You dare! / Dont you dare! These expressions are used to discourage people
from doing things they shouldnt (often said, for example, by mothers to their
young children):
- Mummy, can I put the cat in the washing machine?
- Dont you dare!
I dare you to do something This expression is used (for example, by children) to
challenge each other to do frightening things.
- I dare you to jump over that wall.
I dare say I dare say' has almost the same meaning as 'probably', 'I expect', or 'I
suppose'.
- Itll be sunny tomorrow, I dare say.
English can be shaped to add emphasis in a number of different contexts

to give strong advice
to express opinions clearly
to disagree
to show concern
to entertain
Inversion
One of the most effective ways to make language more emphatic when using
English is by inverting the word order of a sentence:
- She had never seen such stunning architecture.
The sentence above consists of a relatively common word order. We have our
subject (She), followed by a negative verb form in the past (had never seen) and a
modified object (such stunning architecture).
Lets compare it with this sentence:
- Never had she seen such stunning architecture!
The word order of the second sentence has clearly changed.
Never is a Negative Adverbial. It has been taken away from the sentences main
verb phrase and inserted at the beginning. Additionally, the past auxiliary had is
placed in front of the subject, she.
Negative Adverbial Expression + Auxiliary or Modal Verb + Subject + Main Verb + Object
- Never had we had to wait so long to see a doctor!

- Rarely will I go a week without eating meat.
Other Negative Adverbials include: rarely, not since, hardly, never before, not
until, little, at no time etc.
Active voice
The active voice (where the subject performs the action) is more forceful than the
passive voice, so it is an excellent way to get someones attention. This is
particularly effective if you wish to come across as being authoritative.
- The computer was broken by Matt. (passive voice)
- Matt broke the computer. (active voice)
Repetition
Repeating words (adjectives and adverbs, usually) within a sentence helps to draw
someones attention to it. You can also use synonyms to reinforce a thought or idea.
- The pool was very, very cold.
- It was a massively large building.
Very Short Sentences

Using a pared-down sentence will always grab someones attention and leave little
room for discussion. Its best used after a relatively long sentence.
- Am I going to spend all the money I saved for Christmas on a weekend in
Vegas? I am.
- After the strikes, the manager took the decision to sack everyone who worked on
the second floor. He was right.
Interrogative or Exclamatory Sentences

This is an informal way of getting someone to pay attention. This is not
recommended in formal contexts.
- The profits should not be transferred directly to the shareholders!
- What the heck were you thinking when you bought that car?
djective + noun
We often use specific adjectives with particular nouns.

For example, we can describe rain as light or heavy but we can't say strong
rain or weak rain.
The following is a list of some common adjective + noun collocations.
ADJECTIVE
NOUN
Light
clothes, colour, drinker, meal, punishment
Heavy
burden, casualties, demands, drinker, indu

traffic, work
Weak
argument, coffee, currency, joke, point, ru
Strong
accent, argument, case, coffee, feelings, in

swimmer, taste, wind
Faint
chance, hope, possibility, smell
Little/great
difficulty, interest, pleasure, success, time
Good/bad
behaviour, habit, luck, news, person, time
Poor
health, memory, performance, relation
- Harry's very strong so heavy work doesn't bother him at all.

- The politician presented a strong argument but failed to win all the votes.
- You'd be crazy to take your car, the traffic's really heavy today!
Combinations from other languages do not often translate directly. Always make
sure you check in a dictionary. Don't translate directly!
Verb + noun
There are many verb + noun collocations that we use to describe particular actions.
For example, we take a bath, tell a story,make a mistake.
In many cases the meaning of the verb does not change, but in some cases it has
a new meaning:
miss the point (= not understand an argument)
miss a bus/train, etc. (= arrive too late to catch it)
pass an exam (= receive a successful result after taking an exam)
pass a law (= adopt a new law)
run a business (= manage a business)

run a bath (= fill a bath with water)
We make most of these combinations with the verbs make, do, have, run and take.
Verb + noun + preposition
Certain verbs can be combined with a noun and a preposition:

have
keep
make
run
take
faith in
account of
a success of
rings round
account of
confidence in
an eye on
the most of
the risk of
a dislike to
trust in
track of
a fool of
pity on
pleasure in
the form of
- If you wait any longer, you'll run the risk of missing your plane.
- Make sure you keep an eye on Fiona - I don't trust her one bit.
- The company lets me make all the purchasing decisions, they have faith in my
judgement.
Collocations with make and do

Here are some common collocations with make and do.
MAKE
FOOD
make breakfast/lunch/dinner
- Im making dinner it's veggie lasagne.
make a sandwich
- I haven't had time to make you a sandwich, so here's five pounds to buy one at
lunchtime.
make a cup of tea
- Would you like me to make you a cup of tea?
RESERVATIONS
make a reservation
- Ive made a reservation for 7:30 for the President of the Board and the Treasurer.
MONEY
make money
- I don't make as much money as my wife.
make a profit
- The department made a profit of 207 milion dollars last year.
make a fortune
- He has made a fortune with his latest invention.
RELATIONSHIPS
make friends
- Its hard to make friends in London. It's such a big place.
make fun of someone (= tease / mock someone)
- The other kids made fun of Harry when he was at school.
make up (= resolve a problem in a relationship)
- Karen and Patrick made up after the big fight they had last night.
COMMUNICATION
make a phone call

- Please excuse me I need to make an urgent phone call.
make a joke
- He made a joke in his presentation, but nobody laughed.
make a point
- Daniel made some good points during the presentation.
make a bet
- I made a bet with Jim to see who could could sell the most products.
make a complaint
- We made a complaint to them about their terrible service, but we still havent
heard back from them.
make a confession
- I need to make a confession: I was the one who ate the last piece of cake.
make a speech
- The company president made a speech about expectations for next year.
make a suggestion
- Can I make a suggestion? I think you should go for that job!
make a prediction
- Its difficult to make any predictions about the world's economy.
make an excuse
- When I asked him if hed finished the work, he started making excuses.
make a promise
- I made a promise to help out in the charity shop.

