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Geomorphology

Geomorphology is defined as

The science which deals with the study of the formation of earth.

The science of landforms with main focus on their evolution, origin, form, and
distribution across the physical landscape. Basically it is regarded as science contributing
towards the environmental management and natural resource.

Surface landform, processes and landscape evolution of the earth are included under
this study.

The systematic study of topographic relief forms is known as geomorphology.

The role of Geomorphologist is increasing day by day with growing awareness towards
environmental problems.

The term "structure" in geomorphology includes the orientation of rock units and their
resistance to erosion. Now days, the study of geomorphology is divided into the study of
various geomorphologic processes. Most of these processes are considered to be
interconnected or linked and are easily measured and observed with modern technology.
Geomorphology is moving away from geography and is closer to geology.
Recent trends:

Geomorphology is slipping out of the hands of geography.

Development of Regional Geomorphology.

Practical Application of Geomorphology.

Quantification and Experimentation Application of laws of hydro dynamics to the study


of geomorphic processes.

 FACTORS CONTROLLING LANDFORM DEVELOPMENT

According to W.M. Davis Landform is the function of structure, process and time.
According to K.J. Gregory Landform is the function of process, geometrical and
Changes through time.

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According to W. Penck Landform is the ratio of the rate of upliftment by the


endogenetic processes and the degradation by the exogenetic processes. Landform refers
to the three dimensional morphological features of the earth characterized by the shape,
size and dimensions, which are basically the product of

Endogenetic and exogenetic forces [older view],


Slopes or a combination of slopes [recent view].
Thus, landforms are the manifestation of various slope types (determined by geomorphic
processes acting on them) and the geomaterials / structure.
Meaning of Controlling Factors: They are not involved in the creation or destruction of
the landforms, but they determine the rate at which such destruction or deformation or
formation will take place.
The controlling factors determine the magnitude, amplitude, dimension, shape and size
of the landforms.

Factor affecting land forms:-

 Materials comprising the


land  Fluctuating sea level
 Shorelines processes
 Climate and vegetation
 Solution
 Erosion
The landforms that are found on the surface of the Earth can be grouped into 4 categories:
(1) Structural Landforms - landforms that are created by the solidification of large quantities
of magma or by massive movements due or rock because of plate tectonics. This includes
landforms like: shield, Fold Mountains, rift valleys, and volcanoes.
(2) Weathering Landforms - landforms that are created by the physical, chemical or biological
decomposition of rock through weathering. Weathering produces landforms where rocks and
sediments are decomposed and disintegrated. This includes landforms with some of the
following geomorphic features: karst, patterned ground, and soil profiles.
(3) Erosional Landforms - landforms formed from the removal of weathered and eroded
surface materials by wind, water, glaciers, and gravity. This includes landforms with some of the
following geomorphic features: river valleys, glacial valleys, and coastal cliffs.
(4) Depositional Landforms - landforms formed from the deposition of weathered and eroded
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surface materials. On occasion, these deposits can be compressed, altered by pressure, heat and
processes to become sedimentary rocks. This includes landforms with some of the following
geomorphic features: beaches, deltas, flood plains, and glacial moraines.

 Endo genetic forces and exogenetic forces:

Endo genetic forces: The forces which act in interior of the earth are called as
Endogenetic forces. Sudden or slow movements are caused by such forces. E.g.:Earthquake, Building Mountains. Endogenetic factors are agents supplying energy for
actions that are located within the earth. Some scientists think that these forces are
caused by contraction of earth on cooling, change in the rotation of the earth or due to
the action of the radioactive elements. Endogenetic forces which causes two types of
movement in the earth viz.
 Horizontal movement
 Vertical movement
On the basis of intensity these forces are divided into two sub groups:-

i)

Sudden Endogenetic forces. Volcanic eruption or earthquakes are the main


forces in this sub-group. Eg:-production of deep fissures in plain areas, the
sudden changes in the routes of river etc .are some of the effects of these forces.

ii)

Diastrophic forces: These forces act very slowly and their effect becomes
discernable after thousands of years. Eg:-the coast of the Baltic Sea rises by 1.3
meters in a century. There is large number of places where the coast is either
risking or sinking.

Exogenetic forces: - The forces that produced and act on the surface of the earth is
called as exogenetic forces. It causes slow movements. Eg:- Erosional and Depositional.
Exogenic (or exogenetic) factors are agents supplying energy for actions that are located
at or near the earth's surface .Wind, water and snow are such forces which erode the
surface of the earth or make depositions on it. These external (exogenetic) forces are
also called processes. Exogenetic and endogenetic forces begin to act against one
another from the moment when uplift exposes a portion of the earths crust to
denudation. These forces are continuously engaged in the destruction of the relief
feature created by endogen tic forces through their weathering and erosion.

