Royal Society

Biodegradable and Compostable Alternatives to Conventional Plastics

Author(s): J. H. Song, R. J. Murphy, R. Narayan and G. B. H. Davies
Source: Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol. 364, No. 1526, Plastics, the
Environment and Human Health (Jul. 27, 2009), pp. 2127-2139
Published by: Royal Society
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40485986
Accessed: 15-10-2015 08:50 UTC
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PHILOSOPHICAL
TRANSACTIONS

Phil.Trans.
R. Soc. B (2009) 364,2127-2139
doi:10.1098/rstb.2008.0289

THE ROYAL Hf'

SOCIETY ULM

Biodegradable and compostable alternatives

to conventional plastics
J. H. Song1,R. J. Murphy2*,R. Narayan3and G. B. H. Davies1
1Mechanical
BruneiUniversity,
MiddlesexUB8 3PH, UK
Engineering,
Uxbridge,
2Division
ofBiology,ImperialCollegeLondon,LondonSW7 2AZ, UK
and MaterialsScience,MichiganState University,
ofChemicalEngineering
Department
East Lansing,MI 48824, USA

solidwasteandhascausedincreasing
a significant
environwasteforms
partofmunicipal
Packaging
in a strengthening
ofvariousregulations
aimedatreducing
theamounts
mentalconcerns,
resulting
is currently
a widerangeofoil-basedpolymers
usedinpackaging
generated.
Amongothermaterials,
andsomearedifficult
torecycle
orreusedue
allnon-biodegradable,
Thesearevirtually
applications.
levelsofcontamination.
to beingcomplexcomposites
Recently,
significant
progress
havingvarying
of biodegradable
has been made in the development
plastics,largelyfromrenewablenatural
withsimilar
tothatofoil-based
materials
toproducebiodegradable
resources,
functionality
polymers.
benefits
forgreenhouse
hasseveral
inthesebio-basedmaterials
The expansion
gasbalances
potential
rather
thanfinite
andotherenvironmental
impactsoverwholelifecyclesandintheuseofrenewable,
to sustainability
and
materials
willcontribute
It is intendedthatuse ofbiodegradable
resources.
intheenvironmental
reduction
impactassociatedwithdisposalofoil-basedpolymers.
makesit difficult
to make
and theirvarying
materials
The diversity
ofbiodegradable
properties
all
or
are
as
such
assessments
'good3 petrochemical-based
biodegradable
products
simple,generic
packaging
productsare all 'bad'. This paperdiscussesthe potentialimpactsof biodegradable
It presents
thekeyissuesthat
via composting.
and theirwastemanagement,
materials
particularly
to conventional,
havein relation
thesematerials
ofthebenefits
inform
petrochemicaljudgements
insimulated
onbiodegradability
basedcounterparts.
Specificexamplesaregivenfromnewresearch
are
materials
It is theviewoftheauthorsthatbiodegradable
'home'composting
packaging
systems.
wastecan be locally
wherethepost-consumer
mostsuitableforsingle-use
disposableapplications
composted.
wastemanagement
environment;
packaging;
biopolymers;
compostable;
Keywords:biodegradable;
plasticizers,are used for packagingapplications
for
used
are
materials
different
packaging (Andrady& Neal 2009; Thompsonet al. 2009a).
Many
withconor
together
wood,
plasticsor These compositioncomplexities
pulp,
metals,
paper
glass,
including
unecoas composites. tamination
ofmorethanonematerial
duringuse oftenrenderrecycling
combinations
in
landfill.
at theend nomiccomparedwithdisposal
Although
wastestreams
Mostoftheseentermunicipal
has fallenin
ofwastebeinglandfilled
tonnesofpackaging theproportion
life.Over67 million
oftheirservice
about recentyears,around60 per centof municipalwaste
intheEU, comprising
wasteisgenerated
annually
waste
solid
ofallmunicipal
one-third
(MSW) (Klingbeil in Englandstillendsup in landfill(http://www.defra.
.htm).
ofthe10.4million gov.uk/environment/statistics/wastats/bulletin07
cent
18
contribute
per
2000).Plastics
wastesproducedannuallyin the This presents environmentalconcerns, resulttonnesof packaging
on waste (e.g.
of regulations
UK (DEFRA 2007). Discardedpackagingis also a
ing in strengthening
Directive
Waste
and
manwaste
(94/62/EEC)
a
of
source
Packaging
obvious
Packaging
major
litter,
posing
very
UK
and
al.
et
Barnes
(1998).
Regulations
Packaging
2009;
Gregory
(see
challenge
agement
and
etal 2009; Ryanetal. 2009; Teuten
Biodegradableplastics with functionalities
2009; Oehlmann
tradito
07/08)comparable
(Bioplastics
etal 2009;Thompsonetal. 2009a,).
processabilities
materials tionalpetrochemical-based
ofpackaging
plastichavebeendeveloped
In recentyears,therecycling
ratesformostplastic for packaging applications(e.g. www.europeanhas increasedbut therecycling
low
remain
(Davis & Song 2006; bioplastics.org).Typically,these are made from
packaging
A
ai
et
2009). largenumberof different renewablerawmaterialssuch as starchor cellulose.
Hopewell
eachofwhichmaycontaindifferent Interestin biodegradableplastic packagingarises
of
types polymers,
fromtheiruse of renewablerawmaterials
processingadditivessuch as fillers,colourantsand primarily
waste
of crude oil) and end-of-life
instead
(crops
anaerobic
or
digestion
by composting
management
* Author
to reducelandfilling
forcorrespondence
(Murphy& Bartle2004). The
(r.murphy@imperial.ac.uk).
is particularly
materials
signifitheenvironment disposalof packaging
of15 to a ThemeIssue'Plastics,
One contribution
cantin viewof therecentfocuson wastegeneration
andhumanhealth'.
1. INTRODUCTION