(you can also say, I promised to help out in the charity shop whenever they need
it.)
make a fuss (= demonstrate annoyance or too much concern)
- Stop making a fuss! We'll tidy everything up later!
make an observation
- Id like to make an observation about our business model. I'm not too happy with
it.
make a comment
- My lecturer made a few critical comments on my thesis.
N.B. Dont say 'make a question'. The correct phrase is 'ask a question'.
PLANS & PROGRESS
make plans
- Were making plans to move house next year.
make a decision/choice
- Ive made my decision Im not going to apply for the position.
make a mistake
- You made a few mistakes in your calculations could you check them again,
please?
make progress
- My students are making good progress. I'm very happy!
make an attempt / effort (= try)
- Im making an effort to lose a few kilograms this year.
make up your mind (= decide)

- Should I buy a German or a Japanese car? I cant make up my mind.
make a discovery
- Researchers have made an important discovery in the area of sociology.
make a list
- Im making a list of everything we need for the conference.
make sure (= confirm)
- Can you make sure we have enough copies of the report for everyone at the
meeting?
make a difference
- Drinking six glasses of water makes a big difference to my day. I have more
energy!
make an exception
- Normally the bank manager won't accept late payments, but she made an
exception this month.
Basic Difference between DO and MAKE
Use DO for actions, obligations, and repetitive tasks.

Use MAKE for creating or producing something, and for
actions you choose to do.
DO generally refers to the action itself, and MAKE usually
refers to the result. For example, if you make breakfast,
the result is an omelet! If you make a suggestion, you have
created a recommendation.
Common English Collocations with DO
HOUSEWORK
do the housework
After I got home from the office, I was too tired to do the
housework.
do the laundry
I really need to do the laundry I dont have any clean
clothes left!
do the dishes
Ill make dinner if you do the dishes afterwards.
(you can also say wash the dishes)
do the shopping
I went to the bank, did some shopping, and mailed a
package at the post office.
EXCEPTION: make the bed = putting blankets, sheets, and pillows
in the correct place so that the bed looks nice and not
messy.WORK / STUDY
do work
I cant go out this weekend I have to do some work on an
extra project.
do homework
You cant watch any TV until youve done your homework.
do business
We do business with clients in fifteen countries.
do a good/great/terrible job
She did a good job organizing the party.
(in this expression, job doesnt necessarily refer to work. It
simply means the person did something well)
do a report
Im doing a report on the history of American foreign policy.
(you can also say writing a report)
do a course
Were doing a course at the local university.
(you can also say taking a course)
TAKING CARE OF YOUR BODY
do exercise
I do at least half an hour of exercise every day.
do your hair (= style your hair)
Ill be ready to go in 15 minutes I just need to do my hair.
do your nails (= paint your nails)
Can you open this envelope for me? I just did my nails and
theyre still wet.
GENERAL GOOD OR BAD ACTIONS
do anything / something / everything / nothing
Are you doing anything special for your birthday?
You cant do everything by yourself let me help you.
do well
I think I did pretty well in the interview.
do badly
Everyone did badly on the test the highest grade was 68.
do good
The non-profit organization has done a lot of good in the
community.
do the right thing
When I found someones wallet on the sidewalk, I turned it in
to the police because I wanted to do the right thing.
do your best
Dont worry about getting everything perfect just do your
best.
Common English Collocations with MAKE
FOOD
Im making dinner itll be ready in about ten minutes.
make a sandwich
Could you make me a turkey sandwich?
make a salad
I made a salad for the family picnic.
make a cup of tea
Would you like me to make you a cup of tea?
make a reservation
Ive made a reservation for 7:30 at our favorite restaurant.
MONEY
make money
I enjoy my job, but I dont make very much money.
make a profit
The new company made a profit within its first year.
make a fortune
He made a fortune after his book hit #1 on the bestseller list.
make $_______
I made $250 selling my old CDs on the internet.
RELATIONSHIPS
make friends
Its hard to make friends when you move to a big city.
make love (= have sex)
The newlyweds made love on the beach during their
honeymoon.
make a pass at (= flirt with someone)
My best friends brother made a pass at me he asked if I
was single and tried to get my phone number.
The other kids made fun of Jimmy when he got glasses,
calling him four eyes.
Karen and Jennifer made up after the big fight they had last
week.
COMMUNICATION
make a phone call
Please excuse me I need to make a phone call.
make a joke
He made a joke, but it wasnt very funny and no one
laughed.
make a point
Dana made some good points during the meeting; I think we
should consider her ideas.
make a bet
I made a bet with Peter to see who could do more push-ups.
make a complaint
We made a complaint with our internet provider about their
terrible service, but we still havent heard back from them.
make a confession
I need to make a confession: I was the one who ate the last
piece of cake.
make a speech
The company president made a speech about ethics in the
workplace.
make a suggestion
Can I make a suggestion? I think you should cut your hair
shorter itd look great on you!
make a prediction
Its difficult to make any predictions about the future of the
economy.
make an excuse
When I asked him if hed finished the work, he started
making excuses about how he was too busy.
make a promise
I made a promise to help her whenever she needs it.
(you can also say, I promised to help her whenever she
needs it.)
make a fuss (= demonstrate annoyance)

Stop making a fuss hes only late a couple minutes. Im
sure hell be here soon.
make an observation
Id like to make an observation about our business plan its
not set in stone, so we can be flexible.
make a comment
The teacher made a few critical comments on my essay.
EXCEPTION: Dont say make a question. The correct phrase is
ask a question.PLANS & PROGRESS
make plans
Were making plans to travel to Australia next year.
Ive made my decision Im going to go to New York
University, not Boston University.
make a mistake
You made a few mistakes in your calculations the correct
total is $5430, not $4530.
make progress
My students are making good progress. Their spoken English
is improving a lot.
Im making an effort to stop smoking this year.
Should I buy a desktop or a laptop computer? I cant make
up my mind.
make a discovery
Scientists have made an important discovery in the area of
genetics.
make a list
Im making a list of everything we need for the wedding:
invitations, decorations, a cake, a band, the dress

Can you make sure we have enough copies of the report for
everybody at the meeting?
make a difference
Getting eight hours of sleep makes a big difference in my
day. I have more energy!
make an exception
Normally the teacher doesnt accept late homework, but she
made an exception for me because my backpack was stolen
with my homework inside it.
- See more at: http://www.espressoenglish.net/difference-betweendo-and-make-60-collocations/#sthash.1cIk2Sg2.dpuf

HOUSEWORK
do the housework
housework.
do the laundry
clothes left!
do the dishes
do the shopping
messy.WORK / STUDY
do work
extra project.
do homework
do business
do a report
do a course
do exercise
theyre still wet.

