Development of Multi Component Loads, Torque and Temperature Measurement Device For Friction Stir Welding Process

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Development of Multi Component Loads,

Torque and Temperature Measurement Device
for Friction Stir Welding Process
RESEARCH JUNE 2015
DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.2165.0085
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Jauhari Tahir
Universiti Malaysia Terengganu
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The Thesis Committee for Universiti Sains Malaysia

Certifies that this is the approved version of the following thesis:
Development of Multi Component Loads, Torque and Temperature

Measurement Device for Friction Stir Welding Process
APPROVED BY
SUPERVISING COMMITTEE:
Supervisor:
(
Jamaluddin B. Abdullah
Zuhailawati Bte. Hussain
Development of Multi-Component Loads, Torque and Temperature

by
Jauhari Tahir B. Khairuddin
Thesis
Submitted to the Institute of Postgraduate Studies,
Universiti Sains Malaysia
in partial fulfilment
of the requirements
for the degree of
Master of Science
School of Mechanical Engineering

Universiti Sains Malaysia
August 2012
Acknowledgements
In the name of Allah, the most gracious and most merciful. Without His kind
blessing, nothing is possible and all my gratitude is upon Him.
Firstly, I would like to express my thanks to my supervisor Dr. Jamaluddin

Abdullah, for his kind support, willingness and helping hand in making this research
a success despites of all the challenges faced. Without his encouragement and
supervision, the thesis would never be completed in satisfactory and timely manner.
Secondly, I would like to acknowledge my former supervisor, Prof. Indra

Putra Almanar and my co-supervisor, Dr. Zuhailawati Hussain for their untiring
guidance and commitment from the beginning of the work. They inspire me
throughout the research, share numerous successes and values. Not to forget, to Phd
candidate Ahmad Fadly from School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering for his
precious time and effort in assisting me on the development of device.
Thirdly, great acknowledge to the USM RU-Grant No.814084, IPS Graduate

Research Fund and USM-Fellowship scheme which have supported the present work
since the beginning.
Finally, to my family and lovely wife, for their ongoing support, love and
encouragement that fuel me to the completion of this work. Their invaluable support
will forever be in debt.
iii
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements .............................................................................................iii
Table of Contents ................................................................................................ iv
List of Tables ...................................................................................................... vi
List of Figures .................................................................................................... vii
List of Symbols .................................................................................................... x
List of patent, publication and seminar ............................................................... xii
Abstrak ............................................................................................................. xiii
Abstract ............................................................................................................. xv
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ........................................................................ 1
1.1
Friction stir welding ................................................................... 1
1.2
Role of friction stir welding in manufacturing industries ............ 2
1.3
FSW configuration and process .................................................. 4
1.4
Recent advancement in friction stir welding ............................... 9
1.5
Problem statement.................................................................... 11
1.6
Research objectives .................................................................. 12
1.7
Thesis organization .................................................................. 12
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................... 14

2.1
Friction stir welding work principle ......................................... 14
2.1.1 Friction heat generation ........................................................... 14

2.1.2 Plastic dissipation heat generation ............................................ 15
2.1.3 Heat transfer ............................................................................ 17
2.1.4 Friction stir welding mechanism .............................................. 18
2.2
Welding characteristics ............................................................ 19
2.3
Friction stir welding parameters ............................................... 20
2.4
Process modelling .................................................................... 22
2.4.1 Thermal model ......................................................................... 22

2.4.2 Model validation ...................................................................... 24
2.5
Impact of metrology deivce on FSW process ........................... 25
iv
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY ..................................................................... 28

3.1
Development mechanical loads and temperature measuring

device ...................................................................................... 29
3.1.1 Work material specification ............................................. 31
3.1.2 Relevant test specimen designs and standards .................. 32
3.1.3 Engineering specification ................................................ 37
3.1.4 Mechanical fixture modelling................................................... 45

3.1.5 Development of data acquisition system................................... 48
3.1.6 Metrology device concepts rating and selection........................ 53
3.2
Design validation and proof of concept .................................... 55

3.2.1 Mathematical modelling assumption and approach .......... 59
3.2.2 FSW set up, process parameter & procedure ............................ 75

3.3
Friction stir welding data comparative study ............................ 79
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS & DISCUSSION....................................................... 80

4.1
Metrology device and friction stir welding setup. ..................... 81
4.1.1 Multi component loads, torque and temperature measurement

system setup............................................................................. 81
4.1.2 Data acquisition system ........................................................... 84
4.2
Mathematical model and welding process validation ................ 86
4.2.1 Plunge force variation calculations ........................................... 87

4.2.2 Co-planar analysis.................................................................... 97
4.3
Mathematical model and experimental work validation .......... 108
4.4
Friction stir welding experimental work and data comparison 109
4.5
Theoretical and experimental data comparison ....................... 128
4.6 Varying welding parameter comparison ................................. 135

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATION .............................. 141
5.1 FSW multi component loads, torque and temperature
measurement system .............................................................. 141
5.2 FSW process mathematical models ........................................ 143
5.3 FSW process optimization option ........................................... 145
5.4 Future work and suggestions .................................................. 146
Appendix ..............................................................................................................
References .............................................................................................................
v
List of Tables
Table 3.1:
Product benchmark comparison and proposed product features ...... 30
Table 3.2:
Aluminium alloy 6061 chemical compositions ............................... 32
Table 3.3:
Aluminium alloy 6061 physical properties at room temperature ..... 32
Table 3.4:
E8M and B 557M specimen sizes for rectangular tension test

specimens ...................................................................................... 34
Table 3.5:
E8M and B 557M specimen sizes for pin-loaded tension test

specimens with 50mm gauge ......................................................... 35
Table 3.6:
FEXAC universal milling machine specification ............................ 38
Table 3.7:
USCELLS model MSA-2 load cell, appendix B ............................. 43
Table 3.8:
General high temperature measurement K-type thermocouple

specification .................................................................................. 43
Table 3.9:
Product concept specifications selection matrix ............................. 54
Table 3.10: Summary of data used for loads and torque calculation .................. 69
Table 3.11: Temperature dependent aluminium alloy 6061 properties .............. 70
Table 3.12: Experimental work configuration ................................................... 76
Table 3.13: Welding parameters ....................................................................... 76
Table 4.1:
Metrology device specifications ..................................................... 84
Table 4.2:
Temperature dependent mechanical loads and torques numerical

analysis data .................................................................................. 93
Table 4.3:
Comparison of the welding parameter experimental results .......... 128
vi
List of Figures
Figure 1.1: Friction stir welding configuration schematic ................................... 4
Figure 1.2: Common friction stir welding rotating tool design ........................... 5
Figure 1.3: FSW process phases ........................................................................ 6
Figure 3.1: Research methodology flow ........................................................... 29
Figure 3.2: Rectangular tension test specimens for E8M and B 557M .............. 33
Figure 3.3: Pin-loaded tension test specimens with 50mm gauge for E8M and B
557M ............................................................................................. 34
Figure 3.4: Specimens and work material dimension ....................................... 36
Figure 3.5: Constant voltage load cell circuit ................................................... 41
Figure 3.6: Constant current load cell circuit .................................................... 42
Figure 3.7: Typical practical thermocouple circuit for temperature measurement .
...................................................................................................... 45
Figure 3.8: Friction stir welding backing fixture .............................................. 46
Figure 3.9: Mechanical fixture ......................................................................... 47
Figure 3.10: Cantilever type load cells arrangement in the mechanical fixture ... 48
Figure 3.11: Block diagram of process signal processing and data acquisition ... 49
Figure 3.12: Block diagram for (a) load cells and (b) thermocouple signal
processing...................................................................................... 50
Figure 3.13: Data acquisition system programming flow chart ........................... 53
Figure 3.14: Multi component loads, torque and temperature measurement device
...................................................................................................... 56
Figure 3.15: Rotating tool design and orientation ............................................... 57
Figure 3.16: AA6061-T6 temperature dependent (a) Tensile strength, (b)
Thermal conductivity, (c) Specific heat capacity material properties
and (d) stres strain curve ................................................................ 59
Figure 3.17: Plunge pressure as function of temperatures ................................... 61
vii
Figure 3.18: Free body diagram of multi-component load measuring device ...... 64
Figure 3.19: Free body diagram of co-planar analysis of the work material ........ 67
Figure 3.20: Variable temperature dependent material properties of AA6061-T6
...................................................................................................... 70
Figure 3.21: Temperature dependent coefficient of friction ................................ 72
Figure 3.22: Plunge pressure variation for friction stir welding process cases .... 74
Figure 3.23: Thermocouples in the welding configuration ................................. 77
Figure 4.1: Friction stir welding setup.............................................................. 83
Figure 4.2: Data acquisition system user interface ........................................... 86
Figure 4.3: Friction stir welding (a) plunge forces, (b) tool plunge sequence .... 91
Figure 4.4: Tool torque exerted at the tool-work material interface .................. 92
Figure 4.5: Co-planar analysis for case 1 ......................................................... 99
Figure 4.6: Co-planar analysis for case 2 ....................................................... 100
Figure 4.9: Co-planar analysis data comparison. ............................................ 107
Figure 4.10: Process force schemes comparison............................................... 109
Figure 4.11: Process torque schemes comparison............................................. 109
Figure 4.12: Multi-component loads, torque and temperature profile data for
parameter 1 .................................................................................. 111
parameter 2 .................................................................................. 113
parameter 3 .................................................................................. 115
parameter 4 .................................................................................. 117
viii
Figure 4.16: Multi component loads, torque and temperature profile data for
parameter 5 .................................................................................. 120
parameter 6 .................................................................................. 121
parameter 7 .................................................................................. 124
parameter 8 .................................................................................. 125
parameter 9 .................................................................................. 126
Figure 4.21: Experimental specimens of friction stir welding for parameter set 127
Figure 4.22: Plunge force schemes and experimental loads data comparison .... 130
Figure 4.23: Plunge force schemes and experimental torque data comparison .. 131
Figure 4.24: Work material flow rotating tool shoulder interaction during plunge
phase ........................................................................................... 133
Figure 4.25: Varying process parameter results for z-direction force ................ 137
Figure 4.26: Varying process parameter results for z-direction torque .............. 138
Figure 4.27: Varying process parameter results for x-direction force................ 140
Figure 5.1: Friction stir welding process window ........................................... 145
ix
List of Symbols
General
q
Energy
Energy rate
Radius (general)
Radius
Sn
Cone slant height
Cross sectional area
Depth
Height
Length
Poisson ratio
Angle
Coefficient of friction
Sliding resistant coefficient
COHE
Angular speed
Density
Thermal coefficient
cp
Heat capacity
Temperature
Force component
Normal load
Pressure component
Stress component
Gravitational acceleration
Linear velocity
Torque
Electrical
P
Power
Voltage
Current
Resistance
Electrical potential
Impedance
emf
Electromotive force
Seedback coefficient
Seedback emf
xi
List of patent, publication and seminar
1. Malaysia Patent Application. PI 2010003982, A Method for Spot Welding and

An Apparatus to Perform The Method. I.P Almanar, Jauhari Tahir, Z. Hussain,
Farkhan. August 24, 2010.
2. K, Jauhari T, Jamaluddin A, Zuhailawati H, and Indra P A. "Principle and

Thermo-Mechanical Model of Friction Stir Welding." In Welding Process, by
Kovacevic R, 1-26. Rijeka: Intech, November 21, 2012.
3. K, Jauhari T, Indra, P A, Zuhailawati, H.Mathematical Model for Multi
Component Forces & Torque Determination in Friction Stir Welding.
Advanced Material Research. 230-232 (2011): 1255-1259.
4. T.K Jauhari, I.P Almanar, H. Zuhailawati, Mathematical Model for MultiComponent Forces and Torque Determination in Friction Stir Welding.
International Conference on Frontiers of Manufacturing Science and Measuring
Technology. Dali, China. 2011.
xii
Pembangunan Alat Pengukuran Komponen Berbilang Beban,

Kilasan dan Profil Suhu bagi Proses Kimpalan Geseran Beraduk
Abstrak
Proses kimpalan geseran beraduk merupakan satu kaedah sambungan pepejal

yang menggunakan sumber haba yang terhasil daripada kerja geseran mekanikal alat
putaran terhadap bahan kerja, menghasilkan sambungan tanpa sebarang bahan
pengisi. Sejak diperkenalkan, kimpalan geseran beraduk ini masih lagi berada di
tahap awal berbanding kaedah sambungan lakuran konvensional. Asas proses
kimpalan ini masih kurang mantap, kurang piawai garis panduan amalan dan
keadaan operasi optimum bagi penggunaan bahan tipikal serta ketidakupayaan untuk
mengaitkan pembolehubah proses terhadap sifat hasil sambungan. Asas kajian ini
adalah berkenaan dengan prinsip kerja mekanikal proses kimpalan melalui kaedah
pengukuran bagi mendapatkan manfaat hasil penambahbaikan sifat mekanikal
sambungan. Kajian ini membentangkan analisa parameter kimpalan melalui sistem
metrologi yang mengukur komponen dinamik dan kuasi statik daya dan kilas
berbilang 3 dimensi yg dikenakan sambil merangkap butiran suhu yang terhasil.
Ukuran daya dan kilas mewakili tindak balas beban mengemukakan kesan terhadap
sifat fizikal sambungan berdasarkan pembolehubah parameter kimpalan. Tambahan,
model matematik diterbitkan bagi menganggar proses kimpalan berdasarkan sifat
bahan tergantung suhu dan bagi mengesahkan sistem metrologi. Prinsip mekanik
sentuhan diadaptasi ke dalam model dengan mengambil kira prinsip geseran
Coulomb dan prinsip ubah bentuk plastik. Seterusnya, pemindahan haba yang
berlaku dalam sistem dikaji melalui kerja experimen. Hubungkait ukuran beban dan
kilas terhadap suhu yang terhasil menunjukkan keupayaan untuk mengawal
pembolehubah prosess. Sistem metrologi ini dengan jelas mengaitkan kawalan
xiii
parameter dan tindak balas proses kimpalan, seterusnya menunjukkan sistem yang
dibangunkan boleh diadaptasi kepada jenis bahan yang berbeza berdasarkan sifat
bahan tergantung suhu bahan tersebut bagi julat pembolehubah parameter yang
berbeza.
xiv
Development of Multi Component Loads, Torque and Temperature

Abstract
Friction stir welding process is a solid state joining method that utilizes heat
source from mechanical friction work of a rotational tool exerted on work material,
producing joint without the use of filler material. Since its introduction, friction stir
welding is still at infant stage compared to conventional fusion joining method. The
welding process fundamental is still not well established, lack in standard practicing
guideline and optimum operating conditions for typical material application as well
as inability to definitively relate process variables to the produced joint properties.
The basis of this study is regarding to the mechanical work principle of the welding
process, which is devised through measurement method as a mean to look for the
possible benefits of improved joint mechanical properties. This study presents the
analysis of welding parameters responses via a metrology system which measure the
dynamic and quasi-static multi components three dimensional loads, torque exerted
and to capture the corresponding temperature profile. The measured loads and torque
represent the acting reaction forces suggesting its influences on joint physical
properties based on welding parameters variables. In addition, a mathematical model
is derived to approximate the welding process based on the work material
temperature-dependent material properties, employed to validate the metrology
system. Contact mechanic principle is adapted into the model accounting both
Coulombs friction and plastic deformation principle. Proceeding, heat transfer
within the system is studied through experimental work. The relationship of the
measured loads and torque with the corresponding temperature shows the possibility
to control the process variables. The metrology system explicitly correlates the
xv
controlling parameters and their reaction to the welding process thus shows that the
developed system is adaptable to different materials based on their temperaturedependent material properties, for a range of different welding variables.
xvi
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1
Friction stir welding

Friction stir welding is a solid-state welding process that gained much
attention in the research as well as manufacturing industry since its introduction in

1991 (Thomas, et al., 1991) and (Dawes & Thomas, 1995). For about 20 years,
friction stir welding has been used from high technology applications such as
aerospace to automotive till high precision application such as micro welding.
The main feature of a solid-state welding process is the non-melting of the

work material which allows a lower temperature and a lower heat input welding
process relative to the melting point of material being joined. This is advantageous
over the conventional fusion welding where excessive high heat input is required to
melt the work material. Much less heat input required for friction stir welding
process is being translated into economic benefits, safer than conventional methods
and comparatively less complicated welding procedures. The friction stir welding
make it possible to join light weight and difficult to join material such as aluminium
alloy, magnesium alloy, copper and titanium alloys rather than using conventional
welding. The clear advantages have greatly influence the increased usage of these
materials in structural applications (Hwang, et al., 2008) and (Kim, et al., 2010). In
addition, friction stir welding also make possible to produce sound weldment in 5000
and 7000 series aluminium alloys that are not possible to be welded using
conventional methods.
Friction stir welding process provides proven good quality and strong
weldment with lesser number of equipments, eliminates the use of filler metal and
1
improved weldability. Due to these factors, friction stir welding has successfully
been employed to the aerospace, automobile and ship building industry (Nicholas &
Kallee, 2000). The need to further understand and improve friction stir welding
process continues to propagate in many applications.
1.2
Role of friction stir welding in manufacturing industries

Interestingly, friction stir welding process is gaining pace in manufacturing
industries, best for its economic benefit apart from environmental concern as well as
the ability to be adapted in advance automation system such as robotic. Friction stir
welding process is very prominent in aluminium components and panel fabrications
with highly rated technology readiness level (TRL) (Smith, et al., 2003).
Friction stir welding is an applicable technique adapted for rail cars to

fabricate floor panel part of a Type 700 Shinkansen or bullet train. It is also widely
used in friction stir welded aluminium roof, side wall and floor panel for suburban
train and other more recent commuter or express rail cars. This is due to its low
distortion, larger weldment product and panel size output, prefabricated panels as
well as tailored blanks and joints (Kumagai & Tanaka, 2001), (Kallee, et al., 2002).
The advantages are also being shared in marine application when it is first
commercially used for ship building in 1996 with the ability to joint thick panels,
sandwich and honeycomb panels and corrosion resistance material panels. It is well
favoured for performing butt join in comparison to conventional arc welding
application which also turns out to be significantly viable in terms of low labour cost
and shorter welding cycle time (Delany, et al., 2007). The other important
application of friction stir welding process is to the aeronautical and aerospace
industries where aluminium alloy is used as primary material for their construction.
The process enables manufacturers to completely replace the riveted joints and
2
assemblies of lapped and abutted configuration that are used mainly for fuselage
sections, propellant and fuel tanks of commercial air carrier as well as space launch
vehicle (Arbergast, 2006). Thus, the process allows total elimination of thousands of
rivets usage which result in better quality, stronger and lighter joints at reduced
assembly cost. Meanwhile in automotive application, friction stir spot welding
(FSSW), a recent innovated process of friction stir welding (FSSW) is introduced to
replace conventional resistive spot welding (RSW) in the transition of aluminium
alloy application for panels in domestic and commercial vehicle. Aluminium
application in automotive industry is chosen for its prefabricated and tailored panel,
strength-to-weight ratio, reducing fuel consumption, recyclable material as well as
marked reduction in production cost. This has compelled car manufacturers to use
the same concept not only for the body panels, but for other part as well (Kallee, et
al., 2005).
Since its introduction, friction stir welding application has matured

significantly with widespread use of wide range of aluminium alloys for structural
applications and the process is compatible to be used in ferrous, stainless steel,
nickel, copper and titanium alloys. However, only a small percentage of world
welding and joining market has implemented the process. It is still relatively
underutilised and this is varied among industries, university researches,
collaborations and other niche applications. In Malaysia, it is still at the infant stage.
With all the challenges to joints wide variety hard to weld materials and
configuration, the motivation of the application and adaptation of this noble
technology in manufacturing is not only to meet quality joints, but for the economic
value and also for its environmental friendliness.
1.3
FSW configuration and process