2127

Thisjournalis 2009 The RoyalSociety

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2128 J.H. Song et al

Biodegradable
plastics

from
environmental
as important
and management
alcohol) are producedby synthesis
aspects poly(vinyl
which
derived
from
monomers
of present-day
refining,
petrochemical
society(DEFRA 2004; Thompson
etal 2009>).
biodegradability
possess certaindegreesof inherent
andprice,biodegradable (Clarival& Halleux2005 in Smith2005). ThisclassifiIn addition
toperformance
renewable
between
forwastemanagement cationdifferentiates
(bio-based)and
plasticsmustofferadvantages
butit
in orderto realizean overallbenefit.This non-renewable
resources,
(petrochemical-based)
systems
BDP formuimpactofbiodegradable shouldbe notedthatmanycommercial
paperdiscussesthepotential
frombothclassesto reduce
and lationscombinematerials
reference
to packaging,
plastics,withparticular
enhance
cost
and/or
wastemanagement
via landfill,
incineration,
performance.
recycling/
oftencomprise
Itprovides
an overview
ofthekey
reuseandcomposting.
Biodegradableplastics,therefore,
that
contain
blends
of
the
benefits
lifecycleissuesthatinform
(renewable)
biogenic
partly
polymer
judgements
frombiomassandpartly
that such materialshave relativeto conventional, carbonderived
petrochemical
ina plastic
carbonpresent
Specificexamples carbon.Thepercentbiogenic
counterparts.
petrochemical-based
from
the
calculated
canbe readily
in orpolymeric
are givenfromnew researchon biodegradability
product
of the productas shownin figure1
C-14 signature
simulated
'home'composting
systems.
(Narayan2006a,6).The carbondioxide(CO2) in the
withradioactive
is in equilibrium
14CO2.
atmosphere
in theupperatmosphere
carbonis formed
Radioactive
2. BIODEGRADABLE ALTERNATIVES TO
on 14N.It is
ofcosmicrayneutrons
theeffect
CONVENTIONAL PLASTICS
through
oxidizedto radioactive
14CO2,and entersthe
(BDPs) or biodegradable
plastics rapidly
Biodegradable
polymers
materials
thatare'capableofunder- Earth'splantand animallifethrough
refer
topolymeric
photosynthesis
into carbondioxide,methane, and the food chain. Plants and animalsthat use
goingdecomposition
water,inorganiccompounds,or biomassin which carbonin biologicalfoodchainstakeup 14C during
withthe14C
is the enzymatic
action theirlifetimes.
thepredominant
mechanism
Theyexistin equilibrium
thatis thenumbers
of theatmosphere,
thatcan be measuredbystandar- concentration
ofmicroorganisms,
carbonatomsstay
dized tests,in a specifiedperiodof time,reflecting ofC-14 atomsand non-radioactive
thesameovertime.As soonas a plant
available disposal condition' (ASTM standard approximately
of
D6813). A subsetof BDPs mayalso be compostable or animaldies,theycease the metabolicfunction
ofradioactive
withspecificreference
in a
carbonuptake;thereis no replenishment
to theirbiodgradation
of carbonis
that carbon,onlydecay.Since the half-life
compostsystem,and these must demonstrate
theyare 'capableof undergoing
biologicaldecompo- around 5730years, the petrochemicalfeedstocks
sitionina compostsiteas partofan availableprogram, formed
overmillions
ofyearswillhaveno 14Csignature.
The
of
bio-based
contentcan be determined
suchthattheplasticis notvisually
and
distinguishable
quantity
the test
breaksdownto carbondioxide,water,inorganic
com- (ASTM standardD-6866) by combusting
ofoxygen
ina polymer
inthepresence
andanawithknown material
poundsand biomass,at a rateconsistent
materials(e.g. cellulose)'(ASTM stan- lysing
theCO2 gas evolvedto providea measureofits
compostable
dardD996, also see D6400). Initialstepsmayinvolve 14C/12C
contentrelative
to themoderncarbon-based
abiotic (thermal,photo) and biotic processesto oxalic acid radiocarbonstandardreference
material
undersuitableconditions,
to as HOxII).
to a
degradethepolymer,
(SRM) 4990c (referred
low-molecular
Afteran earlypilotplantphasein the 1990s,subweightspecies.However,theresultant
breakdownfragments
mustbe completely
used by sequentupscalingof biodegradable
(bio)plasticprothemicro-organisms;
otherwise
thereis thepotential ductionby both small specializedand established
forenvironmental
and healthconsequences(Narayan companiessince2000 has nowreachedan industrial
of established
and
2006<z,6).The productsof an industrial
composting scale,and significant
proportions
12 weekswithan elevatedtempera- emerging
process(typically
biodegradable
plasticsnowhaverenewable
ture phase over 50C) must meet qualitycriteria ratherthan petrochemical
origins(www.europeansuch as heavymetal(regulated)content,ecotoxicity bioplastics.org;
Details on
www.bioplastics24.com).
and lackofobviousdistinguishable
residues. the chemicalcompositions,
polymer
production,
processing,
BDPs maybe classified structure
and properties
ofa widerangeofbioplastics
Dependingon theirorigins,
as being eitherbio-basedor petrochemical-based.
The
used forpackagingcan be foundelsewherein the
former
are mostlybiodegradable
by natureand pro- literature
(e.g. Smith2005) (paper-basedproducts
duced from natural origins (plants, animals or are traditionally
regardedas a separatematerial
suchas polysaccharides
forbiodegradable
micro-organisms)
(e.g. starch, group).Current
production
capacity
cellulose,ligninand chitin),proteins(e.g. gelatine, plastics worldwide is around 350 000 tonnes
less than 0.2 per
casein,wheatgluten,silkand wool) and lipids(e.g. (Bioplastics07/08),representing
centofpetrochemical-based
plantoils and animalfats).Naturalrubberas wellas
plastic,at approximately
certainpolyesters
eitherproducedbymicro-organism/260 milliontonnes (Miller 2005). However,the
and poly-3-hydroxy-environmental
benefitsare insufficient
plant(e.g.polyhydroxyalkanoates
performance
or synthesized
frombio-derived
monomers on theirown to enable bioplasticpolymersto be
butyrate)
to conventional
(e.g. polylacticacid (PLA)) fall into this category. morewidelyused as alternatives
plasPetrochemical-based
BDPs suchas aliphatic
fitforpurpose
polyesters tics.Theyalsoneedtobe cost-effective,
succinateand and, ideally,provideunique benefitsin use (Miller
acid, polybutylene
(e.g. polyglycolic
polycaprolactone(PCL)), aromatic copolyesters 2005). Hence, bioplasticpolymershave not yet
(e.g. polybutylenesuccinate terephthalate)and realizedtheirfullpotential.
Phil. Trans.R. Soc. B (2009)

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plastics J. H. Song et al
Biodegradable

2129

solarradiation
14CO->

A
*

feedstocks
biomass/bio-based
(I2CH2O)X

(I4CH2O)X

12co2
> IO6years

'2r'
' r

- petroleum,
natural
fossilfeedstocks
gas andcoal
<
(12CH2)X

(12CH2O)X

- ASTM D6366
bio-basedcontent
andquantify
formsthebasisto identify
14Csignature
Figure 1. Carbon-14 signatureof bio- and petrochemicalpolymers.