do well
do badly
do good
community.
do the right thing
do your best
best.
FOOD
make a sandwich
make a salad
make a cup of tea
make a reservation
MONEY
make money
make a profit
make a fortune
make $_______
RELATIONSHIPS
make friends
honeymoon.
week.
COMMUNICATION
make a phone call
make a joke
laughed.
make a point
make a bet
make a complaint
make a confession
piece of cake.
make a speech
workplace.
make a suggestion
make a prediction
economy.
make an excuse
make a promise
needs it.)
make an observation
make a comment

make plans
make a mistake
total is $5430, not $4530.
make progress
is improving a lot.
up my mind.
make a discovery
genetics.
make a list
make a difference
make an exception


HOUSEWORK
do the housework
housework.
do the laundry
clothes left!
do the dishes
do the shopping
messy.WORK / STUDY
do work
extra project.
do homework
do business
do a report
do a course
do exercise
theyre still wet.
do well
do badly
do good
community.
do the right thing
do your best
best.
FOOD
make a sandwich
make a salad
make a cup of tea
make a reservation
MONEY
make money
make a profit
make a fortune
make $_______
RELATIONSHIPS
make friends
honeymoon.
week.
COMMUNICATION
make a phone call
make a joke
laughed.
make a point
make a bet
make a complaint
make a confession
piece of cake.
make a speech
workplace.
make a suggestion
make a prediction
economy.
make an excuse
make a promise
needs it.)
make an observation
make a comment
make plans
make a mistake
total is $5430, not $4530.
make progress
is improving a lot.
up my mind.
make a discovery
genetics.
make a list
make a difference
make an exception
DO
HOUSEWORK
do the housework
- I don't have time to do the housework.

do the laundry
- Could you do the laundry this weekend, please? I dont have any clean clothes
left!
do the dishes
- Ill make lunch if you promise to do the dishes afterwards (you can also say 'wash
the dishes' or 'clean the dishes').
do the shopping
- I went to the hairdressers, did some shopping, and mailed a package at the post
office.
WORK / STUDY
do work
- I'll be home late I have to do some work in the office.
do homework
- You cant play video games until youve done your homework.
do business
- We do business with clients across the globe.
- She did a good job with the presentation (in this expression, 'job' doesnt
necessarily refer to work. It simply means the person did a particular action well).
do a report
- Im doing a report on the financial year (you can also say 'writing a report').
do a course
- Were doing an online course on global marketing (you can also say 'taking a
course')
do exercise
- I do around an hour of exercise every morning.
- It only takes me five minutes to do my hair in the morning.
- Can you open this drawer for me? I just did my nails and theyre still wet.
- Are you doing anything special for your anniversary?
- You cant do everything by yourself someone needs to help you.
do well
- I think she did pretty well in the interview.
do badly
- Everyone did badly in the exam. The results were embarrassing.
do good
- The company has done a lot of good in the local community.
do the right thing
- When I found someones bag on the train, I handed it in. I wanted to do the right
thing.
do your best
- Dont get nervous just do your best.
TAKE and HAVE

HAVE:
TAKE:
a good time, fun, a laugh, a party
care (of)
a talk, a chat, a conversation, a word with
a decision
a baby (give birth)
cover
a problem, difficulty in, trouble
notes
a relationship
a taxi, a cab, a train
an excuse
a look
a grudge against someone
an exam
work
a photo, a picture
a (nervous) breakdown
a risk
a headache, toothache...
an interest in
Please note:
The above lists and tables are not an exhaustive list. Every time you hear a new
collocation, make sure you memorise the whole phrase!
Making reference in continuous text

A key feature of continuous text is the use of reference words to bind sentences
together:
- Guest speaker Professor James Perkin gave the lecture this morning. Professor
James Perkins theme was Balkan history from 1858 to 1945.
Better alternatives are:
./ ... Perkins theme was Balkan history from 1858 to 1945.
./ ... His theme was Balkan history from 1858 to 1945.
./ ... The professors theme was Balkan history from 1858 to 1945.
In some cases we can omit the repeated information.
- Guest speaker Professor James Perkin gave the lecture this morning: Balkan
history from 1858 to 1945.
It is very common in written and spoken English to use different ways of referring
to the same noun in texts; it avoids repetition and provides variety.
We can use synonyms (words with similar meaning) or longer/shorter/more general
forms of the noun:
- Officers Bob Doyle and Patty Trent arrived at the scene. The officers could not
believe the sight in front of them. It was a total nightmare. This was the first
time Trent had attended a motorway accident and the policewoman found the
whole experience more than disturbing. Her colleague, however, had done this a
few times too many ...
Most references in a text refer back to a previously mentioned item:
- The Art Centres new life-like blue whale will surely make it a more enjoyable
place for kids to visit.
Replacing a noun or noun phrase

SUBSTITUTIONS
A personal pronoun
- Alan came into the hotel foyer. He was wearing a blue silk suit.
Adjective/demonstrative + one/ones
- Ian Kilburn appeared in numerous films but practically no great ones.
Demonstrative pronouns
- When faced with possibilities, one has to ask: 'Do I find this one or that one more
exciting?
- It is possible to respect both your own opinions and those of other people.
Quantifiers, e.g. some, all, each, none, either, neither, both, a few
- The boys went out and some did not return until the morning.
- The nurse suggested I should try aspirin or paracetamol, but neither worked.
We don't use a substitution word for uncountable nouns; instead, we omit
repeating the noun:
- I like flat water, but my boyfriend prefers sparkling.
- The cold air indoors has now been replaced by warm.
Replacing a verb phrase