Friction stir welding configuration consists of (1) cylindrical rotating tool, (2)
two or more work materials of similar or dissimilar material combinations (3)

backing fixture and finally (4) clamping or holding fixture as schematically shown in
Figure 1.1. The rotating tool design consists of a combination of two cylinder of a
specific radius ratio known as shoulder and smaller radius pin or probe, where the
height of the pin or probe is usually more than half of the work material thickness but
not equal to its overall thickness. The most common rotating tool design is as in
Figure 1.2.
2
3
1.
2.
Rotating tool
Work materials
3.
4.
Backing
Clamp
Figure 1.1: Friction stir welding configuration schematic
Pin
Shoulder
Figure 1.2: Common friction stir welding rotating tool design
The work materials to be joined may be arranged as such as common practice

welding configuration but the most common configurations used in friction stir
welding are abutted and lapped. Through these configurations, it has the capability to
join thick plate without the need for special and additional preparation prior to the
welding process. Meanwhile, the backing fixture functions to provide opposing
support to the work material against the process loads and at the same time to contain
the generated heat within the work materials. The most crucial part of the friction stir
welding configurations is the clamping or holding fixture, where insignificant
clamping of the work materials configurations may fail to counteract the load exerted
from the friction stir welding process and thus causes welding failure at the welding
line and defects in the weldment.
Friction stir welding process involves four phases which are (1) plunging
phase, (2) dwelling phase, (3) welding phase, and finally (4) exit or retract phase.
The whole friction stir welding process phases of an abutted work material
configuration is illustrated in Figure 1.3.
Phase 1
Phase 2
Phase 3
Figure 1.3: FSW process phases; 1) Plunging, 2) Dwelling, 3) Welding and 4) Exit
(American Welding Society, 2007)
Briefly, the process starts initially with rotating tool pin or probe thrusting
onto the configured work material under a constant axial load to generate mechanical
friction heat. This process will continuously increases the temperature at the
immediate contacting surface of the rotating tool and work material, maintained until
the temperature increased to a temperature that causes the work material to soften,
plasticized and significantly lose its strength. Consequently, these conditions allow
the rotating tool to penetrate to a certain depth of usually almost but not equal to the
thickness of work material. The plasticized material is subjected to displacement by
the rotating tool probe or pin plunge, effectively being flashed out together with a
portion of the generated heat, thus introducing new immediate lower temperature and
harder surface of work material. This mechanism further explains the transient heat
generated through pure mechanical frictional work at the rotating tool-work material
contact interface. The end of the plunging phase is signified by the sound contact of
the rotating tool shoulder with the immediate work material surface.
At this moment, the rotating tool is allowed to dwell for a period of time
causing the temperature at the contact interface to increase further, up to its hot
working temperature. The heat generated from the mechanical frictional work is
greatly dependent to the relative increase of contact surface area as well as the
relative speed. The heat generated causes the affected area under the shoulder to
expand considerably. Phenomenally, the heat causes the work material closed to the
immediate contact to lose its strength and becoming plastic. Once this condition is
reached, thin soft material layer is produced and would stick to the dynamic rotating
tool surface and being forced to be displaced along. Instantly the heat generation
mechanism is partially turned to plastic dissipation heat generation. It is explained by
the energy dissipated from the internal shearing of different velocity between
displaced soften work material layer to static more solid surface. Ideally, intermittent
heat generation mechanisms due to the mechanical friction work and the plastic
dissipation take places because of the transient heat generation and transfer effects as
well as the material ability to regain its strength as heat is lost to the ambient. In
addition, the other role of these mechanical frictional work and plastic dissipation
mechanisms are to induce soft material displacement and causes the stirring action or
severe material deformation which later produce the amalgamated joint.
The dwelling phase is followed by welding phase. After the local temperature
of work material under the rotating tool approaches its hot work temperature or soft
enough to be stirred and displaced, the rotating tool is moved transversely along the
welding line. This traverse motion caused the plasticized soft material at the leading
edge of the rotating tool being squeezed and sheared through a small slit formed by
the displaced soft material at the side or lateral of the tool, preferably in the direction
of rotational tool rotation. The displaced soft material is then deposited to the gap at
the trailing edge left by the once occupied rotating tool pin or probe. The soft
7
plasticized material is forcedly displaced by the rotating tool along its rotating
direction under a closed encapsulation of harder solid work material wall and
rotating tool shoulder. The soft material is forged to the trailing edge in layers
forming weld nugget. At each traverse increment of the rotating tool motion, the
displacement of soft plasticized work material to the trailing edge will introduce new
solid, lower temperature work material at the leading edge. Thus it reintroduces
mechanical friction work heat generation mechanism prior to plastic deformation
mechanism and continuously repeating the heat generation process all over again at
each traverse displacement of the tool. This produces cyclic transient heat generation,
takes part throughout the welding phase and strongly affected by the combination of
the rotational tool rotation and traverse speed. Recap, during the welding phase, the
plasticized material is subjected to displacement, extrusion and shearing mechanisms
facilitated by the rotating tool rotation, thrust and transverse movement under cyclic
heat generation mechanisms along the welding line and finally consolidating welding
nugget at the trailing side.
At the end or exit phase, the rotating tool is retracted away from the work
material leaving a cylindrical hole mark that once occupied by the rotating tool pin or
probe. For cosmetic reason, the cylindrical hole may be filled with filler material at
the end of the process but the most common method used is by introducing dummy
material prior the exit phase. Dummy material is of the same material used for the
work material to be weld and placed at the end of welding line. The rotating tool is
allowed to traverse to and exit within the dummy material which later is cut away
leaving good surface finish. Though, this cosmetic issue would remain in the
application of innovated friction stir spot welding.
These process phases in friction stir welding are dependent to one another to
produce a good amalgamated weldment and are strongly affected by the welding
parameters. The assurance of good weldment is determined by proper control of
varying measureable welding parameters such as the rotational speed, axial plunge
force and torque, traverse speed, tool geometry and orientation in the form of
generated heat energy. Similar to other conventional welding methods, heat energy
notably determines the quality of the joint.
1.4
Recent advancement in friction stir welding

Since the last two decades, there are considerably vast lab and industrial work
done on friction stir welding process which leads to the emerging advancement of
new materials application and combinations, process improvement, tool designs,
welding configurations, tailored blank application and adaptation to automation.
Though, the most important innovation in the process itself is its variations; (1) High
speed friction stir welding, HS-FSW, (2) Ultrasonic stir welding, USW, (3) Thermal
stir welding, TSW, (4) Friction stir spot welding, FSSW, (5) Friction stir joining,
FSJ, (6) Friction stir processing, FSP, and (7) Friction bonding, FB (Schwart, 2011).
The recent advancement shows the introduction of high-speed friction stir

welding aiming at reducing process forces by the means of the increasing heat
generation rate. This reduction in forces is to realize the idea of permitting manual
handheld welding work. HS-FSW process is also designed to achieve lighter and
portable device or equipment. This will make possible to be handheld and eliminate
the need for rigid fixturing of the work material and rotating tool.
Ultrasonic stir welding is another variation of the process where ultrasonic

energy is used to assist in initial heat generation. The objectives are to reduce process
9
forces and welding time. The major boost of USW is it reduces dependency on
rotating tool shoulder to generate heat and instead, make use of coupled ultrasonic
vibration to further agitate the rotating tool at the contact interface and amplifying
the mechanical friction effect.
Different from USW, thermal stir welding decouples heat generation from
mechanical friction of conventional friction stir welding and instead, emphasized
external induction heating to increase work material temperature at the welding spot
or welding line. Though, induction heating may ultimately increase the rate of heat
generation but the implication is that, it reduces the strain rate of the plastic
deformation, a prevalent characteristic in friction stir welding. Reduced strain rate
will significantly affect the final welding properties (Ding, et al., 2006).
The most common variation of all is the friction stir spot welding, which is
well known to be used in transportation industries to replace rivet and as well as
adhesive joining method. Though this method produces cosmetic defect in the form
of pin hole created by the rotating tool, the weldment has sufficient mechanical
strength for joining method (Gerlisch & North, 2006).
While all friction stir welding variants are dedicated for metallic material,
friction stir joining method is dedicated for joining thermoplastic materials. It has
been used for polypropylene, polycarbonate and high density polyethylene materials
(Mishra & Ma, 2005). The advancement of FSJ method may possibly makes way for
mechanical joining method involving plastic matrix composite.
Friction stir processing is a unique non-joining method variant of friction stir

welding where it utilizes the friction and stirring process, alters the work material
10
microstructure to be super fine, modified with improved physical properties and at

the same time suppressed defects such as porosity and short crack (Abergast et al.,
2001). The introduction of foreign particle into base material during FSP creates new
near quality to metal matrix composite structure and thus improving the material
properties. This provides a new platform to produce improved future materials.
The consequent of FSP method emerges as a modified method of friction

bonding that allows bonding of overlapping thin plates through locally modified
microstructure. The process utilizes less stirring effect due to the short pin geometry
and thus differs from common friction stir welding method.
The majority of these friction stir welding variants methods stress on their
ability to increase welding time and at the same time to reduce forces exerted from
the welding process. The other purpose of these methods is to provide means of
producing joining method involving different type of materials and configurations.
More or less, these methods share the same mechanism of mechanically
manipulating soften work material and the formation of almagamated weldment at
the trailing edge.
1.5
Problem statement
Even though friction stir welding method has been around since 1992, the
process is still being considered immature in the sense of its fundamental principle
and still lacking of standardized operating procedure that can be accepted and
adapted in industrial practices. In comparison, friction stir welding is not widely
available in general application rather than conventional fusion joining methods
especially in automotive industry due to shorter process cycle and conventional heat
generation mechanism. The true understanding of friction stir welding process is still
11
far-reaching; understanding the physics and nature of the process, lacking of

standards guideline and practice, optimization of the process for typical material
application as well as not suitable for small to medium scale robotic or manual
handling.
1.6
Research objectives
This current work is proposed to look at the possible benefit that can be
gained from the features of friction stir welding and its variations, through process
measurement. Specific objectives are summarized as follow;
1.
To develop a measurement system for measuring process parameter

response during friction stir welding process of abutted aluminium
alloy work material, compatible to standards mechanical test.
2.
To find the physical mechanism of the friction stir welding process

and its effects towards the work material both through theoretical and
experimental work
3.
To identify and understand the parameters involved in the friction stir

welding process that is to be used for optimum condition for joining
various metals.
1.7
Thesis organization
Chapter 2 present literature reviews on friction stir welding method which
mainly emphasized on the heat generation and temperature-dependent material

properties response to mechanical work. Chapter 3 present proposed mathematical
model of the process, design approach for the holding fixture and data acquisition
system, parametric study and model validation through experiment. Chapter 4
present the results analysed obtained from previous chapter, discussed the presented
results in detail and answer questions arise from the study. Chapter 5 concludes
12
findings achieved in the research, the proposed future work, improvement and
recomendation.
13
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1
Friction stir welding work principle

The working principle of friction stir welding has been described and
elaborated by many researchers (Hwang, et al., 2008), (Kim, et al., 2010), (Frigaard,
et al., 2001), (Ravichandra, et al., 2001), (Schmidt, et al., 2004) and (Schmidt &
Hattel, 2008). To understand the working principle of the friction welding process, it
is best to appreciate the physics related to the process heat generation mechanisms.
As described in Chapter 1, friction stir welding process started with the initial
mechanical friction between the thrusting rotating tool and the immediate surface of
the working material. The plastic dissipation heat generation mechanism soon takes
over the mechanical friction as the immediate work material is sheared and
plasticized into layers close to the rotating tool surface. The detail of the study is
regarding the welding process heat generation mechanisms, the nature of the process
thermodynamic, the friction stir welding joining mechanisms and its characteristics,
welding process variables and previous research works are discussed in this chapter.
2.1.1 Friction heat generation

Mechanical friction work is initiated when rotating tool surface is in contact
and sliding with the immediate stationary surface of work material under a normal
load, introducing velocity difference between the dynamic rotating tool and the static
work material surface. Thus this combination introduces mechanical friction work
and subsequently, heat. Fundamentally, mechanical friction work has been described
based on the Amontons laws. The law firstly explained that the friction between two
separate bodies is directly proportional to the normal load applied, where the
coefficient of friction is a constant variable and temperature dependent at static
condition, known as static friction. At dynamic condition, the coefficient of friction
14
is considered as kinetic friction where the contact condition is non-sticking or

sliding. The second explanation of the law is that the friction force is not dependent
on the apparent area of the separated and in contact bodies (Popov, 2010).
Generally, friction work is assumed based on Coulombs dry friction model

between solid bodies where, at the same time it conforms the Amontons law. In the
model, the mechanical friction work and heat generation relationship of sliding
friction is explained by contact condition between hard and soft metallic material
interaction. The interaction involves very small scale asperities at the immediate
contact surface. As the normal force is acted on the rotating tool, it is being
transferred and divided onto smaller area asperities resulted a very high contact
pressure. Due to the relative velocity differences and the load per unit area, the
dynamic mechanical work causes ploughing effect of the soft material by the hard
materials asperities, being agitated, deformed and finally broken releasing the stored
energy in the form of heat (Sherwood & Bernard, 1984).
The released energy, a very high local thermal energy causes the immediate
contact area temperature to rise, eventually transferred and stored into the rotating
tool and the lump work material. The heat causes the work material to gradually soft,
reduces its strength and deformed into soft material layer in between the rotating tool
and the work material. The soften work material layer is later to be displaced by the
rotating tool pin resulting new surface contact condition and promoting another cycle
of mechanical friction heat generation.
2.1.2 Plastic dissipation heat generation

Plastic dissipation heat generation typically occurs at higher temperature
resulting from mechanical friction heat generation mechanism at the dwelling phase
15
where the work material is completely confined under the rotating tool. Through
mechanical friction heat mechanism, the immediate work material temperature under
the rotating tool is increased to a degree where the soften work material layer close to
the rotating tool interface started to lose it strength, yielded, stick and move along
with the rotating tool. This phenomenon increases the thermal softening effect and
causes shears within the soft work material layers interfaces and causes the
mechanical friction heat mechanism to diminish and at the same time introducing
high strain rate plastic deformation. The mechanical friction heat generation
mechanism is taken over by plastic dissipation heat generation mechanism, generated
internally within the work material away from the rotating tool-work material
interface (Ravichandra, et al., 2001), (Schmidt, et al., 2004) and (Nandan, et al.,
2006).
Similar to any thermodynamic system, the friction stir welding process is

susceptible to the nature of heat transfer. As the heat is being transferred out of the
system, the plastically deformed material tend to recover its strength establishing
new and lower temperature work material layers thus reinitiate mechanical friction
heat generation mechanism (Schmidt & Hattel, 2008). At the welding phase, plastic
dissipation heat generation mechanism is increased at the cost of the travelling
rotating tool, shearing the work material to higher extend toward trailing edge and
further increase the immediate work material temperature before reintroducing new
contact condition and the mechanical friction heat generation mechanism cycle
(Soundararajan, et al., 2005).
These heat generation mechanisms cycle keep on repeating throughout the

welding process due to continuous instance of slip and stick contact conditions and
plastic flow of the work material alternating boundary conditions at the material to
16
rotating tool interface (Schneider, et al., 2006). Partly to the heat generation
mechanisms, the other importance is that these high strain rate and thermal effects
soften work material encompass at the trailing edge produce welding nugget and
posture the main characteristic of the joint (Colligan, 2010).
2.1.3 Heat transfer

Simultaneously, the heat generated is constantly being transferred within the
thermodynamic system; portions of heat are distributed within the work material, the
rotating tool, the backing fixture and finally to the ambient. In depth, heat generated
is subjected to three dimensional heat flows away from the heat source under
boundary conditions; heat input and heat transfer at the rotating tool are indirectly
coupled at the rotating tool to work material interface into the work material through
heat conduction (Soundararajan, et al., 2005), and (Nandan, et al., 2006) and
incorporated with conductive heat transfer effect around the pin in the deformation
zone (Khandkar & Khan, 2001), (Schmidt & Hattel, 2005) and (Schmidt & Hattel,
2008). For the work material, convective and radiative heat transfers are considered
for heat exchange at the top work material surface, past the shoulder peripheral
(Nandan, et al., 2006) while at the same time only convective condition is considered
for the bounding surfaces of work material (Khandkar, et al., 2003), (Soundararajan,
et al., 2005). For the case of backing fixture, appropriate variable gap conductance is
considered for work material to backing fixture interface depending on specific
thermal contact resistance condition (Khandkar, et al., 2003) of temperature
dependent (Shi, et al., 2003) or contact pressure dependent or surface contour of
work material (Soundararajan, et al., 2005) or any of the combinations.
Ultimately 100% energy generated from mechanical work throughout the

process is converted to heat and physical deformation with approximately 88% of the
17
heat is conducted and distributed globally through the lump work material, backing
fixture and else to the rotating tool (Schmidt & Hattel, 2008). Heat plays very
significant relationship not only toward the physical success of the joint but also
towards the temperature profile, heat transfer, internal strain and stress distribution
during the friction stir welding process, towards weldment microstructure and
residual stress of final weldment resulting properties which are strongly affected by
the welding variables and temperature dependent material properties (Nandan, et al.,
2008).
2.1.4 Friction stir welding mechanism

Weldment is produced in the course of welding phase where layers of
materials are forced to move along with and around the rotating tool surfaces at a
specific contact condition; fully sliding or partial sliding and sticking or fully
sticking. The soft material layers motion are heavily deformed and driven by the
rotating tool rotational direction, forced through the retreating side toward trailing
edge and downward closed to the pin before finally being forged and deposited at the
once occupied volume of the rotating tool probe or pin at the trailing edge under
severe plastic deformation and strain (Schmidt & Hattel, 2005), (Nandan, et al.,
2008) and (Arora, et al., 2009).
The mechanical torque of the rotating tool causes mechanical shearing to the
immediate work material closed to the rotating tool, forcing soft work material layers
to motion and strained, creating flows of fine material layers prior progression into
weldment. The material flow motion or velocity is visually estimated through the
grain size and shape, correlated to internal strain rate (Jata & Semiatin, 2000). The
material flow and joining mechanisms are proposed by the region formed by the
friction stir welding process or the material flow zones describing zones where shear
18
layers are visibly distinguished by material characteristics, show the evident of nonmelting but severely deformed soft material deposited into amalgamated weldment in
layers and flowing manner.
2.2
Welding characteristics
Temperature profile and history of friction stir welding process are resembled
by the distinct regions at the weldment characterized by discrete microstructure sizes,

shapes and properties, produced by the significant thermal effect and plastic
deformation. Under heat generation, lump effect and heat transfer, thermal profiles
are spreaded out from the crown shapes heat source around the rotating tool to work
material interface, dispersed toward the work materials surfaces and edges (Song &
Kovacevic, 2003) and (Arora, et al., 2009). These regions are known as; 1) weld
nugget, the product of plastic deformation due to the stirring effect deposited behind
the rotating tool pin at the trailing edge, 2) thermo-mechanically affected zone
(TMAZ) of internally sheared plastic deformation within the work material away
from rotating tool to work material interface, 3) heat affected zone (HAZ) of
structurally altered and thermally affected region due to intense temperature different
between thermo-mechanically affected zone (TMAZ) and base metal temperature
region, and 4) base metal of work material which is not physically affected by the
thermal effect (Dong, et al., 2001).
Temperature profile portrayed direct relationship of the heat generation rate,

the torque generated through the rotating tool, the loads exerted throughout the work
material and the power consumed by the friction stir welding process. Both thermal
and mechanical effect from heat generation and stirring effect engender welding
characteristic in term of stresses, tensile and hardness properties. In regards, the
rotating tool rotational and the traverse speed are interchangeably influence the
19
temperature profile and affectively manipulate the material flow behaviour, weld
material composition, microstructure orientation, strain, residual stress, thermal
stress, hardness and strength of the welding (Elangovan, et al., 2008), (Moreira, et
al., 2009) and (Tutum & Hattel, 2010).
2.3
Friction stir welding parameters