is not a requiredelementfor
The costs of bioplasticpolymersare generallystill where biodegradability
much higher than that of their traditionalplastic reasonsofperformance,
safetyand productlife,alternative methods of disposal like waste to energy or
counterparts(Petersenet al. 1999). Most fall in the
range 2-5 6 kg"1 (Bioplastics 07/08) (compared recyclingneed to be identified.Examplesof such durbased
withapprox. 1.2 kg"1formajorpetrochemicalpoly- able bio-based polymersare bio-polyurethanes
and
automotive
oils
for
from
more
wideon
for
this
is
a
restriction
and
vegetable
major
polyols
mers)
biofibre
vehicles
farm
rates
have
use.
2006a,),
composites
(Narayan
However,
growth
significant
spread
forindustrialand automotiveapplicationsand recent
been achieved in product capacity over the last
derivedfromsugar
decade or so. Bioplastic polymersare expected to
developmentsin bio-polyethylene
cane via ethanolto ethylene.
become priced more as commoditymaterialswhen a
criticalmass is achieved,drivenby a combinationof
forcesincludingperformanceand cost improvements,
3. WASTE MANAGEMENT OPTIONS
benefitsassigned to the use of renewable (bio)reFOR BDPs
awareness
oil
and
sources,increasing prices
increasing
are many technologies available for the
There
of environmental
impactsand associated legislation.
of conventional plastic packaging waste
treatment
Processingparametersand technicalcharacteristics
fromhousehold waste including:inte2002)
(Tukker
of a wide range of commercialbioplastic polymers
withenergyrecovery,
and incineration
collection
grated
have been reviewedrecently(Bioplastics07/08). Many
with high calorific
of
combustion
selective
plastics
bioplasticsnow have mechanicalpropertiesequivalent
use as a reducing
and
in
cement
value
kilns)
(e.g.
to thatoftheirconventionalcounterparts
(e.g. polyproforrecycling.
feedstock
or
as
in
blast
furnaces
agent
and
and
pylene (PP), polystyrene polyethylene(PE))
domof
non-bottle
1
million
tonnes
Approximately
can be processed using technologieswidely used in
in
the
UK
waste
arise
estic
mixed
plastic packaging
the polymerindustry(e.g. compounding,filmproces2
between
increase
is
to
and
this
estimated
each
year,
sing and moulding). They have found use in many
A
annum
cent
and
5
2006,
2008).
(WRAP
per
per
is
shortservicelifeapplicationswherebiodegradability
a keyadvantageousfeature(www.european-bioplastics. 'Waste Hierarchy'proposed by the UK government
(DEFRA 2007) as guidance forselectingthe options
org) includingconsumerpackaging (e.g. trays,pots,
films and bottles in food packaging), convenience to minimizethe impactof waste recognizesreduction
and reuse as the most favourableoptions where the
food disposables (e.g. cutlery/tableware),
bags (shopthe material consumption or
ping, garden or domestic waste), agriculturemulch aim is to minimize
waste
streams.
materials
from
divert
films,personal-caredisposals (e.g. nappies) and even
of
The
biodegradable bioplastics, when
impacts
golftees. Bioplasticpolymershave also been used in
stream and handled by current
the
waste
moredurableapplicationssuch as in textiles,consumer entering
incinerationand landfill),
available
(recycling,
options
goods,automotivepartsand buildingand construction
where the focus is on the use of renewable(bio)re- are assessed brieflybelow.As BDPs enable a potential
a
sources and any inherentbiodegradability
properties option forwaste treatmentthroughcompostingas
a
useful
and
to
materials
to
recover
the
produce
way
need to be suppressedor controlledby carefuldesign.
productas compost,particularattentionwillbe given
it is importantto
Bio-based versusbiodegradable:
to compostingbiopolymers.
recognizethatnot all bio-based polymermaterialsare
biodegradableand vice versa. Equally, it is important
of a
to recognizethat attributeslike biodegradability
(a) Recycling
coupled with Biodegradableplasticsthatenterthe municipalwaste
given polymerneed to be effectively
appropriatewaste managementin order to capture streammay resultin some complicationsforexisting
benefit.For durableproducts plastic recyclingsystems.For example, the addition
maximumenvironmental
Phil. Trans.R. Soc. B (2009)

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2130 J.H. Song et al

Biodegradable
plastics

of starchor naturalfibresto traditionalpolymerscan

complicate recycling processes (Scott 1995;
Hartmann& Rolim 2002). Althoughit is feasibleto
mechanicallyrecyclesome bioplastic polymerssuch
as PLA a few times withoutsignificantreductionin
properties(Claesen 2005), the lack of continuousand
reliable supply of bioplastic polymerwaste in large
quantitypresentlymakes recyclingless economically
attractivethan for conventionalplastics. Finally,for
certainapplicationssuch as food packaging (e.g. in
modifiedatmospherepackaging of meat products),
laminationof different
multilayer
biopolymersmaybe
necessaryto enhance barrierproperties,just as in
conventionalplastics(Miller2005), and thiswillcomof the scrap during packaging
promise recyclability
manufactureand of post-consumerwaste. The recyclingof plasticsis consideredin more detailelsewhere
in thisvolume (Hopewell et al 2009).

moisture content (MC), etc.) makes it difficultto

accuratelydeterminetheirvalue forenergyrecovery
by
- further
incineration
researchin the area is required.