If we do not want to repeat a verb, we either substitute the main verb with a form of
'do' or we omit the main verb and repeat the auxiliary verb only.
- I didnt like the film, but my sister did (like the film).
- Do you like reading? Yes, I do.
Note that we use substitution for verbs in the simple present or simple past.
For other tenses or modals, we again omit the main verb (shown within brackets).
- I dont want to go running but I really should (go running).
- Have you ever been to New York? Yes, I have (been to New York).
- John has eaten crocodile meat, but I haven't (eaten crocodile meat).
We can also use so/neither + do/does/did + subject:
- Katharine really enjoys living in Bradford, and so does her husband.
- My boyfriend doesn't like football, and neither do I.
Compound nouns
With compound nouns the first word usually 'classifies' the second word. This
means it describes it or tells us its purpose:
- a racehorse (= a horse bred for and used in competitive races)
- a horse-race (= a type of race, using horses and riders)
- wasteland (= land that has no use)
- a music magazine (= a magazine about music)
The first word is usually singular:
- a bookmaker
- a car park
Compound nouns are formed in several ways:
Noun + noun
policeman, watermelon, bathroom, database
Noun + verb form
rainfall, haircut, train-spotter
Verb + noun
cookbook, driving licence, swimming pool
Adjective + noun
greenhouse, redhead, mobile phone
Preposition/adverb + verb/noun
dry-cleaning, public speaking, bystander
Verb + preposition/adverb
take-off, lookout, drawback
Please note:
The main stress is usually on the first part of the compound noun:
- Alexandra is an English teacher - (compound noun = She teaches English)
Compound adjectives
Many compound adjectives are formed by adding an '-ed' or '-ing' participle to

an adverb, adjective or noun:
- The acrobat made a death-defying leap over the trapeze.
- He's very short-tempered.
Here are more possibilities:
Adjective + noun
High-status, low-maintenance, full-time, f
Noun + adjective
User-friendly, air-conditioned, tax-free, tr
Verb + preposition/adverb
Built-in, drive-through, built-up, slowed-d
Self + verb/adjective/noun
Self-talk, self-conscious, self-confident, se
*We often make compound nouns with self
- He's a well-known doctor and the author of a best-selling self-help book

We often use compound adjectives to describe time, quantity and measurement:
- a two-week holiday
- a three-hour delay
- a ten-minute wait
- a six-year-old child
The noun is usually singular:
- a ten-mile journey
Compound adjectives formed with participles can often replace relative clauses:
- The effect of the new drug laws is frequently ignored.
- The effect of the new drug laws in cycling is a frequently-ignored issue.
Make and Do
Make has a number of uses:
- Aunt Alice is going to make all the cakes for the party. (= create)
- Roquefort cheese is made in France. (= is produced)
- Our company makes a lot of its products in Sri Lanka. (= manufactures)
- The spare bedroom will make a wonderful gym for my husband. (= become)
- This tea makes me feel very relaxed. (= causes me to be)
- The customs officer made me empty my bag. (= force or command)
- He makes a lot of money on in his job. (= earn)
- I can't make it on Friday Im afraid. (keep an appointment)
Do also has a number of uses:
We often use do to describe an activity or to mean 'carry out/complete a task'.
- What are we going to do for New Years Eve? (= take part in an activity)
- You can go out after you've done your chores. (= you've completed)
- There isn't much left in the fridge as I haven't done the shopping yet.
- We do the accounts at the end of every month.
- Do your best. (= try)
Bring, Take, Fetch

Bring and take have opposite meanings.
Bring - to take someone or something with you to the place you are now, to your
home, or to the place/ event you have been talking about.
- I've brought the papers you said you wanted.
- When are you going to bring your new friend to meet us? (to our house)
Take - to move someone or something away from the place you are now, away
from your home or away from the place/event you have been talking about.
- I can't find the car keys - Johnny must have taken them when he left this morning.
- When are you taking me to meet your parents? (away from here to their home)
The choice of verb depends on the situation/place where the speaker is.
- Are you taking your bikini? (asked at home, before you leave to go on holiday)
- Have you brought your bikini? (asked on your holiday)
Fetch - to collect someone or something from another place and bring it to the
place you are now, to your home or to the place you are talking about. (Note: We
don't use bring with this meaning of 'collecting'.)
- Could you fetch the kids from school tomorrow? (= go to the school and bring
them home)
Speak and Talk

Speak and talk both have very similar meanings and are often equally appropriate.
- I'm going to talk/speak to my boss about a pay rise.

We usually use speak, not talk, for formal speeches.
- Before the election the Queen spoke to the nation on television.
We use speak, not talk, to refer to languages.
- Emma speaks perfect French.
We use talk for long conversations.
- We were talking all night!
There are a number of expressions with speak and talk.
- Could you speak up, please? (= talk louder)
- I'd like to talk about our business model. (= explain/discuss)
- You're talking nonsense. (I strongly disagree with what you are saying.)
Lay and Lie, Raise and Rise

Infinitive
Past Tense
Past Participle
Present Participle
Lay (action)
Laid
Laid
Laying
Lie (state)
Lay
Lain
Lying
Lie (not tell the truth)
Lied
Lied
Lying
Raise
Raised
Raised
Raising
Rise
Rose
Risen
Rising
Arise
arose
arisen
Arising
Lay expresses an action.

Lie describes a state or position.
- First, lay all the bits and pieces on a clean work-surface. (action = place them
flat on something)
- I think I'll just lie in bed on Sunday morning. (= state/position)
- We've been laying artificial grass in front of the hotel and it looks great.
- We found these old banknotes lying in the cupboard.
- That man lies all the time. (= says things which are not true)
Raise refers to the action of someone or something lifting, increasing or moving
something else (i.e. an object) in an upward direction.
Rise only refers to the movement itself.
- The government is thinking of raising local tax rates to match those in other
European Union states. (= to put up the tax rate)
- Rates are predicted to rise by ten percent. (= to go up)
Rob and Steal

Rob refers to the person or place that suffers the crime.
Steal refers to what is taken.
- Thieves stole my handbag.
- Thieves robbed my husband.
- A gang robbed our factory.
- They stole my car.
Other commonly confused verbs:

borrow
To take/receive a loan
Can I borrow some money from you?
lend
To give a loan
I will lend you 100 pounds.
To show ability
I can speak three languages.
To request (informal)
Can I help you?
To express a possibility
I may arrive a little later than I thoug
To request (polite)
May I help you?
To come into contact with someone/To be introduced to someone
I met my boyfriends parents for the fi
To arrange to see someone
I will meet you outside the restaurant
To be familiar with someone
Ive known Ben for ten years.
To understand a fact or truth
He knows a lot about the market in P
can
may
meet
know
Dont waste your time indoors! Go ou

waste
To fail to use something valuable in an effective way
Dont waste electricity! Turn the light

To pay out
I spent all my savings on that new car
To pass time
He spends all of his spare time at the
emigrate
To leave a country in order to settle permanently elsewhere
Carl emigrated from the UK in 2012.
immigrate
To come to live/settle in a foreign country
My friend Anna immigrated to the UK
spend
Gradable adjectives represent a point on a scale.