Independent process variables play significant effect on the friction stir
welding process and control, entail the axial force, rotating tool rotational speed, tilt
angle, tool traverse speed and tool geometry which includes pin and shoulder surface
areas and ratio. The aforementioned variables strongly affect the heat generation rate,
temperature profile within the work material, mechanical power required by the
process, material evolution of the weldment and also the loads distributed within the
work material. These factors are extensively studied to understand the mechanics of
joining, process and final weld properties optimizations, where direct measurement
are possible be done experimentally and predicted numerically.
It has been reported that rotational and traverse speeds have both direct and
indirect influence to the final weldment. Its direct influences to the mechanics of
joining suggesting degree of stirring based on the contact condition and multi
component loads whilst its indirect influences to mechanical properties of the
weldment is heavily influence by the combination of temperature exposure and tool
design which at the same time, also facilitate stirring (Elangovan, et al., 2008). For a
constant welding speed, low rotational speed induces low stirring effect and finally
low heat generation rate while for a constant rotational speed, low traverse speed
increases the exposure to heat source and vice versa but only to an extent. Extreme
high rotational speed results too much heat while extreme high traverse speed results
less heat, low stirring effect and increase travel resistance due to heavy loads on the
20
rotating tool and hard work material at the leading edge where material is sheared to
the lateral sides instead of moving around the rotating tool direction (Zhang &
Zhang, 2009). Thus for any condition mentioned above, high friction stir welding
process temperature ease material flow and finally reduce the multi component loads.
Though, excessive heat from high heat generation rate or rotational speed or low
traverse speed significantly reduces the mechanical properties of joint due to
microstructure evolution of the regions exposed to excessive heat (Liu, et al., 2009).
Albeit, the appropriate traverse and rotational speed below critical speeds might
result optimum heat generation rate and reduced thermal exposure that produce good
strength and hardness weld properties (Ren, et al., 2007) and (Patil & Soman, 2010).
Torque produced during the friction stir welding process depends heavily to
the contact condition, rotating tool rotational speed, work material plasticity at the
immediate rotating tool to work material interface, axial load exerted and the rotating
tool design which are insensitive to the welding or traverse speed (Arora, et al.,
2009), (Zhang & Zhang, 2009), and (Cui, et al., 2010). Any changes in the traverse
speeds does not significantly affect temperature profile at constant rotating tool
rotational speed compared to changes done in the rotational speeds. In addition,
optimum rotating tool design influences the torque produced through the effect of
sum of contact areas and contact conditions at the rotating tool to work material
interface where it influences plastic deformation or strain work distribution, material
transportation, process loads and work material temperature (Buffa, et al., 2006),
(Elangovan & Balasubramanian, 2008), (Hattingh, et al., 2008), (Zhang, et al., 2009),
and (Arora, et al., 2011). As temperature increases, work material temperature
dependent shear stress plumps and no longer behave as solid thus reduces the torque
at the rotating tool to work material interface and further reducing power and energy
required to produce heat within the process. Sine qua non, good agreements of the
21
welding variables offer sound and defect free joint properties while at the same time,
economically profitable and productive.
2.4
Process modelling
This chapter discussed considerably vast works that has been made in pursue
to understand the physical process that influences the variables associated to the
friction welding process using empirical as well as numerical models for heat
generation, material interaction and material flow. The models are based on the
assumption of different contact conditions and heat generation mechanisms of the
friction stir welding process at specific welding variables. Based on the fundamental
of the friction stir welding process, welding phases portray the crucial stages involve
the initiation and the progress of heat generation due to the mechanical work of the
rotating tool that carries through.
2.4.1 Thermal model

Heat generation is modelled based on the torque required to rotate a circular
shaft relative to the work material surface at coefficient of friction variables, pressure
distributions and the assumption of 100% conversion of the shearing work to heat
where the net power required is proportional to the tool rotational speed as well as
the shoulder radius i.e. qR (Frigaard, et al., 2001).
Mechanical friction work principle used for heat generation model is coupled
with plastic dissipation work principle and the nature of heat transfer mechanisms to
model three-dimensional heat and material flow based on temperature dependent
coefficient of friction and temperature dependent pressure distribution for aluminium
alloys (Dong, et al., 2001). In detail, three-dimensional visco-plastic flow and heat
transfer has been investigated through solving the equations of conservation of mass,
22
momentum and energy by considering heat source due to mechanical friction heat
generation at the rotating tool to work material interface or due to the plastic
dissipation heat generation away from the tool to work material interface or due to
the combination of these two heat generation mechanisms (Ulysse, 2002), (Buffa, et
al., 2006), (Nandan, et al., 2006) and (Nandan, et al., 2007).
The model is defined by the contact area, the rotating tool pin and shoulder
ratio, the material shear stress, the spatially variable coefficient of friction, the
angular velocity and the exerted normal pressure acted on the work material surface.
The model is then validated through comparison of the numerically computed heat
generation, peak temperature and the total torque exerted on the rotating tool to
experimental result. Contact conditions, described as sliding, sticking or partial
sliding or sticking or simply slip factor is derived experimentally, determined by the
plunge force and torque from the welding process is adapted. The slip factor yield a
proportional relationship between plunge force and heat generation where Coulombs
friction law is applied to describe the shear forces at the interface (Schmidt, et al.,
2004) and (Colegrove, et al., 2007). Slip factor is also used to observe the welding
energy and temperature, utilizing torque based heat input (Hamilton, et al., 2008).
These works allow the prediction of the welding temperature from the transverse
speed, rotating tool angular speed and the applied force. Eventually, fully coupled
thermo-mechanical model with adaptive boundary conditions which applied both
thermal and mechanical model is used to predict transient temperature profile, active
developed
stresses
as
well
as
the
(Soundararajan, et al., 2005).
23
three-dimensional
force
components
2.4.2 Model validation

The force and temperature measurement experiments were conducted under
different welding parameters for model verification by differing the transverse and
the rotating tool angular speed whilst maintaining the constant vertical force. The
result is later used for the calculation of the heat input into the rotating tool and work
material. In relation, mechanical model is developed to take account the effect on
material such as the listed material properties; plasticity properties, thermal
expansion, thermal stress, cooling effect, stress stiffening, stress distribution,
material strain, residual stress as well as thermal history of the process (Chen &
Kovacevic, 2003) and (Chen & Kovacevic, 2006).
Mechanical effect is visualised theoretically as material flow model to

simulate the friction stir welding process effects on the soft material flow and join
mechanism (Fratini, et al., 2006), (Zhang, et al., 2007). Theoretical representation of
the mechanical effect is validated through the physical experimental work to
highlights the particular material strain, its distribution and flow around the rotating
tool, at the leading and trailing edges of advancing and retreating side as well as the
actual bond that takes place in the friction stir welding process. Thus, the thermomechanical model shows the importance of the three-dimensional loads and torque
exerted by the rotating tool to determine the best and optimized parameter for the
friction stir welding process of any materials through statistical studies. The model is
greatly related to the final weldment mechanical and welding process properties such
as residual stresses, welding process temperature, final weldment tensile strength and
productivity related variables such as welding speed, power consumed by the friction
stir welding process and the rotating tool life. Proceeded, welding power is modeled
to determine the overall heat input for the welding process based on the traverse
speed and tool rotational speed as well as the effect on the work material properties.
The model is calculated from the spindle torque through the relationship of the
24
rotating tool angular speed and the represented torque derived associates to the key
parameters mentioned (Pew, et al., 2005) and (Pew, 2006).
Significantly all of these works and models represent the correlation of the
mentioned independent variables of tools associated welding parameters as well as
work material properties serve the heat generation, temperature distribution and
joining mechanisms that contribute to the success of the friction stir welding process.
The relationship between the independent process variables and the dependent
process output to the heat generation mechanisms is best described as a closed and
correlated system, explained by the interaction of process welding variables and key
process conditions; physical, metallurgical, heat generation and heat transfer effect
(Colligan & Mishra, 2008).
Though, these aforementioned works are lacking in depth study regarding the
mechanical loads associated to the welding process that are transferred to the work
materials. Current researches concentrate more on the heat conversion from
mechanical friction on the immediate work material surface and not considering its
effects on the welding fixture, joint configuration and the final weldment properties
thus provide a wide gap in transition of lab scale friction stir welding work to the
industrial scale applications. This current study proposed a method to measure and
predicts the process three-dimensional load and torque of known work material
properties and to identify optimum process parameters in form of measureable unit
and their effect to the welding process prior to the actual welding work.
2.5
Impact of metrology deivce on FSW process

In the early review, there a few literatures that have described the welding
process features, welding mechanisms and the key parameters of successful friction
25
stir welding process. The discussions inferring the very main objective of the novel
process which is to join work material at lower temperature compared to
conventional method through the application of multi-components loads, friction
work and cyclic thermal loading. The success of the friction welding process can
only be achieved by systematically controlling the variable processes involved which
is through measurements of the applied and reaction loads as well as their effect on
the friction work. Hence, the mathematical relationship between the mechanical and
thermal loads can be modeled and the friction stir welding process outcome can be
theorically predicted.
This research is strongly influenced by the work of prominent authors on the

heat generation and transfer principles, welding mechanisms and their relationship to
the final weldment which have been elaborated both as in concept as well as in
details (Frigaard, et al., 2001), (Schmidt, et al., 2004) and, (Nandan, et al., 2006).
Thus, it is aimed to provide sound understanding on the relationship between the
welding principles, welding mechanisms and the welding characteristics, to be
represented as measureable quantities.It is also to provide the means for friction stir
welding process improvement via manipulating the applied loads and the corelated
heat generation rate, reducing the welding time and to make able of different work
material joint. The realization of such improvements in the process clearly requires
some sort of quantity measurements which are to be used as reference, thus suggests
data processing and statistical work.
To recap, this work is proposed to provide a method to measure and

investigate the welding process quality, perceived as physical characteristics of the
weldment in relation to the controlling welding parameters. The research is also used
26
to investigate the relationship of the multi component loads, torque and temperature
to the mentioned outcome.
27
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
The multi component loads, torque and temperature measuring device

development is aimed to provide a mean to further narrow the process gap within the
previous research works in the transition from lab scale research to a better and
effective commercial application. Better understanding on the process loads and the
thermal effect of the friction stir welding process is intended to identify the optimum
friction stir welding process parameters of known work material prior to actual
welding work and to foresee its ability to scale the welding work for autonomous,
lower loads and mobile applications.
In regards, a methodology is carried out in this work to achieve specific

objectives discussed earlier and to come out with a metrology system. The metrology
system is to hold the work material during the welding process and at the same time
to monitor and record the quasi-static and dynamic measurement of multi
components loads (x, y, z) and torque (M) as well as the process temperature profile
associated to the welding process. The methodology work includes:
1.
Design approaches for the development of multi component loads,

torque and temperature measuring device.
2.
Development of mathematical model to prove metrology device

concept simulating process variables theoretically.
3.
Model validation through experimental work of the welding process

with varying parameter on the developed metrology device test bed.
4.
Comparative study of the varying welding process parameters and

assumptions.
28
3.1
Development mechanical loads and temperature measuring device

The development of the multi component loads, torque and temperature
measuring device is done based on the friction stir welding process of known 6061
aluminium alloy work material. The device comprises of a mechanical fixture
housing loads and temperature measuring sensors and a data acquisition system to
record the welding process loads and temperature. This chapter describes each of
these components and their development process in detail.
Figure 3.1: Research methodology flow

The concept is derived from an approximate description of known
specifications and working principle of the product. Multi component loads, torque
and temperature measurement device concept is generated from the selection of
listed specifications and requirements of the work material mechanical and thermal
properties, work material dimension and machine specifications. In general the
concepts are to be derived based on selective functions and follows by concept
29
selection and comparison to existed benchmark products as in Table 3.1. It exhibits

the listed features of benchmark products to be compared and to be used for concept
selection. Prove of the concept generation involves detail investigation of technical
and engineering specification translated from the mentioned product specification as
listed in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1:
Product benchmark comparison and proposed product features

Product
Specification
Kistler
FUTEK
Proposed
Model
9255 B
9272
MTA 400
Proposed 1
Dimension, mm
300 360
120 140
75 75 76
300 360
95
70
260 260
100
75 75
260 260
Operating range;
-20 20
-5 5
1.1
Fx, Fy, kN
-10 40
-5 20
2.2
Work envelope,
mm
Fz, kN
-200 200
>> 200
Mz, Nm
0 70
0 70
-50 93
>> 93
Operating temp.
3 components
4 components
3 components
4 components
Fx, Fy, Fz
Fx, Fy, Fz, Mz
Fx, Fy, Fz
Fx, Fy, Fz, Mz
Features
Cooling
The loads, torque and temperature measuring device is mainly comprises of a

mechanical fixture purposely designed to hold and secure the work material in place
throughout the welding process to withstand and records heavy mechanical loads and
high temperature from the friction stir welding process. In addition, it acts to separate
the thermal effects of the welding process off from harming the housed sensors and
equipment as safety measure. The mechanical fixture is also designed to be fitted
30
onto most conventional and reconfigurable equipment dedicated to friction stir

welding process. These design requirements approaches are translated to specific
engineering requirements addressed based on the work material specification,
relevant test specimen standards, welding process mechanical loads and welding
process thermal effect.
3.1.1 Work material specification

Light material aluminium alloy application has significant popularity in
engineering structures and transportation industries. Aluminium alloy 6061 is
specifically chosen for its availability, material properties and suitability for the
friction stir welding process. Material composition and general mechanical properties
of aluminium alloy 6061 is summarized as in Table 3.2 and Table 3.3.
Aluminium alloy is known for its difficulty to be joined by conventional

fusion joining method due to its chemical composition consisting magnesium and
silica elements. Thus, the ability of friction stir welding process to successfully join
aluminium alloy in solid state without hassle is the main vantage point. The physical
properties of aluminium alloy 6061 in Table 3.3 suggests specific requirements
consideration of the thermal and mechanical properties of the work material. The
mechanical fixture is proposed to withstand maximum combined loads of at least
124.0 MPa and for working temperature below its melting point of 582 C. In
addition, the fixture is also designed to house the load and temperature sensors
providing protection from the extremes.
31
Table 3.2:
Aluminium alloy 6061 chemical compositions (ALCOA, 2002)
Element
Al
Si
Fe
Cu
Mn
Mg
Cr
Zn
Ti
Other
% wt
95.85
0.8
0.7
0.4
0.15
1.2
0.35
0.25
0.15
0.15
Table 3.3:
Aluminium alloy 6061 physical properties at room temperature

(ALCOA, 2002)
Work material properties
Poisson ratio,
0.33
Young modulus, E (Gpa)
68.9
Ultimate tensile strength, UTS (MPa)
124.0
Yield strength, Ey (MPa)
55.2
Shear modulus, E (GPa)
26.0
Shear strength, (MPa)
82.7
Density, (kg/m3)
2700
Melting temperature, Tm (C)
582 651
Solidus temperature, (C)
582
Ultimate bearing stress, UBS (MPa)
228.0
Bearing yield stress, BYS (MPa)
103.0
Thermal conductivity, k (W/m.K)
180.0
3.1.2 Relevant test specimen designs and standards

Another consideration in the development of the mechanical fixture is the
relevant standard of the work material test specimen. E8M and B 557M are the
standard testing methods for destructive tension testing of metallic materials and
wrought, cast aluminium-magnesium alloy product respectively. Designated by the
ASTM, these test methods cover tension testing of metallic materials, wrought and
cast aluminium-magnesium materials except for foil product. Specifically, these
methods are used to determine materials yield strength, yield point elongation,
tensile strength, elongation and reduction of area. The significant uses of these
32
methods are to provide information on the strength and ductility of the interest
material under uniaxial tensile stress which can be used in comparisons of the
statistical analysis of variable welding process parameter, welding process control,
their influence on the work material physical properties as well as quality control in
term of accessing defects in the weld. Figure 3.2 and Table 3.4 exhibit the standard
rectangular tension test specimen dimensions for both standard tests.
The parameters of interest applied in this method of gauge length, overall

specimen dimension and room temperature testing condition are chosen for the
mechanical fixture. The standard plate-type is in particular used for testing plate and
flat material having a nominal thickness of 5 mm or over. Though, the result of the
tension test specimen machined to standard dimensions may not represent the
material properties of actual end product as a sum. The other specimen requirements
are to be compatible to the testing machines and clamping mechanism. For pin
loaded tension test, dimensional different concern is the width of grip section as in
Figure 3.3 and Table 3.5 and is proposed to avoid buckling in test of thin and high
strength material.
Figure 3.2: Rectangular tension test specimens for E8M and B 557M (ASTM
International, 2009) and (ASTM International, 2009)
33
Table 3.4:
E8M and B 557M specimen sizes for rectangular tension test specimens
(ASTM International, 2009) and (ASTM International, 2009)
Dimension
Standard specimens
Plate-type
Sheet-type
Mm
Mm
G Gauge length
200.0 0.2
50.0 0.1
W Width
40.0 2.0
12.5 0.2
T Thickness
Material thickness
Material thickness
R Radius of fillet
25
12.5
L Overall length, min
450
200
A Length of reduced section, min
225
57
B Length of grip section, min
75
50
C - Width of grip section
50
20
Figure 3.3: Pin-loaded tension test specimens with 50mm gauge for E8M and B
557M (ASTM International, 2009) and (ASTM International, 2009)
34
Table 3.5:
E8M and B 557M specimen sizes for pin-loaded tension test specimens
with 50mm gauge (ASTM International, 2009) and (ASTM
International, 2009)
Dimension
Standard specimens
Sheet-type
mm
G Gage length
50.0 0.1
W Width
12.5 0.2
T Thickness
Material thickness
R Radius of fillet
12.5
L Overall length, min
200
A Length of reduced section, min
57
B Length of grip section, min
50
C Width of grip section
50
D Diameter of hole for pin
13
E Edge distance from pin
40
F Distance from hole to fillet
13
Figure 3.4 exhibits sample arrangement for both standard specimen

dimensions for the work material used in friction stir welding experiment based on
ASTM E8M.
35
(a)
(b)
Figure 3.4: Specimens and work material dimension: (a) Clamp holding
mechanism, (b) Pin loaded holding mechanism
In particular, the destructive tensile test objectives are to make comparison of
the weldment to the base work material properties, as a tool to find defects, the
physical effect on altered work material properties and microstructure, taking into
accounts the welding parameter. The other aim is as an optimization tool of the
36
friction stir welding process both for process parameter and the resulting work
material properties.
3.1.3 Engineering specification

The mechanical fixture specification above is then translated into engineering
specification, assessing the welding process loads, torque and temperature to find
suitable test equipment and sensors specifications. The engineering specifications are
expressed from the physical work of the welding process in measureable units and
used as design parameters for the development of the mechanical fixture. The load
required and the thermal effect produced within the welding process are assumed to
be fully beared by the friction stir welding equipment under safety factor constants
Which is refering to equipments safety and working specification. In this work, the
design parameters study for the welding process and load measurement are done
based on the FEXAC universal milling machine, USCELLS load cell and high
temperature K-type thermocouple with each specifications are as in Table 3.6, 3.7
and 3.8 respectively.
The features of three axes configuration with additional one degree of

freedom spindle orientation recommend the FEXAC universal milling machine for a
lab scale friction stir welding application. The detail specification of the machine is
as Table 3.6; suggests the conventional medium payload machine and adjustable
spindle angle suitable for friction stir welding process of aluminium alloy
application.
37
Table 3.6:
FEXAC universal milling machine specification

Specification
Type
UP
Axis
Year
1977
Origin
Spain
Table size, mm
1100 X 240
Spindle speed, RPM
48 1500
Spindle motor speed, RPM
1540
Spindle motor power, kW
2.2
Table motor speed, RPM
1556
Table motor power, kW
1.1
Vertical ratio
2/5
Table feed rate;

x, y (rapid), mm/min
11 500 (2500)
z (rapid), mm/min
4.4 200 (1000)
Friction stir welding process relies on heavy mechanical loading as result

from mechanical friction work heat generation. Thus, it requires detail analytical
examination on equipment or machine requirement. Based on FEXAC universal
milling machine specification as in Table 3.6, theoretical mechanical requirements
and performance of the machine are derived. Though, without actual manufacturer
specification, the only method that allows such analysis to be applicable is with
relevant assumption; linear correlation of motor speed and torque, linear correlation
between angular and linear speed and direct correlation of linear and angular speed
ratio make it crucial to assess the maximum load allowance that can be exerted on
the equipment. The machine load calculation is done based on the spindle motor
torque and table motor torque.
38
Given;
(3.1)
Where represents the motor torque, P is the motor power and is the motor
angular speed. For spindle motor, minimum motor torque is determined at maximum
motor angular speed of 1540 RPM and maximum torque is determined at minimum
motor angular speed of 48 RPM, thus;
min 619.9 N.m
(63.2 kgf.m) at 1540 RPM
max 19.9 kN.m
(2,027.2 kgf.m) at 48 RPM
For table feed rate; the relationship of the angular motor speed to linear
displacement velocities of the work table are assumed to be linear and represented by
angular motor speed to linear table speed ratio as given;
max vmax
min vmin
(3.2)
Where is the motor angular speed and v is the linear work table speed,
where the linear speed ratio of x, y-direction to z-direction is 2:5. Thus;
x , y :min 6.8
RPM at 11 mm/min
z:min 2.7
RPM at 4.4 mm/min
Table motor torques; derived based on the assumption: maximum x, ydirection rapid speed rate of 2500 mm/min and maximum z-direction rapid speed of
39
1000 mm/min are at maximum motor angular speed of 1556 RPM. Thus minimum
theoretical torque at maximum table motor angular speed;
min 415.9
N.m (42.4 kgf.m) at 1556 RPM
For maximum theoretical torque for x, y and z-direction;
x , y:max 92.4 kN.m (942.2 kgf.m) at 6.8 RPM
z:max 215.7 kN.m (21,995.3 kgf.m) at 6.8 RPM