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Weathering is basically of three types:


 Physical or Mechanical weathering
 Chemical weathering
 Biological weathering

 Origin and Evolution of the Earth: The Earth is the third planet from the Sun. It
is the densest and fifth-largest of the eight planets in the Solar System. It is also the
largest of the Solar System's four terrestrial planets. It is sometimes referred to as
the world or the Blue Planet. Earth's lithosphere is divided into several rigid
segments, or tectonic plates, that migrate across the surface over periods of many
millions of years. Over 70% percent of Earth's surface is covered with water, with the
remainder consisting of continents and islands which together have many lakes and
other sources of water that contribute to the hydrosphere. Earth's poles are mostly
covered with ice that is the solid ice of the Antarctic ice sheet and the sea ice that is
the polar ice packs. The planet's interior remains active, with a solid iron inner core,
a liquid outer core that generates the magnetic field, and a thick layer of relatively
solid mantle.
Our Solar System:
Our solar system consists of the sun, 9 planets, 61 moons and a multitude of asteroids, comets
and meteoroids.

The orbits of the planets are elliptical around the sun.


The planets generally revolve in the same direction around the sun and within the plane
of the ecliptic, except for Pluto which is tilted at 17o to the ecliptic.
Most of the moons revolve around the planets in the same direction as the planets revolve
around the sun.
Meteoroids, asteroids and comets also follow orbits around the sun.
The rotations of the planets, moons and other bodies are inherited from the rotation of the
ancient gas cloud from which they formed.
Origin of Earths Crust

Earths crust differentiated (separated) from the underlying mantle on the basis of chemical
composition. During mantle differentiation, relatively light elements such as Si, O, Al, K, Na,
Ca, C, N, H, and He rose to the surface to form the crust, seawater and atmosphere. The
division of the Earth's crust into two distinct types has been long established:

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Some theories on origin of the earth


1. GEORGES DE BUFFONS THEOTY.
Buffon, a French scientist, proposed that a huge comet must have collided with the sun,
resulting in the release of a lot of matter. This matter, so freed, got condensed and
transformed into planets, while smaller masses turned into sub-plants. Some matter
disappeared into the space.Although this theory has some scientific basis and the collision
between thesun and the comet seems probable. Some questions remain unanswered.
Comparedto the sun, the comet is composed of small particles and has a very low
density,which makes it unsuitable to cause a collision of such a magnitude which willcause
large masses of material to be released from the sun. Moreover, the sun has alower angular
momentum (a measure of the swirling motion) than the planets. Howcan a body with low
angular momentum create fragments with a higher angularmomentum? Finally, Buffons
theory fails to explain the peculiar position of planets around the sun which are arranged in
such a manner that the largest onesoccupy the middle orbits while the smaller ones occupy
the marginal orbits.