For example, cheap and expensive are adjectives on the scale of 'cost.
Ungradable adjectives represent the limits of a scale.

For example, the limits on the cost scale are:
- free (= the cost is nothing)
- priceless (= the cost is too great to count)
Most English adjectives are gradable. We can make comparative and
superlative forms from all gradable adjectives.
However, we don't usually make comparisons with ungradable adjectives,
although there are some patterns we use in spoken English:
- That was the most gorgeous dress you had on at the party!
- Versailles is even more enormous than Buckingham Palace!
Some adjectives can have both gradable and ungradable meanings it depends on
whether the speaker is describing an absolute quality or one whichis relative
to something else:
- I'm afraid there are no vacancies - the campsite is full. (= ungradable =
completely full)
- The campsite's very full but I think I can get you a pitch for tonight. (= gradable =
has many campers but there is still some space available)
Other adjectives like this include: empty, beautiful, black, delicious, new, possible.
Intensifying gradable adjectives

We can make gradable adjectives stronger with the adverb very, but NOT with
the adverb absolutely
My new car was absolutely expensive - INCORRECT
My new car looks very expensive, but it was a bargain - CORRECT
There are other words we use to strengthen the meaning of these adjectives:
- extremely
- most (formal)
- rather
- really
- so
- terribly
- The latest Scorcese film was terribly exciting.
- I felt pretty upset after my exam results came through. (informal)
- My French lessons with Mr Robertson were most instructive. (formal)
We use rather with negative adjectives or when describing something unexpected:
- There was a rather unpleasant smell coming from the cellar.
- Surprisingly, the play was rather good.
We often use less common adverbs to intensify certain gradable adjectives:
- I was bitterly disappointed at my exam results.
- My boss is painfully shy. I dont know how he got the job!
- The guys in the IT department are highly intelligent.
Weakening gradable adjectives

Gradable adjectives can usually be made weaker with fairly, slightly, a (little)
bit (informal) and somewhat (formal):
- I've been feeling slightly sick since I ate those prawns.
- My boyfriend was a bit upset when his rabbit died. (informal)
- The salesman was somewhat aggressive. I didnt like his tone. (formal)
We can use not very and not at all to weaken gradable adjectives after the verb
to be:
- I passed my driving test yesterday! It wasn't at all difficult!
With gradable adjectives, quite usually means 'fairly' but can have other
meanings, depending on stress and intonation:
- The book was quite interesting. (fairly interesting)
- The book was quite interesting. (more interesting than the speaker expected)
- The book was quite interesting. (less interesting than the speaker expected)
Intensifying ungradable adjectives

A common way to intensify the meaning of ungradable adjectives is with the
adverb absolutely. We often use this device to add emphasis ininformal English:
- I couldn't even step into the pool; the water was absolutely freezing.
- The Eurovision Song Contest was absolutely fabulous this year!
We do not usually use very with ungradable adjectives:
- This years company picnic is very free - INCORRECT
- This years company picnic is absolutely free - CORRECT
When we use quite with ungradable adjectives, it has a similar meaning to
'completely', emphasising the strength of the adjective.
- The financial results for the first quarter were quite amazing.
- You're quite wrong about that, I can assure you!
We can also use most before an ungradable adjective + noun:
- James has the most amazing yacht.
Although we use absolutely with many ungradable adjectives, there are some
adjectives where we prefer to use other intensifying adverbs such as completely,
totally and utterly.
There are no grammar rules which explain these combinations so it is best to learn
them as vocabulary items:
- I'm afraid your calculations are completely wrong.
- Hes 94 years old now and totally deaf in both ears.
- Katharine was utterly appalled by her husband's dishonesty.
Weakening ungradable adjectives (almost, nearly, etc.)

We use almost, nearly, practically or virtually to indicate a point close to the
absolute meaning of ungradable adjectives:
- The boiler has broken again - it's practically freezing in here.
- The battery in my car is almost dead. I have to jump-start it every morning.
- My little dog is 15 years old. Hes nearly deaf and virtually blind.
We do not usually use the modifiers fairly, slightly, a (little) bit, somewhat
or not very with
ungradable adjectives:
- Their antiques collection is fairly priceless - INCORRECT
Impersonal pronouns: you, we, they, one
When we wish to express general feelings and opinions (i.e. of

people in general), we can use impersonal pronouns you, we,
one or they:
- One can wear whatever one likes to go to the theatre these

days.
- You never know!
- You bet!
If we wish to include ourselves, it is better to use we:
- We can wear whatever we like to go to the theatre these days.
If we wish to exclude ourselves, it is better to use they:

- They behave really badly in nightclubs these days.
If we wish to refer to people in authority, we can also use they:
- Did you know they've put the local taxes up again?
If we do not know a person's gender, or do not wish to specify it, we use they:
- Someone called you from the company's headquarters this
afternoon - Oh, did they leave their name?
In written English, we can make the subject plural or use ' his or her':
- A manager should always make decisions according to the best

of his or her knowledge.
- Managers should always make decisions according to the best
of their knowledge.
Although we usually use we or you, we can use one in formal language to mean
'people in general', including ourselves. Please note that this is not very commonly
used and remains particularly formal:
- One can certainly sympathise with the sentiments behind the strike.
We can use one as a subject or object pronoun, and oneself as a reflexive pronoun:
- One tends to learn to fend for oneself following a divorce or
break-up.
Indefinite pronouns: someone, anything, etc.