The information suggests the requirements and limitations of existing
equipment that is to be adapted to the friction stir welding process. Specification
conformity of equipment to the welding process concludes issues that need to be
assessed in order to attain functionality as work holding feature, welding capability,
welding process success, welding process control as well as the end product quality
assurance.
Strain based load cell is the most common sensor used for mechanical load
measurement. Its working principle is based on electrical resistance variable due to
change of material physical dimension. It emphasizes indirect stress measurement
through change in material mechanical strain thus exhibits changes in the material
electrical resistance. In the event of axial direction strain of a length conductive
material with a cross sectional area and laterally unstrained, the increase of the length
of the material is followed by decrease of cross sectional area due to Poissons effect.
This effect specifically alters the material specific resistance and thus affects the
overall electrical resistance of the conductance, which is utilised to produce output
signal as voltage or current variable of a complete electrical circuit. The elementary
40
explanation of the strain represented by change of resistance in relation to voltage

and current is referred as Figure 3.5.
I
Vconstant
E=V
Rg+Rg
Figure 3.5: Constant voltage load cell circuit
In the case of Figure 3.5, voltage drop across the gauge represented by Rg is
remained equal to electrical potential drop E even at variation gauge resistance value,
Rg due to constant electrical potential. Though, the current is affected by the gauge
resistance variable from I to I I, given;
Vconstant E ( I I )( Rg Rg )
(3.3)
In Figure 3.6, this case example constant current source. The affecting
variables is the electrical potential drop values, E+E across variant gauge resistance
Rg+Rg values by the relationship as;
E E I constant ( Rg Rg )
41
(3.4)
E+E
Iconstant
Rg+Rg
Figure 3.6: Constant current load cell circuit
Equation (3.3) exhibits the nonlinearity behavior of changes in current

function to the changes in strain of the conductive material. Equation (3.4) exhibits
the linearity of changes in potential drop function to the changes in strain of the
conductive material. Due to nonlinearity of Equation (3.3), the current different
measurement is achieved either by the application of high potential different value in
order to gain small current change for the change in material resistance or by the use
of low voltage at low resistance material. While as in Equation (3.4), the linear
function of potential drop different to material resistance change suggest remarkable
benefit for direct and simple measurement of the low voltage change (Murray &
Miller, 1992). Thus, Equation (3.4) is preferable in this application.
Table 3.7 shows typical specification of a commercial strain based load cell
used for the mechanical fixture application. Though, direct application of the load
cell in the friction stir welding process is not possible due to low operating
temperature of the sensor and thus requires heat isolation where extreme operating
temperature application is likely to cause inaccuracy in output reading due to the
changes of material resistance characteristic affected by the temperature difference.
42
Table 3.7:
USCELLS model MSA-2 load cell, appendix B

Specifications
Capacity, kg
200
Sensitivity, mV/V
2 0.10
Operating temperature range, C
-20 60
Compensated temperature range, C
-10 50
Safe overload factor
1.5
Input impedance,
400 10
Output impedance,
350 3
Recommended excitation, VAC/VDC
10
Maximum excitation, VAC/VDC
15
Thermocouple is a passive contact thermoelectric type sensor that consists of

at least two dissimilar conductive materials pair. It generates potential different in
respond to temperature change due to thermal energy transfer at the pair junction
directly without the assistant external excitation power. The generated potential
different in the thermometry is resulted from Seebeck's effect of internal electrical
electromotive force, emf between the terminals of the thermocouple (ASTM
International, 1993).
Table 3.8:
General high temperature measurement K-type thermocouple

specification
Specification
Material pair
Chromel alumel
Measurement range, C
-4 482
Accuracy, C
43
Based on the fundamental law of thermoelectric thermometry, the

relationship of the Seebeck emf and the temperature is due to the transport property
of electrically conducting material which is determined experimentally based on
conductive material properties response. The law can be represented as;
dE (T )dT
(3.5)
Where, E is Seebeck emf, is Seebeck coefficient showing the simple

relationship the thermometry effect at temperature differences, dT and Seebeck
electromotive force under the consideration of definite temperature and voltage pair
condition; known voltage at known temperature. Thus, thermometry measurement
evaluation is done based on established voltage to temperature conversion table of
the thermocouple circuit or of the manufacturer specification. The conversion table
referred is as in the appendix A. Figure 3.7 shows a configuration of thermocouple
circuit with compensation junction function to imitate reference temperature, Tref
through electrical signal or numerical method for temperature measurement. Though,
the external effects of the environment require the system to be ideally isothermal to
avoid noise signal at the terminal junction due to the different material pair and
insulation issue. This necessitates calibration method applied to signal at the
measuring junction by offsetting output signal in comparison to the conversion table.
The respective engineering specifications are identified and accessed to

provide clear understanding of the friction stir welding process, and to translate the
welding work principle and their effects into measureable units. The engineering
specifications of the test equipment provide design parameter of the mechanical
fixture. While as for mechanical loads, torque and the thermal effect, the engineering
specifications served as design parameters for the acquisition system, translated as
44
electrical signals produced by the sensors and to be captured and processed through
derived numerical algorithms.
Figure 3.7: Typical practical thermocouple circuit for temperature measurement
3.1.4 Mechanical fixture modelling.

The work material design as exhibit in Figure 3.4 is to be fitted onto backing
fixture as in Figure 3.8, features additional six thermocouple fittings with purpose to
monitor the temperature and to isolate the equipment and sensors from the welding
process high temperature. The backing fixture functions to store the thermal energy
generated from the welding process and steadily maintain its temperature. The
system is isolated from the ambient as the backing fixture functions to reduce
thermal energy loss while at the same time withstanding the mechanical load exerted
by the rotating tool. In addition, the work material dimension is designed to allow up
to five welding specimens on a work material pair on a single welding confguration.
45
Figure 3.8: Friction stir welding backing fixture
Both backing fixture and work material pair are to be held securely on the
work holding fixture and to be fixed on the friction stir welding equipment as in
Figure 3.9. The mechanical fixture assembly consists of mechanical fixture base
which is to be fixed on the friction stir welding equipment table, load cells housing
which act as the main body, top cover to hold and mount the T-slotted fixture and
finally backing fixture to hold the work material. The T-slots fixture is designed to
hold the backing fixture and the work material in place and to assist thermal isolation
and cooling. The channels within the T-slotted fixture provide cooling by means of
using either water or air. The mechanical fixture takes overall dimension of 360 mm
380 mm 146 mm and designed to fit conventional milling work table
specification as in listed in Table 3.6. In detail, the load cells are arranged as in
Figure 3.10. The load cell specifications described as in Table 3.7 are arranged with
one load cell to measure x-direction load, four load cells to measure z-direction load
and two load cells to measure z-direction torque with all load cells has the same
maximum working limit up to 300 kg load each. The most crucial load direction in
the friction stir welding process is in z-direction thus the load cells arrangement made
the combined capacity of the mechanical fixture of approximately 1,200 kg.
46
Backing fixture
T-slotted fixture
Top cover
Base
x
LCs holding fixture
y
(a)
z
x
(b)
Figure 3.9: Mechanical fixture, (a) Exploded view, (b) assembly view
47
z
x
Figure 3.10: Cantilever type load cells arrangement in the mechanical fixture
3.1.5 Development of data acquisition system

The multi-component loads, torque and welding process temperature are
translated into the form of electrical signals, to be captured and processed by a data
acquisition system. Electrical signals from the sensors representing physical natures
of the friction stir welding process are sampled and processed into numerical values,
to be manipulated by the microcontroller and computer. The analogue electrical
signals are converted to digital form and manipulated through signal processing
algorithm within the microcontroller into meaningful reading or dimensional or
dimensionless measureable units.
Figure 3.11 exhibits the integrated friction stir welding system configuration
consists of the friction stir welding process test equipment with mechanical fixture
fixed to the working table and wired to data acquisition system. The loads and
temperatures data captured are fed to the workstation and displayed through the
graphical user interface. The data displayed on the interface is based on the
prerequisite information first determined prior the experimental work. Desirable and
useful features of the data acquisition system are to allow user to interact, initialize
48
and calibrate the system on the fly in addition to the data capture capability and
display. In detail, it allow user to initialize, calibrate the sensor signals, to determine
the sampling rate and to initiate the friction stir welding process measurement.
Figure 3.11: Block diagram of process signal processing and data acquisition
Figure 3.12 shows the blog diagram describing the load cell and
thermocouple signals processing method. The analogue signals from the sensors are
firstly to be pre-processed, amplified and filtered from noise signal to attain sound
and clear input for the microcontroller to use for manipulation. The conditioned and
continuous analogue signals from the load cells are directly digitized into discrete
signals to be processed by the microcontroller. While for the thermocouple, a set
point determination or controller for the signals are required prior to be processed
and made as reference for the temperature measurement. The signal set point
controller provides a reference voltage of reference temperature or cold junction in
comparison to the electrical signal of the measured temperature.
49
(a)
(b)
Figure 3.12: Block diagram for (a) load cells and (b) thermocouple signal processing
All the digitized signals from the sensors are to be fed and processed by
numerical algorithm within the microcontroller producing measureable unit output
signals. The numerical processing algorithm for load cell is given;
Ssensor Lmax
cl Vsupply
(3.6)
For, Ssensor is the processed electrical signal from Equation (3.4) of the load
cell in volt, V, Lmax is the maximum capacity of the load cell in kg, cl is the sensor
factory calibration coefficient in V/V and Vsupply is the supply voltage for the sensor in
V. As for the torque, the calculation algorithm is as;
Tz L g l
(3.7)
where l is the average distance between two mounting surfaces at both end of the
load cell in m, L is the measured load value in kg and g is gravitational acceleration
constant in ms-2. The load cells attached to the fixtures allow three-dimensional six
50
degree of freedom motion of the top cover with load cells strain provide constraint as
loads are applied during the welding process.
While for the temperature measurement, the numerical processing algorithm is based
on Equation (3.5). Given;
T ct (St Vinitial ) Tinitial
(3.8)
Where ct is the experimentally determined sensor calibration coefficient of

the thermocouple, St is the processed signal output of the thermocouple, Vinitial and
Tinitial are the initial values of the reference temperature which are experimentally
determined through calibration and comparison of temperature measurement using
thermometer and the thermocouple conversion table.
The proposed integration of the signals conditioning and processing device

with the data acquisition,logging and diplay interfaces are done through three (3)
main programming applications which are (1) Signal conditioning and conversion,
(2) Conditioned signal and data acquisition and (3) Data feeding and representation.
The first and the second applications work within the hardware as represented in
Figure 3.12 providing processed and ready to be used data to the third application
which act as the main program to capture, process and represent the fed data
numerically and graphically. Figure 3.13 shows the working programming flow of
the main data acquisiton application.
The program starts with definition of functions, libraries, drivers, constant,

communication and port interfaces. Onced the program has been defined, serial
connection between the data acquisition device and workstation is being initiated,
51
feeding strings of raw data. In this case, through the Microsoft Windows Hyperterm
application. Onced communication has been created and continuous data being fed,
the program is initialized and the continuously fed data is represented in more
sensible and measureable units. The program initialization performs the electrical
signal conversion in background, mathematically and provide continues numerical
and graphical data representation through the graphical user interface (GUI). Sensor
calibration is being introduced to further filter and define the incoming electrical
signal, mathematically from the sensors by eliminating the noise through root mean
square (RMS) calculation method. As satisfactory measurement readings are found,
data logging is performed and the measured data is temporary stored in the
workstation while at the same time display the time base measurement numerically
and graphically through the graphical user interface (GUI). Data logging process is
terminated as user ends data collection. Finally,the data can be save to file
permenantly for later use and can be exported to spreadsheet application for
statistical analysis and data representation.
All the said applications run independently with objective to minimize

workstation memory usage during data measurement which may cause errors and the
workstation to halt. The other design sense is to increase the system reliability by
eliminationg single point of failure, quick troubleshooting error correction and for
ease of maintenance.
52
Figure 3.13: Data acquisition system programming flow chart
3.1.6 Metrology device concepts rating and selection

The mechanical fixture and data acquisition concepts are generated based on
relevant design standards of the welding process related work material and
engineering specifications. These design standard and engineering specifications are
translated back into product specification and summarized as in Table 3.9. It shows
the critical components of the product features in comparison to the existing load
53
measuring application products in market. The generated concept is aimed to meet

the process requirement thus to comply for the technical requirements. The generated
concept and the existing products are rated to give clear view on their relevancy
toward the metrology application.
Table 3.9:
Product concept specifications selection matrix

Concept
9255 B
9272
MTA 400
Proposed 1
Selection criteria
Wt
Max. load
25%
.75
.50
.25
.50
Max. temp
25%
.75
.75
.75
1.25
20%
.60
.20
.20
1.00
10%
.30
.50
.50
.30
Signal variable
10%
.30
.30
.50
.50
Sampling rate
5%
.15
.15
.15
.15
GUI
5%
.15
.15
.15
.25
ASTM test size

compatible
Rate Score Rate Score Rate Score Rate Score
FEXAC
compatible;
Table size
DAQ friendly;
Score
3.00
2.55
2.50
3.95
Rank
*Rating is scaled 1 5 with Kistler 9255 B referred as datum; 1 for much worse than
datum, 3 for equal as datum and 5 for superior.
The selection matrix in Table 3.9 suggests that the development of

mechanical fixture integrated with dedicated data acquisition system technically far
more superior to other off the shelve products. This makes multi component loads,
54
torque and temperature measurement device a suitable and a choice metrology device
for friction stir welding process. The detail designs of the multi component loads,
torque and temperature measurement device used for fabrication are as the in
Appendix C.
3.2
Design validation and proof of concept

The multi component loads, torque and temperature measurement device
design concept technical specifications as listed in Table 3.1 is validated through

numerical and experimental method. Numerical method proves the mechanical
fixture design concept based on theoretical approximation of the welding process
under similar working parameters. While, the experimental work of the friction stir
welding process provides actual data of the friction stir welding process.
The friction stir welding process is based on commercial 6061-T6 aluminium

alloy material properties with chemical composition as listed as in Table 3.2. Two 6
mm thickness aluminium alloy plates with dimension of 100 mm X 200 mm each
were arranged abutted and secured as in Figure 3.13.
55
Fz Mz
Fx
Fy
Figure 3.14: Multi component loads, torque and temperature measurement device
M2 grade high speed steel (HSS) rotating tool with pin diameter of 6 mm, 2
conical angle, 5.65 mm diameter flat tip and 5 mm height in complement to the 18
mm diameter flat shoulder, is shown as in Figure 3.15 . The pin and shoulder
diameters make 1:3 ratio and is tilted 2 away from the vertical axis toward the
trailing side. The temperature dependent aluminium alloy physical properties are
illustrated in Figure 3.16 exhibits the varying and significant temperature effect
toward the work material properities and the welding process. The data used for the
calculation are summarized in Table 3.3. The model is concentrated at the initial
plunging phase of the friction stir welding process where the rotating tool is axially
forced onto the work material surface, creates frictional resistance and converts the
mechanical work into friction heat, increasing the local temperature and soften the
work material.
56
Figure 3.15: Rotating tool design and orientation
57
(a)
(b)
(c)
58
(d)
Figure 3.16: AA6061-T6 temperature dependent (a) Tensile strength, (b) Thermal
conductivity, (c) Specific heat capacity material properties and (d) stres
strain curve (U.S Dept of Defense, 1998)
3.2.1 Mathematical modelling assumption and approach

The basis of the modelling process is on the assumptions that the heat
generation is concentrated at the initial plunging phase where the contact condition
between the rotating tool surface and the immediate work material contact surface is
fully sliding at constant rate. In this case, plunge force, F* and rotating tool angular
velocity, are the manipulative variables that affect the total mechanical work
conveyed into the work material.
The rotating tool torque is represented by the function of uniform shear stress
due to normal load exerted on contact surface area under sliding or sticking contact
conditions. Constant 0.4 coefficient of kinetic friction, k is taken into account based
on the literature reviews (Frigaard, et al., 2001), (Soundararajan, et al., 2005),
(Nandan, et al., 2007) and (Hamilton, et al., 2008). Though the coefficient of friction
is differs in time and space for different temperature dependent materials properties,
the kinetic friction coefficient value remains constant prior reaching the solidus
59
temperature of a material due to the work material pairings and only increase
abruptly in the case of soft materials in ambient (Popov, 2010).
The work material strength is modelled as the function of temperature

dependent material properties as correlated from Figure 3.17. It represents the
analytical approximation of controllable plunge pressure, P in MPa for the respected
pressure distribution at temperatures, T in degree Celsius, C;
P1 (T )
P(T ) P2 (T )
P (T )
3
23.9 T 100C
100 T 315C
315 T 537C
(3.9), (3.10), (3.11)
The temperature ranges are determined by the temperature dependent

material properties curves in Figure 3.17 with maximum temperature of
approximately 0.6Tm of 6061-T6 aluminium alloy which is falls in work hardening
temperature region below the solidus temperature (Soundararajan, et al., 2005)
determined by the temperature dependent material properties curves in Figure 3.17
with maximum temperature of approximately 0.6Tm of 6061-T6 aluminium alloy
which is falls in work hardening temperature region below the solidus temperature
(Soundararajan, et al., 2005) and (Hamilton, et al., 2008).
60
Figure 3.17: Plunge pressure as function of temperatures (Benedyk, 2008)
In regards to the process modelling, the initial heat generation takes place at
the first contact of the rotating tool pin surface and continue throughout the plunging
phase where the temperature distribution of the work material is asymmetrical at the
leading and trailing edges as well as at advancing and retreating sides. Based the
assumption, the interfacial heat generation is constant with the consideration of the
constant rotating tool angular speed, , according to the temperature dependent
pressure distribution function, P(T), material heat capacity, cp, thermal conductivity,
k and constant coefficient of kinetic friction, k. Based on Fouriers 2nd law
(Incoropera & DeWitt, 1990);
2T 2T 2T
T
c p
k 2 2 2 q
t
y
z
x
(3.12)
Where cp is the heat capacity, x, y, and z are the space coordinate and
is
the heat source term corresponds to heat generated from the friction stir welding
process. The function of heat generation is directly related to the mechanical friction
work of the contacting surface thus accounts the sum of contact surface area of the
rotating tool. The sum of contact area is represented as function of rotating tool
plunge depth, hp given;
61
A( h 0) rp2
(3.13)
Rp
Rp rp
A(0 h hp ) A( h 0)
h(0 hp ) rp
sin 2
hp
rps2
A( h hp ) A(0 h hp ) ( Rs Rp )2
(3.14)
(3.15)
For A is the contacting surface between the rotating tool and the work
material surface, rp is the bottom pin radius, Rp is the top pin radius, hp is the total
height of the pin and rpS2 is the minor cone area. Furthermore, the torque required
to rotate the rotating tool relative to the static work material surface under P(T)
represents the conversion of mechanical work of the rotating tool. Given;
M
MR
dM P(T )2 A( h)rdr P(T ) A( h)R2

0
(3.16)
For simplification of the sum of contact area through cylindrical

approximation, given (Midling & Grong, 1994) and (Crossland, 1971);
M
MR
dM P(T )2 r 2 dr
0
2
PR3
3
(3.17)
Where M is the interfacial torque of the in contact work material surface and
the rotating tool surface, k is the coefficient of kinetic friction, R is the contact
surface radius, and P(T) is temperature dependent pressure distribution across the
interface. For fully sliding contact condition and with assumption of all the
mechanical friction work is converted into mechanical frictional heat, the average
heat input per unit area and time becomes;
62
q0
MR
2
3
dM P(T )2 r 2 dr PR3
0
4
2nPR3
3
(3.18)
where q0 is net power in Watt (Nms-1) and is rotational speed (rads-1).