(c) Landfill
Landfillof wasteplasticsis theleastfavouredoptionin
the UK wastehierarchy.
It was attractive
as
historically
it was extremelysimple and cheap withoutnecessary
separation,cleaning or treatment.WesternEurope
sent 65 per cent of the total recoverableplastics in
householdwaste (8.4 milliontonnesannually)to landfillin 1999 (APME 2002). However,suitablesitesfor
landfillacrossEurope are runningout and public concerns are increasingabout the impact of landfillon
the environment
and healthfromthe amountof toxic
materialsin land-filled
municipalwasteand theirpotentialleachingout oflandfillsites(Miller2005). Reducing
thequantitiesofwastethatultimately
endsup in landfill
has become explicitgovernmentpolicy (e.g. Landfill
DirectiveEuropean Commission 1999/3I/EC) in the
(b) Incineration with energy recovery
UK and representsa particularlydifficulttask to
Most commodityplastics have gross calorificvalues
achieve(e.g. approx.60% municipalwastein England
(GCV) comparable to or higher than that of coal
is stilllandfilledin comparisonwith approx. 37% in
(Davis & Song 2006). Incinerationwithenergyrecov- France and approx.20% in Germany(EEA 2007)).
good optionafterall recyclable
The landfillof biodegradable materialsincluding
eryis thusa potentially
elementshave been removed.It is argued thatpetro- bioplasticpolymers,gardenand kitchenwastepresents
chemical carbon, which has already had one high- a particularproblemin thatmethane,a greenhousegas
value use, when used again as a fuel in incineration with 25 times the effectof CO2, may be produced
option than burning under anaerobic conditions (Hudgins 1999). While
representsa more eco-efficient
the oil directly(Miller 2005).
such a 'landfillgas' can and is capturedand used as
CommitteesoftheUK
an energysource, The LandfillDirective(99/3I/EC)
ReportsbytheEnvironment
Parliament(House ofCommons 1993; House ofLords
seeks to reduce the total amount of biodegradable
1994) havesupportedtheviewthatenergyrecoveryfor municipalwaste (BMW) goingto landfillin threesucsome typesofhouseholdplasticwastesis an acceptable cessive stages eventuallyto 35 per cent of the 1995
waste managementoption. Trials conducted by the
total of BMW by 2020.
BritishPlasticsFederationdemonstratedthatmodern
waste-to-energy
plantswerecapable ofburningplastic
(d) Biological waste treatments: composting
waste, even those containingchlorinatedcompounds or anaerobic digestion
suchas PVC withoutreleasingdangerousor potentially Unlike conventionalpetrochemical-basedpolymers,
dangerousemissionsofdioxinsand furans(BPF 1993).
biodegradable and compostable bioplastic polymers
In 2005/2006, around 8 per cent (approx. 3 million can be composted. This can be via aerobic waste
tonnes)ofUK municipalwastewas processedthrough managementsystemssuch as compostingto generate
15 incinerationfacilities(www.defra.gov.uk/environ-carbon-and nutrient-rich
compostforadditionto soil.
and over40 milliontonneswere In the UK, thereare now more than 300 composting
ment/statistics/waste)
incineratedwithinthe EU in around 230 incineration sites that collectivelycompostabout 2 milliontonnes
facilities(Musdalslien & Sandberg 2002). It is envi- of waste annually(roughly75% of whichis household
saged thatincinerationwill face continuedresistance waste, 5% municipalnon-householdwaste and 20%
in the UK unless the public is convinced about the
commercial waste: http://www.organics-recycling.org.
to renewable uk/).The aerobic biodgradationsystemsare thus of
and itscontribution
safetyofincineration
energysupplies(Miller 2005).
primaryimportancefor BDPs and are dealt with in
Energyrecoveryby incinerationis regarded as a
sectionofthispaper.
detailin thefollowing
suitableoptionforall bioplasticpolymersand renewCertainBDPs arealso suitableforanaerobicdigestors
able (bio)resources in bioplastic polymer products wherebybiowastescan be convertedto methane,which
are considered to contributerenewableenergywhen
can be used to drivegeneratorsforenergyproduction.
. Natural
incinerated(www.european-bioplastics.org)
ofbiodePublishedreportson theanaerobicdigestibility
cellulose fibreand starchhave relativelylower GCV
these
scarce
and
are
sysgradablebioplastics relatively
than coal but are similarto wood and thus stillhave
tems are not discussed furtherhere (for further
considerable value for incineration(Davis & Song
see Ramsayetal 1993; Mohee etal 2008).
information
2006). In addition, the production of fibre and
less energyin
starchmaterialsconsumes significantly
thefirstplace (Patel et al 2003), and thuscontributes 4. BIODEGRADABILITY AND COMPOSTABILITY
to theoverallenergybalance in thelifecycle. Making or calling a product biodegradable has no
positively
inherentvalue if the product,afteruse by the custoAt present,the lack of scientificdata on GCV of
of
mer,does not end up in a waste managementsystem
bioplastic polymers (e.g. relative importance
Phil. Trans.R. Soc. B (2009)

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Biodegradable
plastics J. H. Song et al. 2131
anaerobicdigestion
facility
compostingI4
facility

,. .
, ,. . .
|
biodegradable
plastics

^-1

incinerable
I
I
waste
to
recycling
polymeric
carbonbackto soil I energyfacility|
|
landapplication
KK

debristo
environment

1
|

landfill [

I recycling
p' ility5

recycled
products

energy

ofbiodegradable
Figure2. Integration
plasticswithdisposal
infrastructures.
thatuses thebiodegradability
features(Narayan 1993,
1994). Figure 2 illustratesthe integrationof biodethat
gradable plastics with disposal infrastructures
use thisbiodegradablefunctionof the plasticproduct.

(a) Principlesand conceptsof composting

Compostinghas the potentialto transferbiodegradable waste, including biodegradable plastics, into

useful soil amendmentproducts. Compostingis the
accelerated degradation of heterogeneous organic
matterby a mixed microbialpopulation in a moist,
warm, aerobic environmentunder controlled conditions.Biodegradationof such naturalmaterialswill
producevaluable compostas the major productalong
with water and CO2. The CO2 produced does not
contributeto an increasein greenhousegases because
it is already part of the biological carbon cycle.
Compostingis also an important
disposalinfrastructure
becauseitcan receiveotherbio-basedwastesin addition
to biodegradableplastics- forexample,more than 50
per cent of the MSW streamis typicallygarden and
foodwasteand non-recyclable
paper products.

thesechemicals,resulting
highsurfaceareasconcentrate
in a toxic legacyin a formthatmay pose risksin the
environment.
Japaneseresearchers(Mato et al. 2001)
havesimilarly
reportedthatPCBs, DDE and nonylphein
nols (NP) can be detectedin high concentrations
degradedPP resinpelletscollectedfromfourJapanese
coasts.This workindicatesthatplasticresiduesmayact
as a transport
mediumfortoxicchemicalsin themarine
environment
(see discussionin Teutenet al. 2009).
Therefore,designinghydrophobic
polyolefin
plastics
like PE to be degradable,withoutensuringthat the
degraded fragmentsare completelyassimilated by
the microbialpopulationsin the disposalinfrastructure
in a shorttime period,has the potentialto harm the
morethanifit was not made degradable.
environment
Heat, moisture,sunlightand/orenzymescan shorten
and weakenpolymerchains,resultingin fragmentation
of the plastic and some cross-linking,
creatingmore
is
intractable
residues.
It
possibleto accelerate
persistent
thebreakdownof theplasticsin a controlledfashionto
someofwhichcouldbe microgeneratethesefragments,
scopic and invisibleto thenakedeye,and some elegant
has beendoneto makethishappenas reported
chemistry
in the literature(Scott & Wiles 2001). However,this
is not biodgradationperse
degradation/fragmentation
and these degraded,hydrophobicpolymerfragments
unlesstheyare
pose potentialrisksin the environment
completelyassimilatedby the microbialpopulations
shortperiod.
presentin thedisposalsystemin a relatively
(ii) Measurement
ofbiodegradability
Micro-organismsuse the carbon substratesto extract
chemical energythat drives their life processes by
aerobic oxidationof glucose and otherreadilyusable
C-substrates(Narayan 1994):
C-substrate+ 6O2 -> 6CO2 + 6H2O.
AGo = -686 kcal/mol
(CH2O)X:

x= 6
(i) Degradableversusbiodegradable
A numberofpolymersin themarketplace are designed
Thus, a measure of the rate and amount of CO2
to be degradable,i.e. theyfragment
intosmallerpieces
evolved in the process is a direct measure of the
and mayevendegradeto residuesinvisibleto thenaked
amount and rate of microbialuse (biodgradation)of
eye. While it is assumed thatthe breakdownproducts the C-polymer.This formsthe basis forvariousinterwill eventuallybiodegrade,thereare no data to docuor
national standardsfor measuringbiodegradability
ment complete biodegradabilitywithina reasonably microbialuse of thetestpolymer/plastics.
The rateand
short time period (e.g. a single growingseason per
extentofbiodgradation
or microbialuse ofa testplastic
year).Hence hydrophobic,
highsurfacearea plasticresi- materialcan be measuredby usingit as the sole added
dues maymigrateintowaterand othercompartments
of
carbonsourcein a testsystemcontaininga microbially
the ecosystem.In a recentscience article,Thompson
rich matrix-like
compost in the presence of air, and
et al. (2004) reportedthat plastic debris around the
under optimal temperatureconditions(preferablyat
the thermophilic
globe can erode (degrade) awayand end up as micro- 58C- representing
phase). Figure3
and thatthese showstypicaldata obtainedwhen the per cent carbon
scopic granular-or fibre-like
fragments,
released(as CO2) froma bioplasticexposed in a comfragmentshave been steadily accumulatingin the
oceans. Their experimentsshow that marine animals postingenvironment
is plottedas a functionof time.
consume microscopicbits of plastic, as seen in the
First,a lag phase occurs duringwhich the microbial
digestivetractof an amphipod. The AlgalitaMarine
population adapts to the available test C-substrate.
Research Foundation (see www.algalita.org/pelagic_Then followsthe biodgradationphase duringwhich
the adapted microbialpopulation begins to use the
plastic.html)reportsthatdegradedplasticresiduescan
attractand hold hydrophobicelementslikepolychlori- carbon substratefor its cellular life processes, as
nated biphenyls(PCB) and dichlorodiphenyltrichlor-measuredby the conversionof the carbon in the test
oethane (DDT) up to 1 million times background materialto CO2. Finally,the outputreachesa plateau
levels.The PCBs and DDTs are at backgroundlevels whenuse ofthesubstrateis largelycomplete.
in soil, and dilutedout, so as to not pose significant
Based on the above concepts,theASTM committee
risk.However,degradableplastic residueswith these D20.96 on Biobased and Environmentally
Degradable
Phil. Trans.R. Soc. B (2009)

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2132 J. H. Song et al. Biodegradable

plastics

assessedas CO2 releaseover180days.CO2

testofa biodegradable
Figure3. Exampledatafroma biodgradation
biopolymer
releasecurveshowstypicallagphase,biodgradation
phaseand plateauphase.

Plastics (www.astm.org)developed a Specification

(iii) Same rate of biodgradation as natural
- leaves,paper,grassand food scraps.
materials
StandardD6400 (see also D6868) forproductsclaim(iv) Time- 180 days or less (ASTM D6400 also
ing to be biodegradableunder compostingconditions
or compostableplastics(ASTM, 2002). The above spehas the requirementthat if radiolabelledpolymer is used and the radiolabelledevolvedCO2
cificationstandardis in harmonywith standardsin
China
and
Taiwan.
EN
13432
is measured,thenthe time can be extendedto
Europe, Japan,Korea,
365 days).
for
Recoverable
through
'Requirements
Packaging
- Test Scheme and
Composting and Biodegradation
Two furtherrequirementsare also of importance:
Evaluation Criteria for the Final Acceptance of
Packaging'is theEuropeanstandard(norm)and similar
(i) Disintegration:<10 per cent of testmaterialmass
to D6400. The currentUK standardBS EN 13432
retainedbya 2 mmsieveusingtestpolymermaterial
recoverforpackaging
(2000) coversthe requirements
in theshape and thicknessidenticalto theproduct's
able throughcompostingand biodgradationand test
final
intendeduse- see ISO 16929 and ISO 20200.
schemeand evaluationcriteriaforthe finalacceptance
(ii)
Safety:theresultant
compostshouldhaveno impacts
of packaging. At the international level, the
on
OECD
Guide 208, Terrestrial
using
plants,
International
StandardsOrganization(ISO) has develTest
or
such as PAS 100
Growth
similar,
Plants,
oped ISO 17088, 'Specification for Compostable
Furthermore,
2002).
(BSI
(heavy)metals
regulated
Plastics'whichis in harmonywiththeseEuropean and
in
material
should
be less than
content
the
polymer
US norms.
definedthresholdse.g. 50 per cent of EPA (USA
The fundamentalrequirementsof these worldand Canada) prescribedthreshold.
wide standards for complete biodgradationunder
compostingconditionsare:

(b) Compostingin practice

The treatmentof biodegradableplasticsby compost(i) conversion to CO2, water and biomass via
microbial assimilation of the test polymer ing is now consideredin many parts of the world to
materialin powder,filmor granuleform.
be an appropriateformof materialrecovery.In the
cent
conversion
of
the
carbon
in
the
UK, it is a permittedrecoveryoption specifiedin the
(ii) Ninetyper
testpolymerto CO2. The 90 per cent level set
Producer
Responsibility (Packaging Waste)
for biodgradationin the test accounts for a
Regulationsas amended in 1997.
In a large-scalestudyfromMarch 2001, in Kassel,
of the exper10 per cent statisticalvariability
imentalmeasurement;in otherwords,thereis
Germany,BDP packaging was introducedinto the
an expectationfordemonstrationof a virtually local retailtrade (Klauss 2001). The purpose of this
complete biodgradation in the composting scheme was to introduce biodegradable packaging
environment
of the test.
and manage its source separationby householdersso
Phil. Trans.R. Soc. B (2009)

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Biodegradable
plastics J.H. Song et al. 2133