We use some--- compounds when we are thinking of a particular, but unspecified,
person, place or thing.
We use any--- compounds when we are thinking of people, places or things in
general.
- There's something I would really like for Christmas. (= a particular present)
- You need someone to witness your signing the wedding certificate. Anyone will
do. (= any person is suitable)
We use any + one/thing/where to mean 'it doesn't matter who/what/where'.
- Sign anywhere at the bottom of the page
If we use these pronouns and adverbs as subjects, they take a singular verb.
- Everything is going smoothly and the company expects to launch this new range
in November.
We can use indefinite pronouns with adjectives, or with 'else', or with a 'to' clause:
- Tony decided to do something about all the debt he was in.
- Something else you become aware of when you stay in Paris is how light it is at
night.
- We need somewhere cheap to eat out tonight.
It is possible to quote words directly in speech if we want to focus on the exact

words spoken:
- Did she really say I love you?
However, speech is normally reported indirectly, as we do not have punctuation to
clearly signal the words spoken:
- Did she really say that she loved you?
Common reporting verbs

There are several common verbs we can use to report speech:
verb + object +
infinitive
- advise
- encourage
- invite
- remind
- warn
verb + infinitive verb + (that)
- agree
- decide
- offer
- promise
- refuse
- threaten
- admit
- agree
- decide
- deny
- explain
- insist
- promise
- recommend
- suggest
- Helen encouraged - She offered to - Tom admitted

me to go for tennis help him with (that) he hadnt
lessons.
his homework. finished the
verb + gerund
verb + object +
verb + preposition
preposition +
+ gerund
gerund
- deny
- recommend
- suggest
- accuse
- blame
- congratulate
- He denied
having sent the
email to the
- They accused - She apologised

her of
for beingso rude.
cheating on the
- apologise
- insist
report.
- They invited me
to their wedding.
- Gary refused - We agreed

to pay the bill. (that) we needed
to meet again
next Tuesday.
reporter.
- Barry suggested
taking the ferry
rather than the
plane.
test.
- She blamed
me for us
being late.
- She insisted on
helping us with
the gardening.
Please note that when we are reporting more than one sentence, it is not necessary
to repeat the reporting verb:
- Gordon insisted that he hadnt been to the bar. Hed had a meeting, and then
gone straight to his hotel room.
We can also report our thoughts using verbs such as:
- think
- decide
- dream
- imagine
- My sister imagined that it would be so easy to learn French!
Negatives
When we report a negative statement we usually make the main verb negative:
- She said that he didnt eat all the birthday cake.
But with certain verbs the reporting verb becomes negative:
- think
- expect
- plan
- intend
- I didn't expect her to be so impolite.
No backshift
Although we often change the tense of the original words in reported speech
(backshift), we do not when the reporting verb is in a present tense.
- He says that these fish do not survive in salt water.
or when the reported verb is in the past perfect:
- They'd arrived an hour early. - I said they'd arrived an hour early.
or when the direct speech includes an 'unreal' past
- I wish I were richer. He said that he wished he were richer.
Obligatory backshift
We always change the tense if we no longer believe the direct speech statement is
true:
- He said hes going to call, but I dont think hell have the time. (He might call,
despite my doubts)
- He said he was going to call, but I dont think hell have the time. (I don't believe
he will call)
- Amy said she's going on holiday. (the speaker believes that Amy's holiday plans
are still true)
- Amy said she was going on holiday, but she can't get the time off work. (the
speaker thinks Amy's holiday plans are no longer valid)
Optional backshift
In some cases we can choose to change the tense or not. This often depends on the
relationship of the reported event to the time of reporting it.
For example, Jim says:

- I'm going to Glasgow tomorrow morning
On the day it is said, we are likely to say:
- Jim said he's going to Glasgow tomorrow morning.
But reported a few days later, we are more likely to say:
- Jim said he was going to Glasgow the next morning.
We don't usually change the tense when:
a) the reported action is still happening or going to happen:
- "I am working on a solution to our financial problems." He said he is
working on a solution to our financial problems. (still working on it)
b) the reported verb expresses a fact or situation that cannot or is unlikely to
change:
- The guide told us that dinosaurs roamed the earth thousands of years ago! How
stupid!
- He told us that this new IT system is not the answer for every business.
c) the verb comes after a time conjunction, e.g. when, after:
- Martin explained that he had started smoking immediately after he got his first
job.
Note that in all of these cases, it is also possible, and correct, to change the tense:
- He said he was working on a solution to our financial problems.
- Martin explained that he had started smoking immediately after he had got his
first job.
Changes and additions with adverbs
If the place or time of reporting is significantly different from that in the original
speech, we often need to make changes to adverbs of place and time:
- Bob said, I'll meet you here again tomorrow at midday.
- Bob said he would meet me there again the next day at midday.
But if the statement is reported on the same day and in the same place, we would
say:
- Bob said he will/would meet me here again tomorrow at midday.
We often use adverbs in reported speech to indicate HOW the original words were
spoken:
- Jeans are not allowed! - The bouncer told us very sharply that jeans were not
allowed.
Modal verbs
Ought to, used to, could, might, would, need and should DO NOT
CHANGE in reported speech:
- We ought to listen to the management team. > Gary told me that we ought
to listen to the management team
- You needn't stay if you don't want to. > My boss said I needn't stay if I didn't
want to.
But we MUST make changes to other modal verbs - will, may, can:
- The new wall between the offices will be in place soon. > She said the new wall
between the offices would be in place soon.
- The letter may be delayed in the post. > The bank manager said that
letter might be delayed in the post.
- Julian can't have failed his exam. > I told them Julian couldn't have failed his
exam because Id seen him celebrating.
Shall becomes would when it refers to the future, but should when it is a
suggestion:
- I shall invite them to the party. > I decided I would invite them to the party.
- Shall we tell the papers? > She suggested that they should tell the papers
We can use both must and had to in reported speech:
- You must go and see a specialist!> The doctor said that I must/had to go and
see a specialist.
Reporting with nouns

