Effect of Power System Harmonics on Transformer Loading Capability and Hot Spot

Temperature
Shamsodin Taheri a, Hamed Taheri b, Issouf Fofana a, Hossein Hemmatjou a and Ahmad Gholami c
a

Dpartement des sciences appliques, Universit du Qubec Chicoutimi (UQAC), G7H 2B1, Chicoutimi,
Canada
b
Dpartement de gnie lectrique, cole de technologie suprieure (ETS), Universit du Qubec, H3C 1K3,
Montral, Canada
c
Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Iran University of Science & Technology, IUST, Tehran, Iran
Email: shamsodin.taheri@gmail.com, hamed.taheri-ledari.1@ens.etsmtl.ca
ABSTRACT

Under harmonic conditions, caused by nonlinear loads,

losses and temperature inside the power transformer
increase. The hot spot temperature is one of the major
limiting factors that affect the transformer life time and its
loading capability considerably. This paper presents the
determination of field distribution on the transformer
components as well as its losses using finite element
method (FEM). The hot spot and top oil temperature are
computed under harmonic conditions according to two
techniques, i.e. the dynamic thermal model and IEEE
guide. The effect of harmonics on the useful life of
transformer is then analyzed. Finally, an algorithm is
proposed to determine the loading capability of
transformer under harmonic conditions.
Index Terms Transformer, Hot spot, HarmonicsLosses, Finite element method, Loading capability, Life
time.
1.

INTRODUCTION

Power transformers represent the largest portion of capital

investment in transmission and distribution substations
and their correct functions are vital for system operations.
The widespread use of nonlinear loads has increased the
level of harmonics intensively. The increase of the
transformer power losses and consequently its
temperature rises are the primary concerns of the
harmonic impacts. The hottest spot temperature (HST)
which is increased due to harmonic current causes rapid
thermal degradation of insulation and subsequent thermal
breakdown. To predict the limits of loading capability and
useful life of a transformer, it is necessary to estimate the
HST of transformer winding. To determine the hot spot
and top oil temperatures under sinusoidal conditions,
many methods have been proposed to date. A transformer
thermal modeling approach in the form of an equivalent

circuit based on fundamentals of heat transfer theory has

been suggested [1]. Full simulation and renewal process
approaches have been presented to evaluate the time to
failure of the insulation. The estimations of some relevant
reliability parameters such as life, time-to-reach design
life, and probability of failure at a given time are also
presented [2]. Analytical methods for estimating the
temperature and its distribution at different points of the
transformer are presented based on a closed-form
mathematical technique using generalized heat conduction
(GHC) model [3]. However, there are few methods to
assess the hot spot temperature under harmonic
conditions. A model similar to traditional transformer
equivalent circuit is used to predict the hot spot
temperature and transformer life time [4]. Moreover, a
model including a potential difference defined as the
second derivative of the load current representing eddy
current losses in windings and the other stray losses
represented by a resistor in series with the leakage
inductance and dc resistance is presented [5]. Recently,
the authors presented a method to determine the field
distribution on the transformer components using finite
element method (FEM) and the calculations of hot spot
and top oil temperature under harmonic conditions [6].
The lack of thermal models for forecasting the hot spot
temperature and loading capability of transformer under
harmonic conditions has motivated the present study,
which aims at developing reliable dynamic models to
analyze the transformer performance. This paper deals
with the analysis of the magnetic field distribution and
losses by 3D FEM and uses two methods, namely the
IEEE guide and a dynamic thermal model, to determine
the hot spot temperature. The effect of harmonic on
transformer life using the aging acceleration factor will be
discussed. Finally, Transformer loading under nonlinear
load will be determined using the proposed algorithm.

2012 25th IEEE Canadian Conference on Electrical and Computer Engineering (CCECE)
978-1-4673-1433-6/12/$31.00 2012 IEEE

2.

in Fig. 2, the flux density in the transformer components

is shown in Fig. 3.

TRANSFORMER LOSSES UNDER

HARMONIC CONDITIONS

Transformer losses (PTL) are generally classified into

no load (PNL) or core losses and load losses (PLL) as
follow:
(1)

P TL = PNL + PLL

where PNL is the losses due to the voltage excitation of the

core and also PLL is expressed as [7]:

P LL = P + PEC + POSL

(2)

Fig. 1. The mesh model of transformer

where P is the losses due to load current and dc winding

resistance, PEC introduces Winding eddy losses and POSL
refers to other stray losses in clamps and tanks.
Current harmonics are supposed as significant barriers
that affect on transformer performance nowadays. These
harmonic current components cause additional losses in
the windings and other structural parts. The eddy current
losses due to any non-sinusoidal load current can be
expressed as [8]:

PEC = PEC R

h = hmax

h =1

Ih 2 2
) h
IR

Fig. 2. Daily load cycle

(3)

where PEC-R, Ih and IR are rated eddy current losses,

current at harmonic order h and rated current respectively.
Although the heating due to other stray losses is
generally not considered for dry-type transformers, it can
have a substantial effect on liquid-filled transformers. The
other stray losses due to non-sinusoidal load current can
be expressed as [8]:
hmax

POSL = POSL R I h2 h 0.8

Fig. 3. Transformer field solution

(4)

h =1

where POSL-R denotes the rated other stray losses.