Apparently, in Equation (3.18), the heat input depends on the normal pressure
distribution function, contact surface radius, temperature dependent coefficient of
friction function and the rotational speed of the rotating tool which producing
transient heat generation, distributed into the lump work material and thus
characterized the friction stir welding process variables.
In order to understand the physics of the friction stir welding process in the
expression of the mechanical loading associated, a mathematical representation is
derived based on Figure 3.18;
r1 (x1 x)i y1 j z1k
(3.19)
r2 (x2 x)i y2 j z2 k
(3.20)
r3 (x3 x)i y3 j z3k
(3.21)
r4 (x4 x)i y4 j z4 k
(3.22)
63
Figure 3.18: Free body diagram of multi-component load measuring device
r1, r2, r3 and r4 are the positional vectors for four measurement references in
relation to the rotating tool position on work material as in Figure 3.18 for a set of
cartesian coordinate (x1,y1,z1), (x2,y2,z2), (x3,y3,z3), (x4,y4,z4) and (x,0,0). For the free
body diagram, the sum of forces acted on the welding process responds on the
temperature dependent properties of the work material, and is calculated at static
equilibrium;
F 0
*
x,y ,z
(3.23)
Fnx , y , z
n1
(3.24)
F * sin i F * cos k (F1*x F2*x F3*x F4*x F1x F2 x F3 x F4 x )i

( F1 y F2 y F3 y F4 y ) j (F1*z F1 z F2*z F2 z F3*z F3 z F4*z F4 z )k
(3.25)
64
Where F*, is the plunge force as the function of contact surface area and
under the temperature dependent pressure distribution P(T) for a desired depth of
penetration. The torque exerted on the work material by the rotating tool mechanical
friction work is calculated based on Equation (3.16) and coupled by the moments
reacted at each of the measuring references on the work material as in Figure 3.18;
M 0
(3.26)
Mx* , y , z rnx , y , z Fnx , y , x 4( Rnx , y , z Fnx , y , z )

n1
Mx* , y , z
2
Fx*, y , z R
3
(3.27)
(3.28)
Where;
M1 M2 M3 M4
r1 F1 r2 F2 r3 F3 r4 F4
(3.29)
(3.30)
In Figure 3.18, the moments exerted on the measuring references are in

equilibrium and the acting forces exerted by the rotational tool mechanism are
determined from Equation (3.27), generally;
1 *
Mx , y , z Rnx , y , z Fnx , y , z
4
; n 1,2.., 4
rn Fn ( ynFnz znFny )i (xnFnz z1Fnx ) j (xnFny ynFnx )k
The general equation can be presented in a matrix form as;

65
(3.31)
(3.32)
1 *
4 Mx 0

0 zn
1
y
M z* n
4
zn
0
xn
yn Fnx
xn Fny
0 Fnz
(3.33)
In order to describe the reaction forces exerted at the measurement references

by the rotating tool, the matrix representation of the linear equations are solved using
Gauss Elimination Method. At any static equilibrium where the slip contact
condition between the rotating tool and the work material surface remain constant,
the moment at each of the measuring references remain the same but dependent on
the radius of the rotating tool and the pressure distribution function P(T) for the
respective rotating tool position. The values for the moment are also remained
constant at any Cartesian coordinate (x, y) location of the rotating tool on the surface
of the work material. Although the basic assumption for the constant contact
condition for the function of pressure distribution P(T) in modelling the process is
not physically correct but appropriate to be acceptable in the context of numerical
model as average value used throughout the investigation.
Proceed, co-planar analysis is carried out to investigate the reaction forces at

the reference points of the work material due to the mechanical friction work as in
Figure 3.19.
66
Figure 3.19: Free body diagram of co-planar analysis of the work material
A close approximation made on the geometry of the work material is to

measure the reaction forces and torque caused by the rotating tool from the friction
stir welding process at measuring points of the work material. Equation (3.33) is
reduced for performing co-planar analysis of the initial heat generation until the full
penetration of the rotating tool. The z-coordinates for the measurement references are
set zero and the equations are reduced as;
1
RF * sin
1
(
x
x
)
6
F1 x
RF * sin 1
6 y1
y 1 ( x1 x ) 1
y1
F1 z
(3.34)
1
RF * sin
6 y1
( x1 x )
1
y1
(3.35)
1
RF * cos
6 y1
(3.36)
F1 y
67
1
RF * sin
1
(
x
x
)
6
F2 x
RF * sin 2
6y2
y 2 ( x2 x ) 1
y2
(3.37)
1
RF * sin
6y2
F2 y
(x x)
2
1
y2
F2 z
(3.38)
1
RF * cos
6y2
(3.39)
RF * sin
1
(x x) 6
F3 x
RF * sin 3
6y3
y 3 ( x3 x ) 1
y3
(3.40)
1
RF * sin
6y3
F3 y
(x x)
3
1
y3
F3 z
1
RF * cos
6y3
1
RF * sin
1
(x x) 6
F4 x
RF * sin 4
6y4
y 4 ( x4 x ) 1
y4
F4 y
(3.41)
1
RF * sin
6y4
(x x)
4
1
y4
68
(3.42)
(3.43)
(3.44)
F4 z
1
RF * cos
6y4
(3.45)
Where Fn is the reaction force due to the rotating tool at measuring reference
(xn, yn), is the coefficient of friction, R is for the radius of the contact cross section
at the plane of interest. is the tilt angle of the rotating tool and (x, y) is the cartesian
coordinate of the stirrer tool with Fn values subsequence to the temperature
dependent plunging force, F*. The calculation accounts the temperature dependent
material properties of the work material, the welding configuration, work material
dimension and rotating tool design based on Equation (3.34) (3.45) given
previously. The data used in the calculation are summarized in Table 3.10, as plotted
in Figure 3.20 and the temperature dependent material properties are as in Table
3.11.
Table 3.10: Summary of data used for loads and torque calculation
Properties/parameter
Value
Work material dimension, mm
200 X 200 X 7
Shoulder radius, mm
Tool radius, mm
Pin radius, mm
2.852
Pin length, mm
Pin conical angle,
Tool angle,
Workpiece material
6061 T-6
Tool material
M42
Coefficient of friction
Figure 3.19
Plunge forces
Figure 3.20
69
Figure 3.20: Variable temperature dependent material properties of AA6061-T6 (U.S

Dept of Defense, 1998)
Table 3.11: Temperature dependent aluminium alloy 6061 properties (U.S Dept of
Defense, 1998)
Temperature
Tensile Strength
Yield Strength
Shear Stress
23.9
124.11
55.16
31.85
37.8
124.11
55.16
31.85
65.6
124.11
55.16
31.85
93.3
124.11
55.16
31.85
100.0
124.11
55.16
31.85
121.1
124.11
55.16
31.85
148.9
124.11
55.16
31.85
176.7
96.53
55.16
31.85
204.4
75.84
55.16
31.85
232.2
58.61
44.82
25.87
260.0
48.26
37.92
21.89
315.6
34.47
28.96
16.72
371.1
24.82
20.68
11.94
426.7
19.31
13.79
7.96
482.2
15.71
11.03
6.37
70
Co-planar analysis is carried out based on the work material temperature

dependent tensile, yield and shear strengths properties to investigate loads and torque
distributed within the work material. As exhibits in Figure 3.20, the mechanical
properties are used to determine the theoretical plunge force for the welding process.
In addition, a constant plunge force is proposed to simulate the experimental work as
comparison to the numerical analysis.
Constant plunge force is typically used in practice for displacement control

method of friction stir welding process (Longhurst, et al., 2010). Theoretically in this
work, the mechanical properties suggest the controlling parameters of the welding
process especially regarding the plunge force which is based on the contact area and
controlled pressure parameter on the tool, heat energy consumed and the mechanical
loads applied. The details of the parametric analysis are explained based on the case
studies as carried as;
Case 1: Theoretical plunge force based on the work material temperature

dependent tensile strength. In this case, theoretical plunge force based on work
material temperature dependent tensile strength is proposed as degree of the work
material ability to withstand axial force prior failure. Though, tensile strength is not a
close approximation compared to the work material bearing strength at ambient. It is
with intention that the limit allows material to undergo deformation only, avoiding
initial severe deformation due to excessive mechanical compression from the rotating
tool. This approach is also based on the assumption that contact condition is fully
sliding following the temperature dependent coefficient of friction curve as in Figure
3.21.
71
From Figure 3.21, as temperature increases to approximately 200C, the

coefficient of friction decrease gradually due to sheared layer of plasticised material
at the work interface. It is defined by the work material shear stress and governed by
(ANSYS Technology, 2009);
Figure 3.21: Temperature dependent coefficient of friction
P(T ) COHE
(3.46)
Where is shear stress, is the coefficient of friction, P(T) is the work

material temperature dependent pressure distribution function and COHE is the
sliding resistance constant. As the work material strength is affected by the thermal
effect represented by the temperature dependent contact pressure, it causes the
coefficient of friction to decrease at constant sliding resistant which is in correlation
to the shear stress. The fully sliding contact condition assumption is that the rotating
tool in constantly trusting and in contact to hard work material surface displacing the
soft material layer away from the contact interface.
Case 2: Theoretical plunge force based on work material temperature

dependent yield strength. The case study proposed theoretical plunge force
72
determination based on work material temperature dependent yield strength. As in

case 1, the limit proposed the work material to undergo stress from the welding
process at extend where the material is appreciably plastically deformed as
demonstrated in work material stress train curve. Though, yield strength is not a
close approximation compared to work material yield bearing strength at ambient.
The intention is to reduce excess pressure exerted on the tool yet sufficient to deform
the work material during friction stir welding process. This approach is also based on
the assumption that contact condition is fully sliding. Though, this case will not be
elaborate thoroughly as fully sliding condition is referred only to case 1.
Case 3: Theoretical plunge force based on the work material temperature

dependent shear strength. It suggested previously regarding the interaction of rotating
tool and work material contacting interface. In the case of fully sticking condition,
the interface of shear layer closed to the rotating tool undergo plastic deformation
mechanism and is assumed to behave as fluidic due to the yielding of the work
material that is accelerated by the thermal effect (Roylance, 2001), (Schmidt, et al.,
2006) and (Nandan, et al., 2006). Thus, work mateial shear strength is considered as
minimum limit to be applied for determining plunge force for the friction stir
welding process. The assumption for fully sticking contact condition is that the
rotating tool and work material is separated by a thin layer of plasticised material at
the contact interface.
The deformation layer between stationary work material surface and dynamic
rotating tool surface is treated as a shear surface undergo simultaneous twisting and
tension subjected to the torque and axial load delivered by the rotating tool. Based on
Tresca-shear yield criterion and the comparison to Von Mises yield criterion in
73
uniaxial tension and pure shear, given (Roylance, 2001), (Schmidt, et al., 2004) and
(Nandan, et al., 2006);
max k
yield
3
(3.47)
Where is the contact shear stress under sticking condition and yield is the
work material temperature dependent yield stress.
Case 4: Proposed experimental plunge force based on manual force and

plunge depth control methods, where the plunge force is control closely to a constant
value at variable plunge depth throughout the welding process. Force and plunge
depth control methods are common control method for friction stir welding process
(Longhurst, et al., 2010) and (Davis, et al., 2011). The force value is chosen base on
the design of the mechanical fixture and machine specifications as discussed in
earlier.
Figure 3.22: Plunge pressure variation for friction stir welding process cases 1 4
74
3.2.2 FSW set up, process parameter & procedure

In addition to the mathematical model, experimental work is proposed as
method for process and design proof of concept. The experiments are designed
purposely to;
1. Validate the mechanical fixture, data acquisition system design and to

draw specifications. The system is tested to capture multi-component
loads, torque and temperature measurement of the welding process
and represent the data through graphical and numerical representation.
2. Identify and analyse the friction stir welding process parameters, its
corresponding output and effect toward the process.
3. Compares the experimental results to the welding process model and
validates through data comparison from the experimental result.
Experimental friction stir welding process is conducted on conventional

FEXAC universal milling machine mounted with the designed mechanical fixture
and data acquisition system to capture associated data from the friction stir welding
process. The system is configured for x-axis welding direction and the z-axis spindle
is oriented 2 away from the leading edge toward the rear, utilizing a single tool
design for all experimental works. Pairs of work material with 100 200 6 mm
dimension are prepared for sets of variable welding parameters. The detail of
experimental configuration data and welding parameters are summarized as in Table
3.12 and Table 3.13.
75
Table 3.12: Experimental work configuration

Work material
AA 6061 T6
Dimension, mm
100 X 200 X 6
Rotating tool
Dimension;
Shoulder diameter, mm
18
Pin diameter, mm
6.0
Pin conical angle,
2.0
Pin height
5.0
Pin profile
Flat
Table 3.13: Welding parameters

Parameter
Tool speed, (RPM)
410
410
410
600
600
600
865
865
865
45.0
65.0
90.0
45.0
65.0
90.0
45.0
65.0
90.0
Feed rate, Fx
(mm/min)
Max. Load, N (kg)
Rake angle, ()
Plunge depth, d
(mm)
800.0 800.0 800.0 800.0 800.0 800.0 800.0 800.0 800.0

2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
76
Figure 3.23: Thermocouples in the welding configuration
Work material is prepared with flushed surfaces and discreet blind holes at
specifically designated location for thermocouple beads used for temperature
measurement as exhibit in Figure 3.23. The importance of flushed surfaces are to
make sure that the heat are transferred and distributed efficiently within the work
materials in addition to circumvent voids that may formed within the final weldment.
The work material is then secured on the mechanical fixture using work table clamps
before commencing experimental work.
The thermocouples positions are arranged in such way to avoid coalition with
the rotating tool pin but closed enough to capture the approximate friction stir
welding process temperatures. As the rotating tool passes the thermocouples, the
temperature reading of the rotating tool advancing and retreating sides at the leading
and trailing edges are measured.
As for experimental procedure, precaution step is taken making sure that the
friction stir welding process is ready prior the experimental work. During
initialisation, mechanical fixture, work materials and thermocouple are secured on
the reconfigured milling machine work table. During the initialisation step, the load
and temperature reading are calibrated through the data acquisition system user
77
interface. Welding parameters are set based on experimental design as in Table 3.13.
The main reasons for variable welding parameters in the experimental work are to
study the effect of varying feed rates at constant angular speed and the effect of
changing the angular speed toward the friction stir welding process. In this case, the
responding results are concerning about the welding parameters effect on the
temperature profile and welding process duration. While, the load, N, tilt angle, and
tool parameters are remain constant throughout the work.
Initialisation step is followed by the plunging phase of the friction stir

welding process. Work table is ascended toward to rotating tool in z-direction at
constant feed until they are touching. The load N measurement is monitored to be
maintained at 800 kg as safety precaution, which is limited by load cells capacity of
approximately 1,200 kg throughout the plunging phase as the table is constantly
ascending to desired depth. In response to plunging of the rotating tool, other load
components in x and y-direction as well as the generated heat is also being measured
and captured.
The plunging phase end when the rotating tool reaches desired penetration
depth and indicates the initiation of the welding phase. The rotating tool starts to
travel in the welding direction along the x-axis performing weldment along the
welding line. The process continues for a specific welding distance prior the end of
the welding process which ends with the retraction of the rotating tool away from the
work material.
Throughout the phases, mechanical load exerted as well as the thermal effect
within the friction stir welding process is translated by the mechanical fixture,
captured, processed by the data acquisition system and displayed through work
78
station display. In addition, the captured data are stored for further data analysis,
specifically regarding x, y and z-component loads, y-component torque and process
temperature.
3.3
Friction stir welding data comparative study

The mathematical model proposed earlier is derived based on the assumption
of different conditions of the friction stir welding process as stated in the case
studies. The contact conditions approximation provides a view on the fundamental
process of friction stir welding which allow numerical analysis for the welding
process understanding and optimization as comparison to experimental work. In
addition, the data from both mathematical and experimental result are compared to
validate the multi components loads, torque and temperature measurement device.
The results are also used to justify the varying parameters effect to the friction stir
welding process. This makes validation of the metrology system and the
mathematical model to allow for predetermination of the welding parameters prior
actual welding work avoiding tedious welding work and equipment failure, as well as
for the metrology design. Further application of the study allows researcher to choose
welding parameter application for sets of known temperature dependent work
material properties. Furthermore, it can be adapt into the introduction of automatic
welding process based on the process loads and torque calculation.
79
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS & DISCUSSION
This chapter entails detail results obtained from the methodology derived in
Chapter 3. Chapter 4 presents the findings and the discussions on the fulfilment of
the following objectives;
1. Multi component loads, torque and temperature measuring device

setup.
2. Mathematical model and the simulation of the friction stir welding
process.
3. Mathematical model validations of the friction stir welding process
and proof of concept on the developed metrology device.
4. Comparative studies of the varying friction stir welding process
parameters.
The results expressed in this chapter provide details representation of the

research work from the development of the mechanical device to the experimental
work of varying process parameters which are discussed further. It explains the
working mechanism of the device, the friction stir welding process as well as their
relevancy to the research objectives. This chapter elaborates in detail the results that
are presented. In particular, it highlights the plunge force schemes variations, the
plunge force schemes justification and the experimental welding parameter
differences. Clarifications on the aforementioned results provide clear insight of the
friction stir welding process, joint mechanism and congruity of the undertaking
research.
80
The discussion of the results provide the capacity to gain understanding on

the possible optimization of the friction stir welding process by proposing the
working and optimum parameter envelope for variable plunge forces, rotational
speeds and welding speeds at time and temperature response. This optimization
option grants valuable information on the friction stit welding process plan with
ability to predict process parameters for the work material properties without the
need of performing the actual experimental work. This not only allows time
reduction of choosing suitable welding parameters for the known work material but
importantly, avoiding laborious lab work and the requirement of dedicated lab
equipments
4.1
Metrology device and friction stir welding setup.