As well as reporting speech with a reporting verb, we can use a noun + that to
report someone's words when we want to add more information:
- The economic crisis will soon come to an end.
- The Prime Minister's statement that the crisis would soon come to an end was
not believed by most people.
- You should download that new application. It's excellent.
- What did you think of his recommendation that I download that new application?
Suffixes
Suffixes are word endings that add a certain meaning to the 'stem' of the word.
There are two ways in which a suffix can make a new word:
Inflectional (grammatical): changing singular to plural (child > children), or
changing present tense to past tense (walk > walked). In this case, the basic
meaning of the word does not change.
Derivational (a new word "derived" from the original word): wait > waiter or
happy > happiness
Inflectional suffixes
The meaning of the original word is not changed with inflectional suffixes.
Example:
I work in Paris.
Last year I worked in London.
Above, the words work and worked essentially mean the same thing.
Here is a second example.
He has 1 child.
He has 2 children.
In both these examples, the suffixes ed and ren are added for the purposes of
grammatical correctness.
Suffix
Grammatical change
Original word
-s
plural
cigarette
-en
plural (irregular)
ox
-s
3rd person singular present
like
-ed
past tense
past participle
live
-en
past participle (irregular)
beat
present participle
drink
-er
comparative
thick
-est
superlative
small
-ing
Derivational suffixes
With derivational suffixes, the new word has a new meaning, and is more often
than not a different part of speech.
Please note that it is also possible to add more than one suffix to a stem:
recreate (verb) + tion = recreation (noun) + al = recreational (adjective)
Here is a list of common suffixes:
Suffix
Original word
Suffixed w
-ation
explore
hesitate
exploratio
hesitation
-sion
persuade
divide
persuasion
division
-er
teach
teacher
-cian
music
musician
god (masculine)
goddess (f
-ness
sad
sadness
-al
arrive
arrival
-ary
diction
dictionary
-ment
treat
treatment
-y
jealous
victor
jealousy
victory
-al
accident
accidental
-ary
imagine
imaginary
-able
tax
taxable
brother
brotherly
-y
ease
easy
-ful
sorrow
forget
sorrowful
forgetful
helpful
helpfully
-ess
-ly
-ly
Part of speech
nouns
adjectives
adverbs
-ize/-ise
verbs
-ate
terror
private
terrorize/te
privatize/p
hyphen
hyphenate
Prefixes
A prefix goes at the beginning of a word to change its meaning. Here are some
examples. Please note that this list is not exhaustive and you may need to do some
research of your own, using a good dictionary.
Prefix
Meaning
Examples
a-
not, without
atheist, anaemic
to, towards
aside, aback
in the process of, in a particular state
a-hunting, aglow
of
anew
completely
abashed, awash
also an-
a-
a-
ab-
also abs-
away, from
abdicate, abstract
ad-
also a-, ac-, af-, ag- al-, an-, ap-, at- as-, at-
movement to, change into, addition or increase
adjunct, ascend, affirm, ann
ante-
before, preceding
antecedent, ante-room
anti- also ant-
opposing, against, the opposite
anti-aircraft, antibiotic, anti
all over, all around
bespatter, beset
completely
bewitch, bemuse
having, covered with
bejewelled
affect with (added to nouns)
befog
cause to be (added to adjectives)
becalm
com- also co-, col-, con-, cor-
with, jointly, completely
codriver, co-operation, collu
contra-
against, opposite
contraceptive, contraindicat
counter-
opposition, opposite direction
counter-attack, counteract
be-
down, away
descend, despair, depend, de
completely
denude, denigrate
removal, reversal
de-ice, decamp
dia- also di-
through, across
diagonal
dis- also di-
negation, removal, expulsion
disadvantage, dismount, dis
put into or on
engulf, enmesh
bring into the condition of
enlighten, embitter
intensification
entangle, enrage
out
exclude, extract, exhalation,
upward
exalt, extol
completely, extremely
efficient, excess
previous
ex-wife, ex-convict
extra-
outside, beyond
extracurricular, extramural
hemi-
half
hemisphere
hyper-
beyond, more than, more than normal
hypersonic, hyperactive
hypo-
under
hypodermic, hypothermia
also il-, im-
not, without
infertile, inappropriate, impo
also il-, im-, ir-
in, into, towards, inside
influence, influx, imbibe
infra-
below
infrared, infrastructure, infra
inter-
between, among
interact, interchange
intra-
inside, within
intramural, intravenous
non-
absence, negation
non-smoker, non-alcoholic,
ob- also oc-, of-, op-
blocking, against, concealing
obstruct, occlude, offend, op
surpassing, exceeding
outperform, outweigh
external, away from
outbuilding, outboard
excessively, completely
overconfident, overburdened
upper, outer, over, above
overcoat, overcast
de-
en-
ex-
also em-
also e-, ef-
in-
out-
over-
peri-
round, about
perimeter, pericardial
post-
after in time or order
postdoctoral, post-coital
pre-
before in time, place, order or importance
pre-adolescent, prelude, pre
favouring, in support of
pro-African, probiotics
acting for
proconsul, pro bono
motion forwards or away
propulsion, propel
before in time, place or order
prologue, proactive
re-
again
repaint, reappraise, reawake
semi-
half, partly
semicircle, semi-conscious
at a lower position
submarine, subsoil, submerg
lower in rank
sub-lieutenant, sub-zero
exceed, additional
surpass, surcharge
in union, acting together
synchronize, symmetry
across, beyond
transnational, transatlantic
into a different state
translate
beyond
ultraviolet, ultrasonic
extreme
ultramicroscopic
not
unacceptable, unreal, unhap
reversal or cancellation of action or state
unplug, unmask
beneath, below
underarm, undercarriage
lower in rank
undersecretary
not enough
underdeveloped
pro-
sub- also suc-, suf-, sug-, sup-, sur-, sus-
syn- also sym-
trans-
ultra-
un-
under-
Among the auxiliary verbs, we distinguish a large number of multi-word verbs,

which are called SEMI-AUXILIARIES. These are two-or three-word
combinations, and they include the following:
to be to
to be going to
to be supposed to
to be about to
to have to
to have got to
to have something done
had better + infinitive
without 'to'
to need to
to dare to
used to
Like other auxiliaries, the semi-auxiliaries occur before main verbs:
- The film is about to start

- I'm going to interview the Lord Mayor
- I have to leave early today
- You are supposed to sign both forms
- I used to live in that house
Some of these combinations may, of course, occur in other contexts in which they
are not semi-auxiliaries. For example:
- I'm going to London
Here, the combination is not a semi-auxiliary, since it does not occur with a main
verb. In this sentence, going is a main verb. Notice that it could be replaced by
another main verb such as travel (I'm travelling to London). The word 'm is the
contracted form of am, the progressive auxiliary, and to is a preposition.
Characteristics
'Semi-auxiliaries'
are used as modal verbs with another verb to express certain notions such as oblig
ation, intention, advice, etc. But theykeep most characteristics of full verbs.
The infinitive that follows is introduced by 'to':
- I have to write a report for tomorrow.
- He's going to study in London.
Like full verbs, semi-auxiliaries take an 's' in the third person singular of the simple
present:
- He needs to work harder.
Questions and negative structures are most often formed with 'do', except those sem
i-auxiliaries containing the verb 'to be' and 'have got to':
- He doesn't need to have his hair cut.
- They didn't use to live in London.
Semi-auxiliaries containing the verb 'to be', follow the conjugation of 'to be':
- They aren't supposed to be at home.
The semi-auxiliary 'have got to' forms its interrogative and negative structures with
out 'do':
- We haven't got to read that book.
- Has he got to mow the lawn?
Contractions
In spoken English (and when representing speech in writing) we can combine