inthecompetitiveness
andreduction
withtheorganicwastestream LocalAuthorities
thatitcouldbe collected
muchplan- of in-vesselcomposting
and
toproducecompost.The schemerequired
againstothertreatment
the
had
such
as
landfill.
to
the
to
ensure
that
launch,
public
disposaloptions
ningprior
Concernsoverthe potentialecotoxicity
of degrainformation
abouttheBDPs, their
receivedsufficient
in
mixed
dation
have
resulted
the
formulation
and
and
collection.
The
products
packalabelling,
separation
standardsfor
gingand organicwastewas compostedat a full-scale adoption of suitable international
at a commercial compostablepolymerproducts.For example,EN
siteand was undertaken
composting
13432 requiresthatcompostablepolymermaterials
level. The compostfeedstockwas monitoredto
of one plasticto haveto fulfill
low proportion
ensurea relatively
European,orwherenoneexist,national
forcompostability.
In December2003,
basis.The compost requirements
99 partsorganicwasteon a weight
in
Association
the
UK launcheda
in
of
the
terms
no
differences
showed
Composting
quality
produced
for
Certification
Scheme
with
conventional
CompostablePackaging
compost
parameterscompared
withtheselecsolelygreenwaste (no BDPs) and had in orderto assistUK Local Authorities
comprising
the same positive effectson soil and plant tion of sacks for organic waste collections.As
no Europeanstandardon compost
thereis currently
characteristics
2004).
(Klauss& Bidlingmaier
forthe award
indicatedthat82 percentof quality(besidesthe ecologicalcriteria
Householdersurveys
the logo of theEU Eco-label),theUK adoptedtheBSI PAS
Kassel's populationcould clearlyidentify
and90 percentsup- 100 in November2002 (BSI 2002). Otherstandards
on compostable
polymers
printed
of
conventional
the
plasticpacka- such as the ASTM D6400 and ISO 17088 also
ported replacement
for
and requirements
ofthis defineproductclassification
The
success
with
packaging.
compostable
ging
for
further
a
demand
has
created
composts.
products
programme
inthesamewayas 'conthatcanbe digested/degraded
forthisaretwo- (c) Home (domestic) composting
ventional'
organicwaste.The benefits
hasbeenidentified
and collection
fold:(i) increasedseparation
bythe
efficiency In theUK, homecomposting
UnitoftheCabinetOfficeas one offivekey
and (ii) reducedamount Strategy
(householdor centralized)
measuresto reduce the growthrate of household
or incineration.
ofwasteto landfill
waste (Anon. 2002; Murphy& Barde 2004). In
of
number
a
Some legislation,
however,imposes
and gardenwaste,homecomposton the compostingindustry.In May additionto kitchen
constraints
coulddivert
materials
of
Animal
the
packaging
biodegradable
ing
Regulation(ABPR)
By-Products
2003,
and compwastefrommunicipalcollectionsystems
started the UK implementationof an EU
thatit
be
noted
must
It
industrial
lement
animal
divides
ABPR
The
composting.
by-products
Regulation.
anaerobic
and
homecomposting,
toregulate
themeansof col- is difficult
and stipulates
intothreecategories
in poorlymanaged
conditionsoccurring
storage,handlingprocessingand composting
lection,transport,
in
the
will
result
generationof methane.
use or disposalforeach category:
1, highest systems
category
home
with
infected
usingcompostbins or
Moreover,
composting
BSE,
riskmaterialssuch as carcasses
thanindusless
and
variable
is
more
such
materials
also
optimized
heaps
2,
high-risk
scrapie,etc.;category
is
achieved
the
and
trial
are
that
animals
and
temperature
farms
on
die
that
composting
as animals
morethana fewC aboveambient
temperature.
unfitfor human consumption;and category3, rarely
materials
certaincompostable
thatare fit(but not intended)forhuman Undersuchconditions,
materials
forindustrial
(EN 13432)maynot
composting
suchas fish,milk,partsof slaughtered certified
consumption
The
'OK
CompostHome'
wasteand,byassoci- biodegradesufficiently.
animals,etc.Householdkitchen
testprotocolat
EN13432
the
which
has
standard,
repeats
foodpackaging(becauseit
ation,biodegradable
in
table
shown
as
1, has been
ambient
are
or
temperature,
comeintocontactwithfood,meat non-meat)
Brussels
in
established
3
(www.aib2
and
AIB-VINOTTE
3.
by
classifiedunder Category Categories
do not
conditions
These
anaerobic
via
treated
temperature
or
vincotte.com).
be
materials
may composted
which
true
reflect
require
on
principles
process
composting
strict
handling,
requirements
digestionfollowing
a
to
phase
thermophilic
definition,
through
go
times.
them,
retention
by
and
temperature
of
to
a
few
a
from
last
can
that
couple
days
sites
to
not
does
ABPR
the
(55-65C)
acceptapply
Although
The
volume.
the
on
composting
ingonlygreenbotanicalgardenwaste,manyUK Local monthsdepending
to
is ofimportance
phaseofcomposting
havealreadystartedmixedorganicwaste thermophilic
Authorities
and
human
thermosensitive
of
destruction
the
ensure
(gardenand kitchen)collectionsor are considering
in orderto meetlegislative
mixedcollections
targets. plant pathogens,fly larvae and weed seeds.
Protection
of Regulationsby the US Environmental
the
waste
collections, majority
For mixedorganic
reduction
thatto achievea significant
collectedis frombotanicalsources;how- Agencyspecify
thematerial
should
the
of
all
compost
waste
composting,
during
of
the
pathogens
to
due
kitchen/catering
presence
ever,
of
conditions
minimum
at
operating
the wastemustbe compostedin-vesselin orderto be maintained
for
55C
with
5
for
exceeding
couldcollect 40C
temperatures
days,
Local Authorities
meettherequirements.
the organicbotanicalwaste separatelyfromthe atleast4 h ofthisperiod.
used as
Some bioplasticpolymers,particularly
logistical
kitchen-derived
waste,butthishas extensive
collection
waste
or
horticulture
for
bag
and
and
crew
pots
compost- bags
and costissues(separatevehicles,
OK
the
certified
been
have
Compost
than
by
is
more
In-vessel
applications,
costly
composting
ingfacility).
methodscommonlyadopted in Homeschemewhileotherspassedonly'OK Compost'
the open-windrow
inincreased standard for industrialcomposting(http://www.
theUK forpure'greenwaste'.Thisresults
and are not suitableforhome
fees
costs
chargedto aib-vincotte.com/data)
tonne,
gate
per
composting
Phil Trans.R. Soc. B (2009)

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2134 J.H. Song et al. Biodegradable

plastics
Table 1. Comparisonof standardsforindustrialand home composting.

biodgradation
disintegration

certification

industrialcomposting(EN 13432)

home composting
(vincottecertification)

testat 58C in 180 days

biodgradationmin. 90%
testat 58C in 90 days
sieve 2 mm mesh
>90%
disintegration
max. 10% of dryweightallowedto
be retainedby 2 mm sieve
Din Certco/OKCompost

testat 20-30C in 365 days

biodgradationmin. 90%
testat 20-30C in 180 days
sieve2 mm mesh
>90%
disintegration
max. 10% of dryweightallowedto
be retainedby 2 mm sieve
OK Home