The working principals of the developed metrology device are to hold work
material in place while performing friction stir welding withstanding heavy loads, to
separate and to contain the welding process thermal effects from the ambient. In
addition, the device is designed to be compatible to be fitted onto conventional and
reconfigurable equipment dedicated to the friction stir welding process. Specifically
for the purpose of the friction stir welding lab work, the dimension for the work
material is chosen based on the ASTM E8/E8M and B 557M standards. This setup
aimed explicitly for destructive tension testing of the final welding product.
Mechanical tension test is a well known testing method that is used to determine
mechanical properties of welded products.
4.1.1 Multi component loads, torque and temperature measurement system

setup.
The designed experimental rig consists of the integration of a reconfigured
friction stir welding machine, a mechanical fixture attached to the test machine work
81
table, a data acquisition device and a work station with installed data acquisition
software to capture, process and record signals fed from sensors. Figure 4.1 shows
the configuration of the metrology system fitted to FEXAC universal milling
machine. In this setup, the friction stir welding process transverse speeds are referred
based on the test machine feed rate while the welding penetration rate is controlled
manually based on the axial load reading measured by the metrology system.
The full specifications of the metrology system are listed as in Table 4.1
referencing the specific application of friction stir welding of aluminium alloy 6061
T6 work material. Thus in this case, the metrology device and the system
specifications are highly dependent to the dedicated work material properties and the
lab scale application.
82
(a)
(b)
Figure 4.1: Friction stir welding setup
83
Table 4.1:
Metrology device specifications

Specification
Mechanical fixture
Work area
260 mm x 260 mm
Max combined axial load
~ 1, 000 kg
Max combined torque
~ 200 Nm
Max lateral load
300 kg
Working temperature
482 C
Reconfigured welding machine

Welding speed
11 500 mm/min
Max angular speed
1540 RPM
Rake angle
-2 2
Data acquisition
Sampling rate
1 ms
Load sensor I/O
7 ports
Temperature sensor I/O
6 ports
Software
Window based
Voltage, Current
AC 240 V, 1.5 A
4.1.2 Data acquisition system

The data measurement of the multi component loads, torque and temperature
can only be done through the designed data acquisition software where it translates
the pre-processed signals fed by the data acquisition device into measureable units.
The software translates the inputs from the seven load cells and the three pairs of
thermocouple into multi components loads, torque and temperature readings features
as measureable and graphical representation, with variable sampling rate and data
logging functions. These allow versatile data manipulation by the end user for
statistical analysis that may be used for the friction stir welding process optimization.
84
In addition, the calibration function allows the software to reduce measurement

errors resulting from the electrical noise signals and the ambient conditions.
Figure 4.2 displays working data measurement process and the information
template of the graphical user interface of an actual friction stir welding experiment
setup. The graphical user interface functions to display the related measurement of
each load cells and thermocouples. The force components, Fz, Fx, process torque, Tz
and welding process temperatures of the advancing and retreating sides are
displayed. The measured data are plotted in real time response graphical charts to
show the actual process responses on the fly. The information projected to the
graphical user interface is the significant pieces of information related to the friction
stir welding process variables. The other vital function of the software is that all the
measured and captured data can be saved as text document or *.txt file in specific
workstation directory for further statistical analysis and work.
85
(a)
(b)
Figure 4.2: Data acquisition system user interface
4.2
Mathematical model and welding process validation

The mathematical model is derived as the function of temperature dependent
work material properties as previously explained in Chapter 3. This model is strongly

is strongly to be emphasized to understand the phases of friction stir welding process
with in depth study on the heat generation processes, loads and torque distribution
especially at the initial friction stir welding process plunging phase. The model is
86
based on the assumption of different plunge force functions for different contact
conditions at specific temperatures and validated through comparison with
experimental result of a specific welding parameter.
4.2.1 Plunge force variation calculations

The plunge forces analysis is done based on the work material temperature
dependent plunge pressure function as illustrated in Figure 3.22 and as derived as
Equation (3.9) (3.11) from the previous chapter. The cases show the relationship of
different plunge pressure variations of different contact conditions and plunge
pressure control methods. The detail of the results from the mathematical model
calculations are explained based on the case studies as proposed;
Case 1; Theoretical plunge force based on the work material temperature

dependent tensile strength. This case is derived based on the temperature dependent
work material tensile strength plunge force function where the applied force is
exerted only to allow the material to undergo deformation due to the introduction of
initial severe deformation and due to excessive mechanical compression of the
rotating tool. In comparison to case 2, the temperature dependent work material yield
strength is only valid for tension mechanism and stretched specimen and quite the
opposite of the actual load bearing mechanism involved in the process.

dependent yield strength. The case study proposed the theoretical plunge force
determined based on work material temperature dependent yield strength. As in case
1, the limit proposed the work material to undergo mechanical stress from the
friction stir welding process at the extent where the material is just appreciably
mechanically and plastically deformed by the friction stir welding mechanism. The
87
intention is to reduce the excess mechanical force exerted on the tool but yet just
sufficient to deform the work material during friction stir welding process.

dependent shear strength. It is suggested in Chapter 3 regarding the interaction of the
rotating tool and the work material contact interface where the immediate work
material surface in contact to the tool is sheared from the base work material. Thus,
the work material mechanical shear strength is considered as minimum limit for
plunge force for the friction stir welding process.
Case 4: Plunge force based on manual force and plunge depth control
method. The plunge force is controlled closely to a constant value at variable plunge
depth throughout the friction stir welding process. The plunge force value is chosen
based on the design of the mechanical fixture and machine specifications as
discussed previously in Chapter 3.
As in Chapter 3, Figure 3.22 summarized the plunge pressure variation

profiles of the friction stir welding process based on the proposed plunge pressure
approaches. It is noticeable that the case studies are most significant at temperature
range approximately beyond 120C, where the work plunge pressures started to
decrease. Though for case 1, the decrease of the plunge pressure occur at lower
temperature than case 2 and 3. In the event of rotating tool plunged into the work
material, the introduction of new contact surface area of the rotating tool profile
continues to increase the opposing mechanical force under the proposed plunge
pressure values. For the proposed experimental plunge force of case 4, the rotating
tool is exerted under great plunge pressure at the initial plunge phase in order to
maintain a constant plunge force value. The exerted plunge pressure value is then
88
abruptly decreased as the work material becoming softer. It occurs simultaneously as

the immediate work material contact surface area started to increase as the rotating
tool continue to plunge into the work material.
Figure 4.3 shows the corresponding rotating tool plunge force theoretical
calculation results based on the proposed plunge pressures schemes. For case 1, 2
and 3 which corresponded based on the work material tensile strength, yield strength
and shear strength respectively, the plunge force profiles plotted fairly constant at
temperature below 200C but increase abruptly beyond that temperature, indicates
the plunging of the rotating tools. As the rotating tool pin radius increases, it
promotes the increase of the plunge force and continues until a temperature where
the work material literally losses its strength. These fluctuations between 200C to
320C signify the penetration of the rotating tool pin into the work material. As the
rotating tool penetrates, it displaces softened work material away from the tool thus
causing the instant reduction of the plunge force. The second fluctuations in between
320C to 480C are due to the introduction of the rotating tool shoulder surface as
the rotating tool penetrates into the work material completely. For case study 4, the
plunge force is maintained at constant value throughout the friction stir welding
process.
Corresponding to the friction stir welding process, Figure 4.3 (b) shows the
rotating tool plunge sequence for the specific region I, II, III and IV respectively.
Region I portrayed the initial contact of the rotating tool under the exerted plunge
force. Since the work material strength is still in plastic region and no plastic
deformation occurs, the load profile exhibits constant force trend from ambient to
approaching 200C. For plunge force scheme 1, as the work material surface in
contact to the rotating tool is deformed, yielded and displaced out due to the heavy
89
payload, it causes the rotating tool to start to penetrate into the work material. Region
I is followed by region II for the corresponding plunge as in Figure 4.3 (a). The
region explains that the rotating tool penetration is being resisted by increasing
plunge force due to fresh and harder work material surface comes into contact as the
softened work material layer is being displaced out. The increasing temperature
simultaneously reduces the work material strength at the rotating tool to the
immediate work material contact interface thus continue to allow its penetration.
Region III shows the dwelling or the welding phase where the rotating tool is fully
penetrated and introducing larger rotating tool shoulder area to the contact interface.
It is also exhibited by another increase of the plunging force. The dwelling phase is
shown by the region IV where the temperature is allowed to further increase and
reduces the work material mechanical strength.
Hypothetically, the plunge forces profiles manifest the working force range
for friction stir welding process of aluminium alloy 6061-T6. As demonstrated in
case 3, it suggests a minimum temperature of 200C and a minimum working force
of 7 kN in order to initiate the rotating tool penetration and theoretical maximum
force of 18 kN for the friction stir welding process. The graphical data representation
also suggests that the work material start losing its strength to resist mechanical work
of the rotating tool at temperature slightly less than 60% of the work material melting
temperature.
90
II
III
IV
(a)
II
III
IV
(b)
Figure 4.3: Friction stir welding (a) plunge forces, (b) tool plunge sequence
Moreover during the plunging phase, the rotating tool thrusting under the
plunge pressure profiles and at a constant rotational speed produces mechanical
torque, acting on the work material. The mechanical torque initiates the mechanical
friction work which then results the mechanical friction heat. Figure 4.4 reveals the
variation of mechanical torques exerted at the immediate rotating tool to work
material contact interface during the plunging phase at respective temperatures. It
represents the combined effect of the increasing rotating tool pin radii and the
shoulder radius on the mechanical torque under the pressure function variables.
91
Figure 4.4: Tool torque exerted at the tool-work material interface
Equation (3.16) in Chapter 3 shows the relationship of the mechanical torque,

temperature dependent work material coefficient of friction, contact area, rotating
tool pin radiui and rotating tool shoulder radius. Sticking and sliding contact
conditions of case 1 and 3, exhibit significant mechanical torques built up at
temperature beyond 300C. For case 4, high mechanical torque exerted at initial
plunge phase abruptly decreases at temperature 200C before increase back at
temperature beyond 300C. The decrease in the mechanical torque indicates the
softening effect of the work material while the immediate increase of the mechanical
torque value occurs as the rotating tool shoulder surface comes into contact to the
work material immediate surface. The graphical data representation shows that the
mechanical torques begin to diminish as the temperature approaches 0.6 Tm
indicating that the work material loses its ability to regain its mechanical strength or
literally is in soft state. A summarized data of the case 1, 2, 3 and 4 are exhibit as in
Table 4.2.
92
Table 4.2:
Temperature dependent mechanical loads and torques numerical

analysis data
Tool Plunge Force (kN)
Temp
Tool Torque (Nm)
(C)
Case 1
Case 2
Case 3
Case 4
Case 1
Case 2
Case3
Case 4
23.9
3.23
1.43
0.83
7.84
2.41
1.07
0.62
5.85
37.8
3.23
1.43
0.83
7.84
2.41
1.07
0.62
5.85
65.6
3.23
1.43
0.83
7.84
2.41
1.07
0.62
5.85
93.3
3.23
1.43
0.83
7.84
2.41
1.07
0.62
5.85
100.0
3.23
1.43
0.83
7.84
2.41
1.07
0.62
5.85
121.1
3.23
1.43
0.83
7.84
2.41
1.07
0.62
5.85
148.9
2.87
1.43
0.83
7.84
2.41
1.07
0.62
5.85
176.7
2.51
1.43
0.83
7.84
1.87
1.07
0.62
5.85
204.4
1.97
1.43
0.83
7.84
1.47
1.07
0.62
5.85
232.2
15.74
12.03
6.95
7.84
1.16
0.89
0.51
0.58
260.0
12.96
10.18
5.88
7.84
0.87
0.68
0.40
0.53
315.6
9.26
7.77
4.49
7.84
0.54
0.45
0.26
0.46
371.1
17.89
14.90
8.61
7.84
9.07
7.56
4.36
3.97
426.7
13.92
9.94
5.74
7.84
6.11
4.36
2.52
3.44
482.2
10.94
7.95
4.59
7.84
4.50
1.89
1.89
3.23
The plunge force scheme variations explained previously depicts in theory

the possible joining mechanisms that occur during the friction stir welding process
based on the contact conditions and temperature dependent material response. From
Chapter 2, the contact conditions involved in friction stir welding can be described as
sticking, slipping and partial stick-slip. It has been elaborated previously on the
various experimental works carried out to understand the working principle of the
friction stir welding process based on the mentioned contact condition. Thus, the
plunge force schemes are drawn as measureable approximation of the events.
93
The theoretical plunge forces based on the work material temperature

dependent tensile strength or case 1 signifies a theoretical approximation of
maximum load exerted to the work material to initiate deformation at the immediate
contact surface under the assumption of fully sliding contact condition. Though the
correct approach would be mostly accurate based on the work material bearing stress
properties, it is defied due to the coupled friction stir welding process thermal effect.
The coupled thermal effect functioned to reduce the work material mechanical
strength in order it to be displaced and stirred throughout the friction welding
process. Explicitly, the work material ultimate bearing stress of 228 MPa is
impossible to be achieved in this particular case as the immediate contact work
material is confined under the rotating tool and the peripheral hard work material
region, limiting its multi-directional deformation. Thus, the maximum theoretical
friction stir welding process load can be considered within the range of the work
material temperature dependent tensile strength and the temperature dependent
bearing yield stress with each limits variations are based on the process temperature
effect. Both work material properties mentioned have maximum values of 124 MPa
and 103 MPa (Benedyk, 2008).
The applied plunge force on the immediate contact interface causes velocity
difference and thus produces torque exerted on the work material. Under the sliding
contact condition, the torque profile begins to reduce as temperature increases. The
torque reduction explains the softening of the work material as the rotating tool
penetrates into the work material. Proceeds, the abrupt increase of torque beyond the
end of the plunging phase is explained by in contact area between the rotating tool
the fresh, harder work material.
94
As for case 2, the working theoretical friction stir welding process load is
limited within the range of the work material temperature dependent tensile range.
Thus for the plunge force scheme 2, the correlated parametric analysis and its effect
does not fit to be considered as the minimum working process load in comparison to
the work material temperature dependent sheer strength plunge force scheme.
In comparison to the first scheme, the temperature dependent work material

sheer strength scheme or case 3 suggests a close approximation of the minimum load
required for the friction stir welding process. The exerted load functions only to
introduce pure mechanical friction heat to the immediate work material without
causing severe physical material deformation. As the temperature rise, it causes the
immediate work material that is in contact with the rotating tool to be softened and
sheered along. This sheering in between the rotating tool and the harder work
material surface causes a fully sticking contact condition. As the exerted load
continues, the formed thin sheer layer is displaced out and a new, harder work
material surface is being reintroduced to the plunge phase. This process continues
until the rotating tool shoulder area comes into contact with the work material
surface exerting maximum load, indicating the end of plunging phase. The process is
continued with the following dwelling phase with the rotating tool continues to slide
on the formed soft work material sheer layer as it is no longer penetrating the work
material but at the same time still generating and producing heat into the work
material. As the process temperature continues to increase, multiple layers of soften
work material with different degree of work material strength and velocity are
formed around the rotating tool and within the crowned heat source. In this case, the
sliding contact condition is being expanded from rotating tool to work material
contact interface to the multiple work material layers to work material layers contact
interface. This nature is as discussed in Chapter 2 describes the plastic dissipation
95
heat generation occurs internally within the work material replacing the pure
mechanical friction mechanism at the dwelling phase and throughout the friction stir
welding phases.
On the other hand, the exerted torque explains the ideal effect of the rotating
tool area comes into touch to the hard work material surface. In reality, the value is
gradually lower than the other aforementioned plunge force schemes. That is due to
the displaced soft sheer layer from the act of the rotating tool plunge continued to be
sheered and move along under the rotating tool shoulder. Thus, the thin soft sheer
layer acts like lubricant, continues to assist the plastic dissipation heat generation as
the rotating tool shoulder is completely comes into contact to the work material
surface confining the encapsulated soft and sheered work material beneath. However,
the sheer strength torque profile attribute shows the minimum torque required in
order to conform to the success of the friction stir welding process. This minimum
requirement complies to the plastic dissipation heat generation mechanism as well as
to promote soft work material manipulation hence to produce the mechanical stirring
effect under the fully sticking contact condition.
Case 4 or the manual depth control plunge force scheme is the common
method used to apply the process force in friction stir welding as described earlier.
The main purpose of this method is to maintain the exerted load throughout the
friction stir welding process. In this case, high payload is introduced at the plunging
phase and being controlled based on the rotating tool penetration depth,
simultaneously maintaining the force value. Thus, this theoretical representation
assumes that the exerted force is always constant for variable plunge pressure applied
on the rotating tool at variable rotating tool plunge depth and sum of contact area. In
conventional practice, plunge force is not purposely being monitored during the
96
welding process. This is because of that only plunge depth is being considered as
significant controlling parameter which in the end results in excess payload being
applied to the work material. Though the excess payload effects on the work material
and weldment properties are not being discussed in this research but in summary the
force exerted correlatively affluence the welding process mechanical friction and
torque.
4.2.2 Co-planar analysis

Co-planar analysis provides the closest approximation of the friction stir
welding process loads and torque being transferred into the work material at
reference points during the welding process which result the corresponding F1, F2, F3
and F4 reaction forces. The references points are as portrayed in Figure 3.17 in the
previous chapter. Proceeding the exerted plunge force variations and torque
calculation, the co-planar loads calculations are done based on Equation (3.34)
(3.45) respectively, based on the welding data as in Table 3.10 and the proposed
plunge force.
Co-planar forces and torque analysis calculated based on the work material
temperature dependent tensile strength is shown in the Figure 4.5. The negative
values of x and y-direction reaction forces in Figure 4.5 (a) and (b) indicate the
opposing reaction forces exerted on the mechanical work with maximum values of
approximately 182 N and 178 N respectively. It is then followed by second peak
valued 139 N and 135 N respectively. For z-direction as in Figure 4.5 (c), the
maximum reaction force value exerted on the work material is 5.5 kN followed by
the second peak at approximately 4.2 kN. The same profiles also exhibited by the
reaction torque in Figure 4.5 (d) with maximum resultant value of 7 Nm followed by
the second peak of 5 Nm.
97
Co-planar force analysis calculated based on the work material temperature

dependent yield strength as in Figure 4.6 exhibits almost similar profile as the
analysis based on temperature dependent tensile strength but at lesser value. The x
and y-direction resultant reaction forces record maximum values of approximately
140 N and 136 N respectively. It also record maximum z-direction resultant reaction
force and torque of 4.3 kN and 5.3 Nm respectively.
Co-planar analysis calculated based on the work material temperature

dependent sheer strength is as in the below Figure 4.7. The negative value of x and ydirection reaction forces Figure 4.7 (a) and (b) indicate the opposing reactions
exerted to the work material with maximum values of approximately 182 N and 178
N respectively followed by second peak valued 139 N and 135 N respectively. For zdirection Figure 4.7 (c), the maximum reaction force value exerted on the work
material is 5.5 kN followed by the second peak valued approximately 4.2 kN. The
same profiles also exhibited by the reaction torque Figure 4.7 (d) with maximum
resultant value of 3.1 Nm followed by the second peak valued 2.5 Nm.
98
99
(d)
(b)
force, (d) z-direction reaction torque
Figure 4.5: Co-planar analysis for case 1. (a) x-direction reaction force, (b) y-direction reaction force, (c) z-direction reaction
(c)
(a)
100
(d)
(b)
(c)
(a)
101
(d)
(b)
(b)
reaction force, (d) z-direction reaction torque
Figure 4.7: Co-planar analysis for case 3. (a) x-direction reaction force, (b) y-direction reaction force, (c) z-direction
(c)
(a)
Co-planar analysis calculated based on the constant plunge force is as in