contracted auxiliaries, e.g. 've, and the contracted 'not', e.g. -n't, after modal
verbs:
- He shouldn't've ever said that to her. (= He should not have ever said what he
did.)
- They couldn't've got there in time even if they hadnt missed their plane. (= They
could not have arrived in time.)
In informal speech we can also use contractions when there is more than one
subject:
- James and Heather've bought a new house. (= James and Heather have bought a
new house.)
- The boss and the whole team're having a party at The Ritz. (= The whole team
are having a party.)
Ellipsis
If the meaning is clear, we often leave out words when speaking. The most
common words to omit are ones that come at or near the beginning of a sentence:
auxiliary verbs
FULL VERSION
ELLIPSIS VERSION
- How are you feeling today?
- How you feeling today? Fine, than
- We're fine, thanks.
subject + be/ will
- I'll see you later.
- See you later
- I'm not sure about that.
- Not sure about that.
- Are you joining us later?
- Joining us later?
- Would you like some coffee?
- (Some) coffee?
- Do you want to buy some tickets?
- Want to buy some tickets?
question forms*
- Have you got the paper?
- Got the paper?
- Is Henry here yet?
- Henry here yet?
- Have you been here before?
- Been here before.
- Do you like it?
- Like it?
- I mustn't complain.
- Mustnt complain.
- I don't think so.
- Dont think so.
articles
- The taxi's here.
- Taxis here.
it and there
- It should get warmer tomorrow.
- Should get warmer tomorrow.
- Is there anyone at home?
- Anyone at home?
I (subject)
We often omit words when we ask questions with the verbs see, hear and
think:
- Do you think they'll get here in time? - Think they'll get here in time?
- Have you seen her recently? - Seen her recently?
We can also omit words at the end of a sentence, especially in short responses:
- Will you be at the party? - Should be. (= I should be at the party.)
- Are you going to Italy this summer? Hope to. (= We hope to go to Italy.)
- Did you get the concert tickets? Yes, got four. (= I got four tickets.)
Inserts
Inserts are words and short expressions that we often use in speech. They fulfil
several functions which help conversation to flow smoothly:
INSERT
USE
EXAMPLES
well
- To express doubt or uncertainty, or to pause - Well, we dont know if were going aw

before saying you are not sure
this year or not.
- To start talking about a subject you have just - Have you heard of Seitan? Well, I tried
mentioned
for the first time last night.
right/all right
- To get everyones attention
- Right, is everyone here?
- To seek confirmation
-Youre doing my shift tomorrow, right?
I mean
- To correct yourself
- She lives in London, I mean Brighton.
you know
- To ensure the listener understands
- Have you been to that new pizzeria, yo

know, the one on Oxford Street?
now
- To change the subject or return to an earlier

topic
- That was delicious. Now, who wants

coffee?
OK
- To check the listener agrees
- Well meet outside the cinema, OK?
mmm, uh huh
- To show the speaker you understand what is - Mmm. I know what you mean.'
being said
really
- To show the speaker you are

interested/surprised
- Really? Thats incredible!
right/yeah
- To show you agree with the speaker
- Right, I know exactly what you mean!
Prefaces and tags

A feature of conversation is that we can 'add-on' extra information a 'preface' or a
'tag'. For example, we can repeat the subject of a sentence or question using an
additional word, either at the beginning (a preface) or at the end (a tag):
We can use prefaces to introduce a new topic. We often use prefaces and tags to
make sure that the listener knows which subject we are referring to.
- Caroline, she wants to join the team now.
- That film, what was it called?

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The subjunctive form is exactly the same as the infinitive without the 'to' before the

- If I were to own a dictionary, I would know how to spell!

There are some fixed expressions which use subjunctive forms:

- It is essential that you both be waiting for me at the train station.

The 'Unreal' Past

Would Rather + Past Tense

To express regrets about the past or the present that we would

Less common conjunctions of time include: as soon as, once,

- The committee will be holding a number of events in order/so as to raise money

I'm afraid it was so expensive (that) I couldn't a

such + (adjective +) noun + (that) clause

It was such an expensive coat (that) I couldn't a

too + adjective + for + infinitive clause

It was too expensive for me to buy.

(not) adjective + enough + for + infinitive clause

It was not cheap enough for me to afford it.

Other commonly confused verbs:

Can I borrow some money from you?

I will lend you 100 pounds.

I can speak three languages.

Can I help you?

I may arrive a little later than I thought.

May I help you?

To come into contact with someone/To be introduced to someone

I met my boyfriends parents for the first time yesterday

To arrange to see someone

I will meet you outside the restaurant at 10 p.m.

To be familiar with someone

Ive known Ben for ten years.

To understand a fact or truth

He knows a lot about the market in Poland.

Dont waste your time indoors! Go outside!

To fail to use something valuable in an effective way

I spent all my savings on that new car.

He spends all of his spare time at the animal shelter.

To leave a country in order to settle permanently elsewhere

Carl emigrated from the UK in 2012. Now he lives in S

To come to live/settle in a foreign country

My friend Anna immigrated to the UK in 2014. She lov

- Sally had never eaten a curry before last night.

Shall can be used in a positive sentence in the first person (I or we). It

- Shall I phone him or wait for him to phone me?

Dare can be used as a modal verb:

As a modal verb dare has two forms:

and dared for the past.

Expressions with Dare

Note the following combinations with the verb 'dare'.

English can be shaped to add emphasis in a number of different contexts

- Never had we had to wait so long to see a doctor!

Very Short Sentences

Interrogative or Exclamatory Sentences

We often use specific adjectives with particular nouns.

clothes, colour, drinker, meal, punishment

burden, casualties, demands, drinker, indu

argument, coffee, currency, joke, point, ru

accent, argument, case, coffee, feelings, in

chance, hope, possibility, smell

difficulty, interest, pleasure, success, time

behaviour, habit, luck, news, person, time

health, memory, performance, relation

- Harry's very strong so heavy work doesn't bother him at all.

run a business (= manage a business)