is importantand it is vital
composting.This distinction
thatclearguidanceis communicatedto the publicwho
may otherwiseassume that any productslabelled as
'biodegradable', 'compostable' or 'eco-5 under the
numerouscertification
systemscan simplybe put into
theirhome or gardencompostbins. These are unlikely
to reach the thermophiliccompost temperatures
required for both suitable degradation of certain
materialsand to achievesanitization.
New researchto characterizetheextentofbiodgradation when a range of biodegradableor potentially
biodegradablepackagingmaterialsare disposed of in
simulatedhome compostingtypicalof the UK is presented brieflybelow. The objectivewas to establish
whetherpotentially
biodegradablepackagingmaterials
would showappropriatelevelsofbiodgradationwhen
exposed to 'typical' home compost conditions(nonthermophilic) together with green garden waste.
Small specimensof 12 bio-based materials(six were
frommaterialsused commerciallyand six were from
developmentalmaterials that were designed to be
biodegradable- see table 2) were assessed as material
period
weight loss over a 24-week winter/spring
betweenNovemberand May in the southeastof the
made
UK. Whole food packagingunits (trays/plate)
fromthreeof the materialswere also assessed under
the same conditionsbut were mixed directlyinto the
compostmatrix.
The compostingwas undertakenoutdoors in the
home-composter, lidded 'cone' systems (volume
1601) filledwith a 'base mixture'of approximately
60 per cent greenherbaceousand grassclippingsand
40 per cent chopped 'woody' herbaceous material
fromthe local site thatwas freeof pesticidesor herbicides and had previouslybeen compostedfor30 days
Twelve packato establishan activemicroflora/fauna.
ging materials (approx. 25 x 25 mm sheets) were
individually secured into nylon mesh bags and
replicatespecimensplaced into a stainlesssteel rack
foreasy retrieval.The sample rackswere insertedin
the middle of a compostingbin between layers of
base mixture(approx. 600 mm below the compost
mixture surface). Three replicate composter units
were establishedwith three replicate specimens of
each materialremovedper composterper sampling

time. Additional six composter bins were set up,

two of each with 6.4 wt% of one of the threemain
packaging materials(potato starch trays,PLA trays
and paper plate) as whole units mixed in with the
green waste base mixture.Two furthercomposter
bins containingonly the compost base mix and no
added biodegradable packagingmaterialswere used
as controls for a subsequent seed germination
comparison.
The composterswere sampled on a monthlybasis
of specimen
fromNovemberto May fordetermination
and overall
mass loss and MC (od basis), temperature
compost volume reduction.Replicate samples of the
small test materialsor whole units were removedat
each sampling interval. 'Turning' of the composts
was done onlyon these occasions.
A bioassay of the compostsfromthe whole packaging unit test and the control compost was also
conducted in accordance with the 'Specificationfor
composted materials' (PAS 100; BSI 2002). Fl
tomato seeds (varietyShirley,Sutton Seeds, UK)
were placed in the prescribed mixtureof a peatbased growthmedium (PBGM) and test compost
(1:2 ratio by volume of compost to PBGM base
mix) in seed traysand maintainedwithregularwatering at a temperatureof 20-25C in a natural light
greenhouse in early summer 2005 over a 28-day
period of the test. Seed germination,fresh plant
mass, abnormalities and weed emergence were
recordedin accordancewithPAS 100.
The compostbin systemsfunctionedas a low temperaturecompostingenvironmentbetween 15C and
18C in November at the start of the experiment.
The temperaturedropped to a low of approximately
and then rose
8-10C in January/February/March
again to approximately14C in May. The composter
were considerablylowerthan specibin temperatures
fied (20-30C) in the OK Compost Home standard
(table 1) but reflectthe typicalseasonal temperatures
in the southeast of the UK. All composter bins
showed an acceptable level of reductionin biomass
volume (approx. 50%) during the composting
period. The temperatureprofilesof the bins and the
degradationof theircontentswere largelyconsistent
across the whole study.

Phil Trans.R. Soc. B (2009)

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plastics J.H. Song et al. 2135

Biodegradable
= massloss approximately
80% after90
homecomposting.
materials
used forsimulated
Table2. Packaging
(Fastdegrader
=
=
mass
loss
after
90
after
90
slow
<5%
mass
loss
40%
medium
days.)
days;
degrader
approximately
days;
degrader

name

commercial
(C)/
experimental
material
(E) material

potatostarch C
laminate C
starch
paper

silvergrass

C
coconut
recycled
paper C
PLA
starch/PCL

E
E

PP(A)

PP(B)

PP(B)+

PP/starch

tray
potatostarch-based
starch-based
traywitha
laminate
starch/PCL
pressedwoodpulpplate
pulp
pressedsilvergrass
plate
mouldedcoconutfibretray
mouldedrecycled
paper
pulptray
PLAtray
extrudate
starch/PCLsample
PP withbiodegradability
A
additive
PP withbiodegradability
B
additive
PP withbiodegradability
B pluschalk
additive
filler
with
PP compounded
starchgranules

principal
components small whole rateof
(wt%)
sample unit
degradation
potatostarch(< 75%)
starchPCL
starch;
surface
overlay
woodpulp70%; starch
size20%; other10%
Miscanthus
spp.pulp

/
/

fast
fast

medium

fast

fibre
Cocosnucfera
recycled
paper

/
/

medium
medium

100% PLA
100% starch/PCL

/
/

slow
slow

/
90% PP; 10% bioA
additive
/
90% PP; 10% bioB
additive
/
60% PP; 10% bioadditive
B; 30% chalk

slow

88% PP; 10% starch

2% other
granules;

slow

slow
slow

their sealed packets;the medium degraderslost

on
50 wt% and remainedrecognizable
approximately
close inspection.The slow degraderslost typically
lessthan5 wt%and wereclearlyrecognizable.
showedthatfastand
forMC assessment
The results
mediumdegradersabsorbedmoisture
readilyduring
from100 to
thecomposting
ranging
process,typically
300 per centforthe starchand fibrematerialsover
the30- to 180-dayperiod.The slowdegrader
group
with
exhibited
absorption
verylow levelsofmoisture
below
PLA
and
PP/starch
the starch/PCL,
typically
below1 percent.
10 percentand thePP/modifiers
The resultsof the PAS 100 bioassay(data not
shown) showed that compostsderivedfromthe
units(starch,
wholepackaging
containing
composters
gaveequal or
paperand PLA) and fromthecontrols
rates and equivalentor
higherseed germination
betterfreshseedlingweightscomparedwith the
growthmediumbase alone (an exceptionwas one
PLA compostbin thathad a 21 per centreduction
in seedlingfreshweight).All theamendedcomposts
failedthe weed criterionof PAS 100, but this is
and
polymers
(starch-based
(i) The fastdegraders
becauselow-temperature
mass
systems
composting
fibre-base
theplant
expected
exhibiting
silvergrass)
ofweedseeds.
do notachievesterilization
80 percent.
lossesofapproximately
Thisstudyhas shownthatbiodegradable
packaging
(ii) The medium degraders(wood fibre-based
of
wide
a
exhibited
materials
losses
mass
with
biodgradation
range
coconut
the
and
fibre)
paper
homecomposting
in thissimulated
system
40 percent.
ofapproximately
properties
conditions(a regime
under
non-thermophilic
(iii) The slow degraders(PLA, PP withadditives run
wheremesophilicmicro-organisms
dominate).It is
massloss <5
withnegligible
and starch/PCL)
condition
home
this
that
clear
composting
mesophilic
percent.
than
for
favourable
less
be
biodgradation
may
ofthethreegroupswasthenmain- thosespecifiedin some standards.For instance,the
Thisdifferentiation
used in thisstudyoperated
at 180 days homecomposting
oftheexperiment
system
tainedto theconclusion
5-18C
of approximately
a
over
lost
range
fast
temperature
The
approximately
degraders
(table 2).
in
20-30C
from ratherthanthe
rangespecified the OK
90wt% and becamevisuallyindistinguishable