Figure 4.8 explains that the negative value of x and y-direction reaction forces Figure
4.8 (a) and (b), indicate the opposing reactions exerted to the mechanical work with
steady maximum values of approximately 101 N and 99 N respectively before started
to decrease at temperature 200C and above. For z-direction, the maximum reaction
force Figure 4.8 (c) value exerted on the work material is approximately 3.1 kN
while the maximum reaction torque Figure 4.8 (d) resultant value is approximately 4
Nm. The values are corresponding to the work material temperature dependent
properties, the rotating tool design and the rotating tool contact surface as
aforementioned earlier.
The highest reaction forces and torque peaks of cases 1 and 3 occur at
temperature approximately 240C, relative to the temperature dependent work
material properties as in Figure 3.20 where the work material strength is just started
to reduced. The reduced work material strength enables the rotating tool starting to
penetrate into the work material and performing the friction stir welding process. The
second peak, which occurs in all cases are due to the new rotating tool shoulder
surface comes into contact to the harder work material surface. Meanwhile for case
4, the reaction forces and torque remain constant at temperature below 200C and
gradually decreases beyond the mentioned temperature. The detail of the theoretical
analysis data are as in appendix E.
102
103
(d)
(b)
(c)
(a)
As described previously, the co-planar analysis approach applied to calculate

the reaction forces at reference points within the work material describes an
approximation of the welding variables effects toward the friction sitr welding
process. Similarly to the plunge schemes data comparison discussed previously, coplanar analysis data comparison is aimed to provide an insight on the suitability of
the numerical model application to predict the effects of the actual friction stir
welding process on the work material.
Co-planar analysis conducted for each of the plunge force schemes and
compared to the experimental data calculation based on Equation (3.31) (3.45) side
to side for the sum of the reaction x-direction load, y-direction load, z-direction load
and z-direction torque. The Figure 4.9 exhibits similar trends of the mentioned
measured variables at variant values of the co-planar analysis results. Figure 4.9 (a),
shows that within the ambient temperature to temperature 200C, the maximum xdirection reaction load is exerted by constant plunge force scheme 4 at value
approximately 100 N and minimum x-direction reaction load produced by plunge
force scheme 3 at value of 65.6 N. The x-direction reaction force calculated based on
the measured experimental result manifests within the maximum and minimum load
value as aforementioned. The x-direction reaction based on the experimental data
demonstrates initial abrupt increases in force signifies the initial plunging and
gradually reduce towards the end of plunging phase at temperature of approximately
316C. The load value increases back as entering the dwelling phase and reduces
back toward 0.6Tm and beyond. The experimental data result shows an approximate
trend to the proposed scheme 4 data but at lower value throughout the welding
phases. At temperature 200C and beyond, the load profiles exhibit maximum value
of approximately 179 N for plunge force scheme 1 and minimum numerical value of
approximately 28 N for plunge force scheme 3. The calculated x-direction reaction
104
force based on the experimental data falls slightly less and close to scheme 3 load
profile.
The reaction loads and torque portrayed similar profile based on the applied
formula and as in appendix E. Below discuss the summary for the remaining reaction
loads and torque. As in Figure 4.9 (b), y-direction reaction load of ambient
temperature to 200, the maximum reaction load is approximately 98 N for propose
plunge force scheme 4 and minimum approximately 10 N for plunge force scheme 3.
Beyond 200C, the maximum calculated reaction force is approximately 173 N from
plunge force scheme 1 while the minimum reaction force is approximately 28 N by
plunge force scheme 3.As in Figure 4.9 (c), z-direction load of ambient temperature
to 200C, the maximum calculated reaction force is approximately 3 kN from the
proposed plunge force scheme 4 and minimum value of approximately321 N for
plunge force scheme 3. For temperature beyond 200C, the maximum calculated
reaction force is 5.4 kN and the minimum, numerical reaction force is approximately
870 N. As for Figure 4.9 (d), z-direction reaction torque of temperature range from
ambient to 200C records maximum value of 3.9 Nm from proposed plunge force
scheme 4 and minimum value of 0.4 Nm for plunge force scheme 3. For temperature
beyond 200C, the maximum reaction torque recorded is 6.9 Nm from plunge force
scheme 1 and minimum reaction torque of approximately 1.1 Nm for plunge force
scheme 3.
The co-planar analysis as performed provides relevance information

regarding the work material fixture and to assist product design approach as the
exerted load from the welding process has the possibility to affect the work material
joining process and the product design integrity. It is an important consideration to
produce sound joint and robust manufacturing process. Furthermore, the co-planar
105
analysis can be use to assist the friction stir welding process optimization process by
providing working parameter range.
106
107
(d)
(b)
reaction force, (d) z-direction sum reaction torque.
Figure 4.9: Co-planar analysis data comparison. (a) x-direction sum reaction force, (b) y-direction sum reaction force, (c) z-direction
(c)
(a)
4.3
Mathematical model and experimental work validation

Mathematical models used are derived as a numerical approximation to the
real welding process in order to study and understand its mechanism in quantitative
measure. Thus, comparative work to the actual measurement of the welding process
is made to validate the compatibility and suitability of the mathematical model to the
actual welding process and its ability to adapt to changes in parameter especially
regarding to the temperature dependent work material properties.
For reference, the mathematical model is compared to the frictions stir

welding parameter set 1 as exhibited in Table 3.13 from the previous chapter and the
results are compiled as in Figure 4.10 and 4.11. It can be seen that the manual force
and plunge depth control scheme resulted a fairly consistent force trend throughout
the welding process at approximately 6 kN, way less than 7.8 kN or 800 kg as
proposed for case 4. It shows that the work material experienced high axial load
during the plunging phase. In sequence, it maintains approximately similar load
during the welding phase. Furthermore, the manual force value exhibits close data
comparatively toward scheme 3 at temperature range 200340 C. As for the torque
profiles, the experimental value remains low and fairly constant compared to all of
the schemes with close value to scheme 3 at ambient temperature to 200 C and
stayed throughout the friction stir welding process.
From the explanation above and figure, it can be inferred that the developed
mathematical models conveyed crucial information on the friction stir welding
process. Thus the working parameters and response can be associated to the actual
welding process.
108
Figure 4.10: Process force schemes comparison
Figure 4.11: Process torque schemes comparison
4.4
Friction stir welding experimental work and data comparison

To further validate the mathematical model and friction stir welding
parameter, the experimental works for the friction stir welding experiments are
carried out and compared based on the methodology planned in Chapter 3. The
results are plotted as presented in Figure 4.10 and Figure 4.11. Experimental works
are also carried out to test the mechanical fixture, the data acquisition system and to
analyse the varying welding parameter as in Table 3.13. The effects of the friction
stir welding parameters are studied and the welding process limits are identified. The
experiments are done in ambient condition under semi-automatic closed-loop control
109
on a single machine configuration with manual control of z-direction feed. The

welding parameters and configurations used are as in Table 3.12 and Table 3.13.
Data are captured for z-direction load, z-direction torque, x-direction load and
temperature profile for a period of time .The results are plotted in Figure 4.12 4.20.
The experimental work is started with welding parameter set 1 for 410 RPM
rotating tool angular speed and 45 mm/min welding speed. The friction stir welding
process plunging phase is indicated by the abrupt increase of z-direction mechanical
load as in Figure 4.12 (a) at the initial to maximum value of 6.7 kN before gradually
decreases. As the rotating tool is penetrating into the work material, the gradual
temperature started to increases rapidly as the friction stir welding process
temperature passes 100 C. The sudden increase of the temperature signifies the
plunging phase as the rotating tool surface contact area increases, as a result of the
increasing heat generation rate and produces maximum temperature of 310 C.
Plunging phase is followed by welding phase where the rotating tool started to
transverse, exhibited by the steady z-direction profile. For z-direction torque, the
graph Figure 4.12 (b) shows maximum peaks between 250 and 500 s due the
physical penetration of the rotating tool followed by fairly constant profile while
recording average value of approximately 0.5 Nm. As for x-direction Figure 4.12 (c),
the mechanical load profile shows high load at the beginning of the friction stir
welding process, recording maximum value of 113 N before abrupt drop at 500 s
and gradually diminished. The profile displays erratic fluctuations till the end. The xdirection load records average value of 53 N for the whole friction stir welding
process.
110
(a)
(b)
AS Advancing side
RS Retreating side
(c)
parameter 1. (a) z-direction load, (b) z-direction torque, (c) x-direction
load
111
For welding parameter set 2, 410 RPM spindle speed and 65 mm/min
transverse feed rate are used. The friction stir welding process started with an abrupt
increase in z-direction mechanical load as in Figure 4.13 (a). The rapid z-direction
load increase is preceded by fairly stable profile during the plunging phase until the
welding phase with maximum value of approximately 7.6 kN. The temperature
profile started with gradual and linear increase at 200 s as the rotating tool plunging
onto the work material and increases rapidly as passes 100C signifying the
penetration of the rotating tool. The temperature rate increase to maximum
temperature of 330C is due to the increase of area in contact between the rotating
tool and the work material surface. The z-direction torque profile Figure 4.13 (b)
exhibits small variation and linear increasing trend with average value of 0.8 Nm and
highest torque value of 3.5 Nm. The process ended with a high peak of
approximately 8.5 Nm. As the rotating tool is exerted to the work material, it causes
an abrupt peak of x-direction load Figure 4.13 (c) and diminished before another
abrupt increase at approximately 300 s as the z-direction load profile comes to
steady average value of approximately 43 Nm. There is an abrupt drop in x-direction
load value at approximately 580 s before sudden increase as temperature rate
increase and fluctuated. The end of x-direction load profile also exhibits high peak,
believed to be due to the same reason as aforementioned above.
112
(a)
(b)
(c)
load
Exhibited in Figure 4.14 is the result for welding parameter set 3 where 410
RPM spindle speed and 90 mm/min transverse speed rate are used. The friction stir
113
welding process is initiated by rotating tool exerted onto the work material causing
abrupt increase in z-direction load Figure 4.14 (a) to 6.3 kN before continue to
increase to maximum value of 6.8 kN at 410 s. The temperature profile started to
increase as the rotating tool touches the work material surface and exhibits three
different rates throughout the process due to the nature of the friction stir welding
process. The drop in z-direction load is corresponding to the increased process
temperature at approximately 430 s. The subsequent increase of temperature rate
indicates the end of plunging phase at approximately 660 s. The process ends as the
temperature reaches maximum value of approximately 358 C. For z-direction torque
in Figure 4.14 (b), the initial thrust of rotating tool causes instant increase of the zdirection torque to 7.8 Nm before decreased at 150 s and came into steady profile at
approximately 5.6 Nm with relatively small variation till the plunging phase. It
records average value of approximately 5 Nm with peak value of 8.9 Nm at the end
of the welding. As for x-direction load, the trust action of the rotating tool caused
abrupt increase at the beginning of the welding process to about 175 N before
gradually decrease 178 N before an abrupt drop at 480 s as the rotating tool starts to
penetrate into the work material. The rotating tool penetration causes fluctuations in
the x-direction load profile Figure 4.14 (c) recording average value of approximately
120 N and maximum value of 247 N before decreasing as the friction stir welding
process comes to end.
114
(a)
(b)
(c)
load
115
Figure 4.15 exhibits z-direction load and torque, x-direction load as well
temperature profile of the welding experimental work for welding parameter set 4;
600 RPM spindle speed and 45 mm/min welding speed. In Figure 4.15 (a), it
demonstrates abrupt increase of the z-direction load at the early phase indicates the
thrusting of the rotating tool to maximum value of approximately 6.2 kN before
gradually dropped to 4.3 kN at 530 s. It is then followed by welding phase which
exhibits steady load value till the end of the friction stir welding process. Z-direction
torque Figure 4.15 (b) exhibits erratic profiles throughout the welding process with
average value of approximately 0.3 Nm and maximum value of 0.6 Nm. The figure
exhibits decreasing trend of torque beyond 560 s as the rotating tool completely
penetrating the hot and soften work material followed by the subsequent fluctuations
which indicates the welding phase. As for x-direction load Figure 4.15 (c), it reveals
erratic profile along the welding process initiated by an abrupt increase as the
rotating tool thrust toward the work material recording average value of 35 N and
maximum value of 98 N. The temperature profile begins with linear rate at the initial
plunging phase before period 560 s and increased towards the end of the plunging
phase. The welding phase produces greater heat generation rate, exhibited by abrupt
increase of temperature at approximately 530 s before the fall at 800 s as the
rotating tool is retracted from the work material.
116
(a)
(b)
(c)
load
117
The Figure 4.16 shows the variation of welding parameter set 5 of 600 RPM
spindle speed and 65 mm/min welding speed. As in Figure 4.16 (a), the experiment
results gradual drop of load measurement after the initial abrupt increase to
approximately 7.4 kN during the initial plunging phase. The drop of z-direction load
is followed by an abrupt load increase at 570 s to approximately 7 kN which
indicates the full penetration and the end of plunging phase. During the welding
phase, the z-direction shows steady and constant value with abrupt increase in
temperature generation rate. This is the moment of full penetration which resulted in
larger sum of contact area of the rotating tool in contact to the work material surface.
The torque profile of the process Figure 4.16 (b) shows constant trend with small
variation and records average value of around 1 Nm except for sudden peaks at 500
and 820 s. X-direction load graph Figure 4.16 (c) also exhibits chaotic profile
during the plunging and welding phase with average value of 47 N throughout the
friction stir welding process.
The experimental results of friction stir welding process for welding variable
set 6 are as exhibited in Figure 4.17, for parameter 600 RPM spindle speed and 90
mm/min welding speed. The z-direction load Figure 4.17 (a) exhibits the abrupt
increase of load at the beginning of the plunging phase where the rotating tool
exerted onto the work material recorded maximum value of approximately 6 kN
before gradually drop to 2.3 kN at 660 s due to the rotating tool penetration into the
soften work material. As the rotating tool continue to plunge into the work material,
the load increases before becoming steady at approximately 5.6 kN, indicates the end
of plunging phase and the beginning of welding phase. During the friction stir
welding phases, the temperature indicates sound and approximately linear trend
toward the end with slight high rate at time of 940 s and after. Z-direction torque
Figure 4.17 (b) measurement exhibits almost constant reading throughout the
118
welding process with average value of approximately 2 Nm and with smaller value
during the welding phase at 990 s before reaching maximum peak of approximately
11 Nm. The x-direction load profile Figure 4.17 (c) exhibits erratic value with almost
constant trend throughout the welding process with abrupt increase as the tool thrusts
to the work material at the beginning of the process to approximately 212 N. The xdirection load records average value of 131.5 N and maximum value of 247 N.
119
(a)
(b)
(c)
load
120
(a)
(b)
(c)
load
121
Welding parameter set 7; 865 RPM rotating tool speed and 45 mm/min tool
travel speed. The z-direction load profile as in Figure 4.18 (a) shows the abrupt
increase of load at the beginning of the friction stir welding process recording value
of around 5.5 kN, followed by steady trend before immediate drop at 250 s to load
value 2.6 kN at 350 s. The drop indicates the penetration action of the rotating tool
into the hot and softens work material. The value quickly increases back to
approximately 5.2 kN as the rotating tool is fully penetrated into the work material
and come into steady profile as the rotating tool started to travel and perform
weldment in the welding phase. The temperature profile exhibits approximately
linear trend throughout the welding process with an abrupt temperature increase at
500 s. Z-direction torque Figure 4.18 (b) exhibits erratic and variable value all
through the process with average value of approximately 0.31 Nm and maximum
value of 0.7 Nm. X-direction load Figure 4.18 (c) also shows similar kind of erratic
profile throughout the welding process with average value of 29.4 N and maximum
value of approximately 114 N.
Figure 4.19 exhibits welding parameter set 8 with 865 RPM spindle speed
and 65 mm/min welding speed. Figure 4.19 (a) shows z-direction load profile
initiated with abrupt increase to 7 kN at 100 s as the rotating tool started to plunge
into the work material before gradually decrease to 2.5 kN at 500 s. The load is later
increase back to maximum value of 7.2 kN as the rotating tool starts to penetrate into
the work material. The peak value of z-direction load indicates the end of plunging
phase and the beginning of welding phase resulting constant and steady load value of
approximately 6.9 kN till the end of the friction stir welding process. The
temperature profile recorded quite linear trend throughout the friction stir welding
process with maximum value of approximately 400C. Z-direction torque graph
Figure 4.19 (b) shows approximately constant profile with average value of about 0.5
122
Nm and maximum peak of 2.5 Nm at 720 s and another peak of 2 Nm at the end of
the welding process. X-direction load profile Figure 4.19 (c) displays erratic profile
with average value of approximately 46 N along the friction stir welding process.
Figure 4.20 below shows experimental result for welding parameter set 9,865
RPM spindle speed and 90 mm/min welding speed. Z-direction load chart Figure
4.20 (a) shows an abrupt increase at the initial of the friction stir welding process to
maximum value of 5.5 kN before gradually decrease to 1.9 kN at 400 s as the
rotating tool starts to penetrate into the work material. It continues with a relative
constant trend of slight variations before an abrupt increase at 490 s to 5 kN
indicates the end of plunge phase. Promptly, the end of plunge phase indicates
welding phase exhibited by constant value of about 4.7 kN till the end of the friction
stir welding process. The temperature profile exhibits linear trend at the beginning of
the plunging phase, comes to constant trend at 370 530 s before an abrupt increase
to maximum temperature of 361C at the welding phase. Figure 4.20 (b) shows zdirection torque with relatively constant trend throughout the friction stir welding
process and peaks at 100 210 s and 610 733 s resulting average value of
approximately 0.7 Nm and maximum value of 5.9 Nm. X-direction load profile
Figure 4.20 (c) shows erratic values throughout the friction stir welding process with
average value of 107 N and maximum value of 271 N.
123
(a)
(b)
(c)
load
124
(a)
(b)
(c)
load
125
(a)
(b)
(c)
load
126
The physical experimental work results of the friction stir welding processes
are portrayed in Figure 4.21; (a) parameter set 1,2 and 3, (b) parameter set 4, 5 and 6,
(c) parameter set 7, 8 and 9, with detail data are summarized in appendix E.
Set 1
Set 2
Set 3
(a)
Set 4
Set 5
Set 6
(b)
Set 7
Set 8
Set 9
(c)
Figure 4.21: Experimental specimens of friction stir welding for parameter set 1 9
127
The experimental results present show the variation of z-direction load and
torque as well as x-direction load for varies welding parameter set of 410, 600, 865
RPM spindle speed, 45, 65 and 90 mm/min welding speed variations. The
importance of these variables significantly influence the final result of the weldment
by effecting the rotating tool and work material interface contact condition that result
the degree of material flow and mix that produces the final weldment and its
mechanical strength. Comparatively, the experimental data is summarized as in
Table 4.3 below.
Table 4.3:
Comparison of the welding parameter experimental results
Parameter
Max plunge force, kN
6.7
7.4
6.0
5.5
7.0
5.5
6.8
7.5
6.8
Max welding force, kN
6.1
7.1
5.6
5.5
7.2
5.0
5.5
7.3
6.2
Max torque, Nm
0.6
9.6
11.0
0.7
2.5
5.7
2.0
8.4
9.1
Max x-force, N
98
315
274
65
101
271
113
91
247
Max temperature, C
310
345
404
388
403
361
310
337
358
4.5
Theoretical and experimental data comparison

The mathematical model and the experimental welding data variations
conclude the significant impact of the elaborated plunge force schemes on friction
stir welding process. Figure 4.22 summarized the comparison between the plunge
force schemes and the experimental results. Figure 4.22 (a) distinctly exhibits
different process plunge force profiles at different phases and temperatures with
scheme 1, 3 and 4 as welding process reference ranges and limits while figure 5.1 (b)
shows the resultant forces measured in x-direction. Figure 4.23 shows the variation
of the process z-direction torques. As mentioned before, plunge force scheme 2 is not
128
discussed in detail as it resides in between scheme 1 and 3 and thus is not being
considered.
At initial plunge phase of temperature range ambient to 200C, the

comparison data shows that the exerted experimental plunge force increase abruptly
but reaching force value less than the proposed manual depth control plunge force
schemes of 7.8 kN. In Figure 4.22 (a), the gradual reduction of force value at T1
indicates that the rotating tool started to plunge into the soften work material. Ideally
in this event, the experimental plunge force is to be maintained constant by
continuously controlling the plunge depth. Though, the continuous and rapid soft
work material displacement occurs as the rotating tool penetrates the work material
thus results the gradual drop in the plunge force profile. The soft work material
displacement is mainly due to the rotational action of the rotating tool. Analogically
it is comparable to the material removal of drilling process.
129
0.6Tm
T1
T2
T3
T4
(a)
0.6Tm
(b)
Figure 4.22: Plunge force schemes and experimental loads data comparison. (a) zdirection load, (b) x-direction load
130
T1
0.6Tm
Figure 4.23: Plunge force schemes and experimental torque data comparison
The contradicting results are represented as in Figure 4.22 (b) and Figure
4.23. At plunge phase, the experimental x-direction load as in Figure 4.22 (b) records
rapid inclination at the initial phase of ambient temperature and gradually decreases
as the rotating tool penetrating the work material, which occur at T1 in Figure 4.22
(a), increase back as approaching temperature 200C and portrayed quite an
oscillating trend towards temperature 0.6Tm. As for the torque profiles as in Figure
4.23, the measured z-direction torque behaves as almost constant trend throughout
the welding process. Theoretically, both x-direction force and z-direction torque are
correlated to each other as the torque produced by the rotating tool is ideally the
function x-y and x-z planes force components. Though, in the case of plunging phase,
the reaction torque calculation is made based on the y-direction load in x-z plane
measured by the coupled load sensors, excludes the measurement in the x-direction
load. Based on the current metrology device design, the x-direction load
measurement is purposely being isolated from the torque measurement by locating a
load sensor in the middle of x-y plane. In the sense of simplicity, the consideration is
made only to measure x-direction load caused by the friction stir welding process
disregarding its effect to the measured torque. Nonetheless as a whole, the measured
x-direction force does significantly play role toward the produced torque especially at
131
the welding phase. Thus, a further research is required to understand the correlation
of the x-direction load and z-direction torque as it mainly involves the effect of
welding parameter variations.
The discussion on the torque measurement can be further explained based on