3.

ELECTROMAGNETIC ANALYSIS USING

FEM

Transformer winding turns usually consist of copper

conductors in the shape of small rectangular strands.
These strands are immersed in an alternating magnetic
field. The losses are found from a magneto-static solution.
A finite element method is adapted to estimate the losses
in each turn/disc to determine the hot spot temperature.
Analysis of the field by 3D FEM would be more accurate.
However complexity would increase. Fig. 1 shows the
model of a 250 MVA, 118/230 kV transformer that is
meshed using Maxwell software which divides the
transformer components. Regarding the load cycle shown

In order to calculate the transformer losses, two

methods including FEM and mathematical equations are
introduced in this study. The results calculated from
standard equations (Eq. (3) and Eq. (4)), as well as the
calculated values from FEM, are presented in table 1.
From the results, it may be observed that there is
satisfactory agreement between the standard equations
and finite element analysis. The maximum calculated
error is about 6%.
Table 1. Transformer losses calculations under harmonic
conditions

Losses

PDC

PEC

POSL

Standard
method
FEM

720.6kW

194.9kW

63.7kW

765.2kW

206.7kW

67.5kW

4.

HEAT TRANSFER MODEL

The hot spot temperature plays an important role in

determination of useful transformer life. To determine the
hot spot and top oil temperature, two methods, namely the
IEEE guide and the dynamic thermal model are used in
this work. The commonly used model for top oil and hot
spot temperature calculations is described in Clause 7 of
the IEEE Guide [7]. In order to analyze the temperature
conditions inside a transformer, the analogy between
thermal and electrical processes is used which is named
dynamic thermal model. After some simplifications, the
differential equation used to calculate the hot spot
temperature is [8, 9]:

P
I 2 K + EC R
K
1
1
d

.[ H R ] m = H . H + [ H o ] m
1 + PEC R
dt

(5)

where H is the hot spot temperature, K-R is the resistance

correction due to temperature change, H-R is the rated
hot spot rise, H is the hot spot time constant and m is
exponent which defines nonlinearity.
Fig. 4 shows the hot spot temperature for the same
harmonic loads supplied to the transformer. The THD of
22% gives a temperature rise 30C than where there are
no harmonics for the hot spot temperatures. The
simulation results verify that the thermal model and IEEE
model can properly calculate the top oil and hot spot
temperature under harmonic conditions.

the hot spot temperature and aging acceleration factor is

given by [7, 10]:
(6)

15000 15000

Faa = exp
383
+
273

To estimate insulation heating effect, the loss of life

factor is integrated over a given period of time (T) as:

L=

Faa dt

t =0

Fig. 5 shows loss of life factor of transformer at daily

load cycles. As shown in Fig. 5, under heavy harmonic
conditions, the transformer life factor is increased four
times thenormal life that means the transformer life is
(15) life of
declined significantly by one fourth of normal
transformer.

Fig. 5. Transformer Loss of life factor

6.

Fig. 4. Predicted hot spot temperature

5.

EFFECT OF HARMONICS ON AGING

ACCELERATION FACTOR

The hot spot temperature is considered to be the most

important parameter in determining the insulation loss of
life and the potential risk of releasing gas bubbles during
a severe overload conditions. The relationship between

(7)

t =T

CALCULATION OF LOADING
CAPABILITY

As simulation result has shown, the presence of

harmonic loads increases transformer loss of life
dramatically. Hence, transformer loading is needed to be
derated according to level of network harmonics. Power
transformer model tests indicate that the normal life
expectancy at a continuous hottest spot temperature of
110C is 180 000 hours (1 per unit). Thus, if transformer
maintains its loss of life factor at the end of operation
cycle equal to one, it works on its normal life (180,000
hours) [10]. In order to determine the loading capability
of transformer, a suggested flowchart is shown in Fig. 6.
It shows a simplified flowchart of the self-consistent timedependent mathematical model. After correction action of
the loss of life factor at the end of load cycle, the new loss
of life is one per unit shown in Fig. 7. Therefore, the
transformer is capable to maintain its normal life.

current increases the hot spot and top oil temperature, and
declines its useful life intensively. To maintain the
transformer life in normal limitation, a new loading is
applied. Furthermore to determine the new loading, a
flowchart was proposed.

8.
[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

Fig. 6. Flow chart to determine loss of life

[5]

[6]

Fig. 7. Transformer Loss of life factor under new load

[7]
[8]

7.

CONCLUSION
[9]

Since the transformer is driving harmonic loads, it

may be subjected to additional losses and heating, leading
to the reduction of its expected life time. To estimate the
transformer loss of life properly, it is necessary to take
into account the harmonic current spectrum, the electrical
characteristics, the thermal behavior, the realistic load and
ambient temperature profiles. In this study an
electromagnetic analysis was used to determine the total
loss in various parts of the transformer. Then, two
methods including thermal and IEEE models were used to
calculate the winding hot spot temperature. Finally, the
effect of harmonics on the transformer loss of life was
analyzed. The simulation results show that the harmonic

[10]

[11]

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