showedthatcompletedisinThe visualassessment
ofthestarchtraysintothe
andincorporation
tegration
compostmatrixhad occurredafter90 daysof comwas also extensively
material
The paper-plate
posting.
it
brokendownoverthecomposting
period,although
of
the
elements
to
was possible distinguish
original
after180 days,despitetheirbeingheavplatematerial
The
integrity.
ilydiscolouredand lackingstructural
showedno visualevidenceofmicrobial
PLA polymer
after180 days,althoughsome fragments
breakdown
Thiswasnotconsidered
hadbrokenofffromthetrays.
as a resultof biodgradation
to be disintegration
of the bins and
to disturbance
but was attributed
mechanical
samples.
damagewhenretrieving
of thebiodgradaThe massloss (as an indicator
typesas small
tion)dataforthefullrangeofmaterial
4
in
are
presented figure and for the
specimens
90 days
wholeunitsin figure5. Fromapproximately
exposure,threegroupsof materialscould be clearly
distinguished:

Phil Trans.R. Soc. B (2009)

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2136 J.H. Song et al. Biodegradable

plastics

- testmaterials
as smallsamples(Note:PLA,potatostarchandpaperarealsorepresented
Figure4. Massloss(wt%)overtime
interval
as wholepackaging
unitsinfigure
95% confidence
5) (errorbarsnotshownforclarity,
rangedbetween1% and 20%
in table2.
indicated
massloss). 'Fast','medium'and 'slow'referto ratesofdegradation

- wholepackaging
units(Note: PLA tray,potatostarchtrayand paperplateare also
Figure5. Mass loss (wt%) overtime
as smallsamplesin figure
4) (errorbarsare95% confidence
intervals).
represented
Compost Home standard.The fastdgraderbioplastics, predominantlybased on high levels of starch
and the grassfibre/starch
composite,werereadilybiodegraded in the home composting system. The
mediumdegradersbased on wood or coconut fibres
exhibitedmass losses of approximately50 per cent
over the compostingperiod. The easily fragmentable
natureof the residualmaterialat the end of the 180dayperiodenabledthemediumdegradersto be readily

incorporatedintothecompostmatrixand we conclude
thatmedium degraderswould be acceptable in terms
of disintegration.The extent of biodgradationof
these materials,however,failed to satisfythe >90
per cent requirementwithin 180 days of BS EN
13432. How this may change should the test be
extendedto 360 days (as in the OK Compost Home
standard) and whetherthis can be mitigated(as for
cellulose residues in farm compost) remain to be

Phil. Trans.R. Soc. B (2009)

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Biodegradable
plastics J.H. Song et al

studiedfurther.
The slow degraders(e.g. combined
starch/biodegradable
polyester formulationand
as comcertified
PLA), including
bioplastic
polymers
under
EN
13432
exhibited
conditions,
postable
andfrageither
no orverylowlevelsofbiodgradation
mentationover the compostingperiod. Although
greaterdegradationmay be achievedover longer
periods(e.g. expansionto 360 days),elevatedtemperaturearound60C has been shownto be a crucial
enablingthe inductionof biodgradation
parameter,
of polymers
such as PLA (e.g. Agarwalet al. 1998;
Scott& Wiles2001; Tokiwa& Jarerat
2004). Such
in
home
are
composting
temperatures clearlylacking
of thetypemodelled.The seed germination
systems
studyindicatedthat compostsmade fromgreen
6 per cent by
waste incorporating
approximately
mass of homecompostedstarchor papertraysgive
growthmedia thatsupportgood seed germination
and seedlingdevelopment.
Althoughsimilarresults
nonwerealso achievedwithcompostincorporating
be
noted
that
it
must
PLA
materials,
biodegraded
the compostwithPLA trayswouldfailthe disinteset in the OK CompostHome
grationrequirements
as the PLA traysremainedalmostintact.Inhibition
in composts
withdegradable
ofseedlingdevelopment,
fromopen-windrow
PE andcontrol
systems,
composts
has beenfoundbyDavis etal (2005).
thatseveralbiodegradIt is clearfromthisresearch
inhomecomcanbe processed
materials
ablepackaging
suitable
for
materials
and
posting
systems yieldcompost
willenablesuchmaterials
Thiscapability
plantgrowth.
homecomposting
tobe disposedofinwell-run
systems
frommunicipalwaste
and resultin wastediversion
thata
streams.
However,we havealso demonstrated
materials
that
ofpackaging
number
biodegrade
typically
comwellin industrial,
high-temperature
thermophilic
to
failed
biodegradeadequatelyin
postingsystems
thatoperateas low
environments
home composting
environments.
mesophilic
temperature,
At a practicallevel,theseresultssuggestthatit is
vitalto clearlydistinguish
packaging
biodegradable
thatcan be expectedto biodegradeunder
materials
ambient,mesophilicconditionstypicallyfound in
fromthosethatbiodeUK homecomposting
systems
the
under
-mesophilic
completethermophilic
grade
syscomposting
(55-65C) regimeof an industrial
tems. Labellingschemesand consumereducation
shouldsupportsucha distinction.
and information

2137

withorganicwaste,includingfoodwaste.By using
thesebiologicaltreatment
methods,the totalquantitiesof wastesent to landfillare reducedand the
compostsgeneratedcan be used as valuablesoil
improvers.
effective
forthe
Implementing
biologicaltreatments
developing
rangeofbiodegradable
bioplastics
requires
the support of clear certification
and labelling
schemes.Biodegradable
plasticsthatpasstherelevant
willbiodegrade
wellinindusstandards
compostability
trialcomposting
as
However, discussed,only
systems.
someofthoseplasticswillalso biodegrade
adequately
under ambient,mesophilicregimestypicalof UK
home composters,
and thisdistinction
needs to be
to the widerpublic (see
communicated
effectively
Thompsonetal 20096).
havegreatpotential
to contribBioplastic
polymers
uteto material
reduction
oflandfill
and use
recovery,
ofrenewable
resources.
awareness
Widespread
public
ofthesematerials
andeffective
infrastructure
forstrinand
control
of
certification,
collection,
separation
gent
thesebenefits
willbe crucialto obtaining
composting
in full.
of
theEng.D. programme
Theauthors
wouldliketothank
forthepostgraduate
studiesof
theEPSRC forsupport
toPactivUK fortheir
Gareth
Davies.Wearealsograteful
asthecollaborating
bodyintheEng.D. programme.
support

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