the second Amontons law of friction which describes that the friction force is not
dependent on the apparent area of the separated and in contact bodies (Popov, 2010).
This event is also explained by the formation of soft, thin work material layer in
between the rotating tool and harder work material surface and act as lubricant.
Though, the variation of the schemes theoretical value represented in the figures
taking account the assumptions as discuss in Chapter 2 and provides related
information for the welding process efficiency, soft work material layer manipulation
and related welding parameters that can be used for further researched in the future.
Figure 4.24 shows the displacement of soften work material prior to the full
penetration of the rotating tool during the plunge phase. The rotating tool is rotating
in clock wise direction with the figure showing that the soft work material layers are
forced to flow along with the rotating tool toward the retreating side and the rear
edge. As the rotating tool shoulder approaches the end of the plunging phase, a
portion of work material is displaced out by the rotating tool pin. As discussed earlier
in detail, the continuous plunge force drop occurs as the rotating tool penetrating the
work material but increases back as the rotating tool shoulder is completely in
touched with the work material surface and being re-introduced to harder and
stronger work material. The end of plunging phase indicates the dwelling phase as
the gradual increasing load becomes constant consequently at increasing
temperature. Considerably, this phenomenon explains the welding process is up for
the welding phase and any further increase of the process temperature provides no
132
effect on the welding force. Though, further investigation on the friction stir welding
process effects toward the joining process and the final weldment are worth to be
explored within the T3 and T4 welding temperature window as in Figure 4.23.
Figure 4.24: Work material flow rotating tool shoulder interaction during plunge
phase (Kumar & Kailas, 2008)
In comparison of the plunging force schemes and the experimental data with
theoretical value for scheme 4 set as reference, Figure 4.22 (a) shows that in actual
experimental work, the plunge force required during the plunge phase by manual
plunge force control scheme is less that the proposed theoretical force value of 7.8
kN. At the same time, the plunge force exerted during the plunge phase is greater
than both scheme 1 and 3 values from ambient to 200C. This explains that for
manual force control scheme, the rotating tool to work material contact condition
during the plunging phase is fully sliding. As the welding process temperature goes
beyond 200C, the friction stir welding process is in transition of the plunging phase
to welding phase with the rotating tool started to penetrate the work material for
force scheme 1 and 3, and progressing rotating tool penetration for scheme 4 as
portrayed by the experimental data. It can be seen that beyond the mentioned
temperature, the welding experimental load profile falls as scheme 3 with fully
sticking contact condition throughout the welding phase.
133
Unexpectedly, the explanation above does not reflect the ideal assumption of
measured x-direction load. As mentioned before, x-direction profile disagree with
experimental plunge force result as the profile dwell at low value within the scheme
1 and 3 plunge phase values which is seen to favour the produced torque profile.
Ideally, the torque profile is to be in complement to the plunge force schemes.
Although, the experimental and theoretical torque results variations are not as
enticing with huge difference between the theoretical value and experimental value
of scheme 4 at plunging and welding phase. In reality, the experimental data remains
close to the scheme 3 from ambient to 300C and with similar trend towards the end
of welding phase.
Based on these explanations, the data shows the distinct and important phases
involved in the friction stir welding process, the significant of the data analysis
application for the welding process working limits and the option for optimization
process. For the process force, it can be concludes that for manual plunge force
control, the tool started to penetrates into the work material at lower temperature T1
compared to other schemes in the expense of high plunge force value. Here, the work
material at the immediate the rotating tool contact surface undergoes severe
deformation and forced to be displaced thus allows the penetration. The mentioned
schemes also completes the plunging phase at lower temperature T2 and thus shows
that it is in favour for the friction stir welding process. In regards to the welding
process torque profiles, the data shows the improvement room for exploiting and
manipulating the welding process torque. It provides the ability to influence the soft
work material physical manipulation through effective rotating tool design and
stirring action in producing amalgamated weldment, increases the heat generation
efficiency and reducing mechanical power conversion to heat loss.
134
4.6
Varying welding parameter comparison

As though friction stir welding joining method has gain many interest for
industrial application, the advancement of the process is still in progress in

determining related standards and operating procedures. Parametric analysis of
known process variable has become the main option in studying their effect on the
process and the joint formed. Further analysis and representation of the varying
welding parameters are done to measure the response of process variable and their
relationship.
In detail, the reaction forces and torque in relation to the corresponding

temperature are discussed. Figure 4.25 shows the results of nine sets of welding
parameter grouped in three, each represented by the same rotational rotating tool
speed. For each group, the experiments are done on a pair of work material and at
three different spots, each spot respectively for each welding parameter set. Set 1 and
3 results comparatively close value at plunge phase with slight drop of force of set 4
as the process enters the welding phase before abating the gap towards the end. Set 3
records high force at the initial plunge phase and resulting steep drop as it approach
200C before the profile comes into steady at the welding phase. Set 4, 5 and 6 also
exhibits almost similar trend as 1, 2 and 3 respectively but at lower force magnitudes.
As for set 7, 8 and 9, they exhibit quite steady force profile throughout the welding
process. Thus, the mentioned grouped set 7-9 can be concluded to be comparably the
best welding parameter option. Although the measured maximum z-direction forces
for all process parameter sets are within close range of 67.5 kN, the actual influence
of varying rotating tool rotational speed and the welding speed can only be accessed
through studying the produced joint properties microstructure and its physical
properties, thus require different approaches.
135
Ideally, the z-direction forces values at the plunge phase are to be relatively
closed to each welding parameter set variances. It can be simply explained by
assuming that the phenomenon is mainly influenced by the work material heat
transfer. The previous Figure 4.19 shows the welding location for each of the
parameter set respectively of dimensioned work material as in Table 3.10 as in
chapter 3. For welding parameter set 2, 5 and 8, the forces profiles result higher
degree comparable to other welding parameter sets as the heat transfer is greatly
influenced by greater convection area as the welding spot is located at the middle of
the work material. Though, the actual influence factors on the measurement result
need to be further investigated and verified especially regarding the mechanical
fixture and measurement system integrity.
In contrast to z-direction force, z-direction torque profiles exhibit different

profiles trend in reference to the respective process parameter sets. Grouped welding
parameter sets 4, 5 and 6 displays almost ideal condition with relatively close value
recorded at almost throughout the welding phases. Welding parameter sets as in
Figure 4.26 (a) and (b) exhibit most erratic profiles with each welding parameter set
3 and 9 recorded higher values than the other grouped parameter sets. To provide
different explanations regarding the influencing factor to the z-direction torque
profiles such as previously discussed on the z-direction force would be contradictory.
Thus, the most suitable influencing factor is presumably being due to the work
material properties disambiguation and its physical condition. Though, this doubt can
be further investigated through series of controlled statistical analysis of the welding
data.
136
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 4.25: Varying process parameter results for z-direction force. (a) Set 1 3, (b)
Set 4 6. (c) Set 7 9
137
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 4.26: Varying process parameter results for z-direction torque. (a) Set 1 3,
(b) Set 4 6. (c) Set 7 9
138
In response to the applied plunge force, all the measured x-direction forces as
in Figure 4.27 exhibits value range within 50 250 N. For all welding parameter
sets, the x-direction forces exhibits constant trend for both plunge and welding phase.
It shows that the variable welding speeds applied are within working parameter.
Though as previously discussed, the actual influence of the varying parameter can
only be studied in detail based on the joint microstructure and physical properties. In
regards to parameter set 3, 6 and 9, the results of higher values is explained by the
close location of the welding spot and the location of the x-direction sensor. It can be
concluded that the mentioned measured forces value are influenced by the physical
factor of the metrology device and thus require design reconsideration.
The varying welding variable study shows that for aluminium alloy used, the
z-direction forces profiles and under manual plunge force scheme, it exhibits distinct
plunge and welding phases at temperature range within approximately 200C as in
Figure 4.25. At mentioned temperature, the physical work material strength has
reduced to almost 60% of its initial strength. While these data provide valuable
information to support the process optimization, they need to be in complement to
material properties investigation. Even though these process variables influence the
success of the friction stir welding process, the produced joint status is in unknown
and need to be further investigated.
139
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 4.27: Varying process parameter results for x-direction force. (a) Set 1 3, (b)
Set 4 6. (c) Set 7 9
140
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATION
This chapter answers the problem statement arises, fulfils the listed research
objectives and concludes the study of the development of multi component loads,
torque and temperature measurement device for friction stir welding process. The
research is specifically drawn to provide better understanding of the physical nature
and working mechanisms of friction stir welding process through the process
physical measurements and numerical representation. It is also to answer the raised
issues regarding the lack of standards, practice procedures, process optimization and
finally its suitability for automation and manually hand held. In addition, the research
work is carried out to look into the benefits the friction stir welding process, firstly
through the development of measuring system to capture the welding process
mechanical responses, secondly through the investigation of the physics of the
welding process mechanisms and finally through the understanding of process
parameter involved in producing amalgamated joint. The outcome of the research
objectives has been discussed in detail previously and will be commented in this
chapter.
5.1
FSW multi component loads, torque and temperature measurement

system
The developed metrology system was proven to able to measure the exerted
mechanical and thermal effect of the friction stir welding process toward the work
material. The current constructed device is to measure welding loads, torque and
temperature for 6061-T6 grade aluminium alloy work material of standard ASTM
specimen size for destructive testing method for the welded work material.
141
For current application, the device is limited to exert maximum z-direction

load of approximately 1,200 kg with safety factor of 1.25 under the proposed manual
plunge force control scheme and approximately 1.70 for the measured plunge force.
The work area is also limited for test equipment work envelope but flexible enough
to hold work material with dimension slightly above 2 times larger than the proposed
ASTM specimen size. At the same time, the slotted working table of the device
allows flexible clamping method as well as with mind for varieties welding
configurations. In regards to the z-direction torque, the coupled load sensors in the xz plane able to withstand approximately 200 Nm worth of torque. The ample sum of
torque value permits variety rotating tool designs application which held direct
impact toward the produced torque during the friction stir welding process. While, it
is beneficial to measure the asymmetrical welding process characteristic based on ydirection load, the system is designed to directly gauge the y-direction load as torque
due to the simplification of the mechanical design and data capture algorithm
approaches. For the same sense, the device is also designed to decouple the x-y plane
sensors in order to isolate the sum of x and y-direction loads. Thus, this allows the xdirection load measurement up to maximum load of 300 kg with 1.5 safety factor.
Under the current design approach, the metrology device is integrated with
developed data acquisition hardware interface which is fed by seven load sensor
inputs, six temperature sensor inputs and processed by data acquisition software
which allows wide range of sampling rate with minimum of 1 s. However, the
metrology system performance is yet greatly affected by the sensors is used. Because
cantilever strain based load cells is used to measure the mechanical loads, the sensors
are susceptible to creep due to high load, high temperature and high frequency
loading. The load cell also suffers lack response from the electrical resistance strain
method compared to the more complicated capacitive method. Inevitably, this
142
influence produces inaccuracy in data logging at high frequency (i.e. > 1 kHz). Thus,
all of the constraints listed make room of improvement for future work by
reconsidering the design approaches for the multi component loads, torque and
temperature measurement device. In the experiment using the developed device, all
care was taken to ensure these effects are minimized so that the data captured are
valid.
5.2
FSW process mathematical models

The better understanding of the physical working mechanism of the friction
stir welding is done through a numerical approximation of the process. In this work,
contact mechanic approach is used to relate the welding parameter used during the
friction stir welding process toward the mechanical effect on the work material and
the response of its temperature dependent material properties. The approach suggests
the generality of the mathematical model, enabling it to be adapted to various known
work material properties scope.
The numerical estimation shows that the welding process measurement data
falls within the calculated values under different plunge force schemes. As such, the
mathematical model show the over and under estimation of the friction stir welding
process and provides reference that can be used to measure the actual process
performance in term of energy usage and conversion efficiency as well as the
welding process parameter optimization. The numerical data also proves the
asymmetrical characteristic of the welding process which favour to the rotation
direction of the rotating tool. The characteristic mentioned plays major influence in
regard to the formation and success of the joint in addition to its effect to the joint
strength, failure nodes and attributes. In term of the friction stir welding process
thermal performance, both the mathematical analysis and experimental results prove
143
that the welding process is performed within the range of the work material hot
working temperature and way below its melting temperature as described by the
previous research works thus makes it a solid state welding process. Briefly the
thermal effect of the welding process is heavily influenced by the rotating tool design
and the combination of the rotating tool rotational speed and the welding speed under
a constant plunging force. Though, welding speed does play a role to the welding
process temperature profile, the process variable shows that the effect is minor and
almost negligible. The welding speed variations also have direct relationship to the
mechanical friction force hence the process thermal profile. Nevertheless, it is not
carried out in this research and future undertaking is required.
The numerical and experimental data comparison in complement are used to

validate the metrology device and data acquisition system performance based on the
assumptions discussed by other researchers regarding the plunge force schemes,
contact conditions approach and experimental data. The results data presented and
discussed as in Chapter 4 concludes that the numerical approximation of the friction
stir welding process is in agreement and adaptable to the experimental data albeit not
perfectly. It shows a sum of improvement room for the friction stir welding process
and work procedure optimization. At the same time, it can be used to pre-determine
associated factors that affect the friction stir welding process, to pre-determine the
welding process requirement as well as to pre-determine the friction stir welding
process outcome.
Theoretically, numerical model is proved to provide generality approach to

the welding process of different work materials in reference to their temperature
dependent properties. It also shows the asymmetrical characteristic of the welding
process as exhibited by calculated y-direction loads in the previous chapter due to the
144
welding process stirring mechanism. Therefore, the stirring mechanism is in favour

to retreating side, making it stronger than advancing side of the work material. This
observable fact proposes further investigation on finding ways to have evenly
distributed weldment strength which is preferably better than the base work material.
Despite of the model generality and benefits, experimental work and the
mathematical model side to side validation is still required to reduce dependency on
theoretical assumption factors and thus further improve the model.
5.3
FSW process optimization option

The data analysis and results comparisons carried out previously are
summarized to represent the overall view of the welding process in form of a process
window. The process window is created in reference to the multi component forces
and torque responses at temperature variable and is as illustrated as in Figure 5.1.
Dwell and weld
Tw
Figure 5.1: Friction stir welding process window
It summarizes the maximum and minimum limit of the process variable
reactions at different welding phases which are separated distinctly by a working
temperature, indicated as the welding temperature, Tw at the plunge and welding
145
phase transition. It also concludes the plunge force schemes discussed previously. It
justify the benefit of the manual plunge force scheme as most preferred scheme to be
used to control the friction stir welding. The mentioned scheme is benefited most
during the plunging phase as the friction stir welding process is held under full
mechanical friction heat generation mechanism at full sliding contact condition as
portrayed by the z-direction load profile.
Conclusively, the described friction stir welding process window provides an

overview of the friction stir welding process response to different welding parameter
variations. It also represents the inter dependent of each welding process variables
that result different responses to each other but is highly co-related in the sense of
providing better joint properties. Thus, each of the welding process parameter is to be
independently optimized. In addition, the aforementioned mathematical model
provides relevant function in order to achieve this.
5.4
Future work and suggestions

Generally, the current work provides an approach to optimize the friction stir
welding process both theoretically and through experimental work via the metrology
system. In complement, final weldment properties investigation can further enhance
welding process research methodology and the weldment result. In depth, material
investigation of joint produced is done based on the proposed research methodology
of the side to side theoretical and experimental work.
In achieving the above, further work is also suggested on the metrology

device design reconsideration. Capacitive sensors instead of resistive strain based
load cell can provide wider range of benefits it term of the higher loading capacity,
higher the loading frequency, higher measurement frequency ability and physically
146
compact which allow effective sensors arrangement and efficient mechanical device
design of cost and size. Though, the ideal benefits as mentioned leads to more
complicated electrical circuitry, signal processing and hardware to software
integration and thus are a challenge to be answered.
Apart, the further extension of the mathematical model is inevitable in order

to further improve the proposed numerical analysis of the friction stir welding
process by taking into accounts both the statics and dynamics of the welding process.
The improvement is to completely compose the plunge, the dwell and the welding
process phases analysis in comparison to the static approach used in the current
study. It is also crucial to revise and refine the proposed welding process window.
Finally, the complementary numerical model and metrology device is to be

adapted for the automatic control of the friction stir welding process. The numerical
model is suggested to make up as control algorithm while the metrology device
approaches is to measure the exerted loads, torque and the corresponding
temperature. Both of the combination makes a close-loop control system which is
advantageous for autonomous and robotic welding process.
As a whole, the current work has fulfilled proposed listed objectives, carried
out the development of a metrology system to measure the multi component loads,
torque and temperature of the friction stir welding, investigated the physical process
mechanisms, thoroughly identified and studied the correlated process variables. The
research is aimed at providing better understanding of the friction stir welding
process and to propose an option for research methodology. Consequently, with
further improvement on the metrology system and the mathematical model, the
147
research offers a sound foundation for optimization option and further improvement
of the welding process and operation.
148
Appendix A
Temperature Conversion Table: Type K
Appendix B
Hardware Datasheets
Appendix C
Metrology Device Technical Drawing
Appendix D
DAQ System Programming & Coding
Appendix E
Theoretical Analysis and Experimental Result Data
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Development of Multi Component Loads, Torque and Temperature Measurement Device For Friction Stir Welding Process

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Development of Multi Component Loads,

Available from: Jauhari Tahir

The Thesis Committee for Universiti Sains Malaysia

Development of Multi Component Loads, Torque and Temperature

Zuhailawati Bte. Hussain

Development of Multi-Component Loads, Torque and Temperature

School of Mechanical Engineering

Firstly, I would like to express my thanks to my supervisor Dr. Jamaluddin

Secondly, I would like to acknowledge my former supervisor, Prof. Indra

Thirdly, great acknowledge to the USM RU-Grant No.814084, IPS Graduate

Friction stir welding ................................................................... 1

Role of friction stir welding in manufacturing industries ............ 2

FSW configuration and process .................................................. 4

Recent advancement in friction stir welding ............................... 9

Research objectives .................................................................. 12

Thesis organization .................................................................. 12

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................... 14

Friction stir welding work principle ......................................... 14

2.1.1 Friction heat generation ........................................................... 14

Welding characteristics ............................................................ 19

Friction stir welding parameters ............................................... 20

Process modelling .................................................................... 22

2.4.1 Thermal model ......................................................................... 22

Impact of metrology deivce on FSW process ........................... 25

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY ..................................................................... 28

Development mechanical loads and temperature measuring

3.1.4 Mechanical fixture modelling................................................... 45

Design validation and proof of concept .................................... 55

3.2.2 FSW set up, process parameter & procedure ............................ 75

Friction stir welding data comparative study ............................ 79

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS & DISCUSSION....................................................... 80

Metrology device and friction stir welding setup. ..................... 81

4.1.1 Multi component loads, torque and temperature measurement

Mathematical model and welding process validation ................ 86

4.2.1 Plunge force variation calculations ........................................... 87

Mathematical model and experimental work validation .......... 108

Friction stir welding experimental work and data comparison 109

Theoretical and experimental data comparison ....................... 128

4.6 Varying welding parameter comparison ................................. 135

Product benchmark comparison and proposed product features ...... 30

Aluminium alloy 6061 chemical compositions ............................... 32

Aluminium alloy 6061 physical properties at room temperature ..... 32

E8M and B 557M specimen sizes for rectangular tension test

E8M and B 557M specimen sizes for pin-loaded tension test

FEXAC universal milling machine specification ............................ 38

USCELLS model MSA-2 load cell, appendix B ............................. 43

General high temperature measurement K-type thermocouple

Product concept specifications selection matrix ............................. 54

Metrology device specifications ..................................................... 84

Temperature dependent mechanical loads and torques numerical

Comparison of the welding parameter experimental results .......... 128

Cone slant height

Cross sectional area

List of patent, publication and seminar

1. Malaysia Patent Application. PI 2010003982, A Method for Spot Welding and

2. K, Jauhari T, Jamaluddin A, Zuhailawati H, and Indra P A. "Principle and

Pembangunan Alat Pengukuran Komponen Berbilang Beban,

Proses kimpalan geseran beraduk merupakan satu kaedah sambungan pepejal

Development of Multi Component Loads, Torque and Temperature

Friction stir welding

attention in the research as well as manufacturing industry since its introduction in

The main feature of a solid-state welding process is the non-melting of the