2. EMANUEL KANTS THEORY OF GASEOUS MASS (1755).


Kant proposed that the primordial matter was in the form of small and cold primordial matter
was in the form of small and cold particles which got attracted towards each other as a result
of the gravitational pull. In the process, the angular velocity and the temperature of these
particles rose to such a level that they got transformed to a gaseous state. A high centrifugal
force was generated due to high angular velocity which caused concentric rings of material to
separate from the hot gaseous mass. On cooling down, these rings became the present-day
planets, while a similar process caused the sub-planets to emerge from these planets. The
remaining mass of the gaseous matter became the sun. Although Kants theory appeared to
be simple and reasonable, he failed to explain the sudden coming into play of the
gravitational pull and the source of angular motion for the particles.
3. THE NEBULAR THEORY OF LAPLACE (1796): Laplace, a French scientist, proposed
that the primordial matter existed in the form of a gaseous mass called nebula, which was hot
and rotating. This mass started cooling down and in the process lost some of its volume. Because
of a reduced size, the rotational speed of the nebula increased. This had a cascading effect as the
centrifugal force of its mass also increased. As a result, the mass of the nebular a started
concentrating along its equator. This mass was, on the other hand, being pulled inwards by a
gravitational pull. But, as the centrifugal force increased further, some of the mass from the
equator separated from the main nebula in the form of a ring which was also rotating. This ring,
when cooled down and condensed, gave rise to planets and sub-planets, as it got broken into
many smaller rings. The remaining mass became the sun. Laplaces proposition seemed probable
to the extent that all the planets of the sun revolve around proposition seemed probable to the
extent that all the planets of the sun revolve around the sun in the same plane and are composed
of the same elements which makes the ring breaking into planets thesis seem probable. But
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then the angular momentum of the initial nebula should be equal to the angular momentum of the
entire solar system. Although the suns mass accounts for 99.9% of the entire solar system, the
angular momentum of the sun is only 2% that of the solar system. Moreover, for a ring of such a
magnitude to separate from the nebula, the nebula should have contracted to the size of the
planet Mercury, which does not seem probable. Also, this theory fails to explain the revolution in
the opposite direction by some of the sub-planets of Saturn and Uranus. Finally, going by the
processes involved in this theory, more rings should have separated from the nebula and not just
one such ring. The theory does not explain this factor. Roche modified Laplaces theory by
arguing that a huge gaseous mass with low density could not have given rise to a huge, thick
ting. He proposes that many small rings would have separated from the nebula forming planets
and sub-planets.
4.CHAMBERLAIN-MOULTONS PLANETESIMALHYPOTHESIS (1904): According to
this theory, the planets have a biparental origin, i.e planets were born out of two nebulae. The
sun, with it very high temperatures, projects hot material called the prominences, thousands of
kilometers away from it. Another nebula, passing by the sun, attracted some of this projected
material through its gravitational pull, which now started revolving around it instead of around
the sun. The particles of this material got coalesced to from the planets. A lot of heat was
generated in the process. Partly out of the gas particles attracted from the material floating
around and partly acquired from the volcanic eruptions, the atmosphere around the earth was
formed. This theory sounds probable on account of the fact that the total mass of the planets is
about 1/700 of the solar system which points to the formation of the planets from the sun.
However, the theory fails to explain why, on collision, the particles grew in size instead of
turning into a gaseous form. The theory also fails to explain the low angular momentum of the
sun compared to that of the planets.
5. THE TIDAL HYPOTHESIS OF JEANS AND JEFFREYS
According to this theory, the sun was originally, a gaseous mass. A huge star came so close
to the sun that its gravitational pull created tides on the surface of the sun and a part of the
suns material got ejected. This material, so separated, began revolving around the sun and
acquired an inflated, cigar shape because of the bipolar force being exerted on it-from the sun
and the star. This force was in the form of the gravitational pull. The gaseous material in the
cigar-shaped mass-swollen in the middle and thinner towards the end-cooled down and got
condensed into solid spheres which became the planets in our solar system, the larger ones in
the middle and the smaller ones towards the ends. A similar process involving the
gravitational pull of the sun created sub-planets out of these planets. In this case too, the large
sub-planets occupy the middle positions. Although the peculiar arrangement of the planets
and the sub-plants in the solar system is in accordance with the tidal principle of Jeans and
Jefferys, apart from the fact that all the planets are made up of the same elements some
doubts remain. The low angular momentum of the sun, for instance, cannot produce the high
angular momentum of the planets. Secondly, the distance between stars in the universe is so
great that ejection of material from the sun does not seem probable. Thirdly, the ejected
material had a very high temperature- not conducive to the formation of such large planets.
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6. INTER-STELLAR HYPOTHESIS OF OTTO SCHMIDST: A Russian scientist, Schmidst,


opined that space was originally filled with dust particles. Then dust particles were attracted by
the sun and began revolving around it. These particles underwent collisions and their speed
decreased. They united to from large planets. The matter, which remained unconsolidated, took
the form of sub-planets. According to Schmidst, the heavier particles remained closer to the sun
dueto a stronger gravitational pull there, while the lighter ones drifted away. This is borne out by
the fact that inner planets of the solar system Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars are composed
of heavy elements and the outer ones- Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto are
composed of lighter elements like hydrogen, helium nitrogen and simple compounds like
methane. And since the planets were not carved out of the suns material, there remains no
ambiguity about the angular momentum of the solar system. But Schmist failed to explain the
primordial existence of dust clouds, and their attraction towards the sun considering the great
distances between stars in the universe.
7. FASENKOVS HYPOTHESIS (1951): According to Fasenkov, originally there existed
clouds of dust and gas which got consolidated into the sun, the planets and the sub-planets. This
theory explains the different angular momentums of the sun and the planets, but fails to explain
the varying composition of different planets-some with heavy elements and some with light ones.
8. BINARY STAR HYPOTHESIS BY RUSSEL AND LITTLETION: According to this
theory, the sun existed in binary companionship with a companion star. A third star
happened to pass by this binary arrangement. This star and the sun exerted a bipolar gravitational
pull on the companion star. A tidal situation occurred and some material got separated from the
companion star which began to revolve round the star. This revolving material gave rise to the
planets. The fact that binary stars are a common feature in the universe makes this theory sound
feasible. The vast distances between the planets and the higher value of angular momentum of
the planets are also accounted for by this theory. But this hypothesis does not explain the
placement of the planets in different orbits at varying distances from the sun.
9.NOVA HYPOTHESIS BY HOYLE AND LITILETION: Certain stars in the universe
increase their brightness several times suddenly. These stars are known as nova. A supernova
contracts very rapidly; this increases its speed tremendously. Due to contraction, the temperature
of the supernova increases to a very high level and in the presence of large amounts of energy,
the lighter elements change into higher ones. Because of its small size, rotational speed of the
supernova increased and a centrifugal force came into play. The sun had such a supernova as its
companion star and it attracted the material ejected from the supernova due to the centrifugal
force. This material started revolving around the sun and got transformed into the planets on
condensation. This theory explains the existence of different angular momentums and planets
with heavier and lighter elements.
There are two kind of crust: Oceanic crust and continental crust.
Oceanic crust are thin (~6 Km), fairly uniform, basaltic, dark, volcanic rock, rich in mg, Fe. It
covers 60% of surface continually created by sea floor spreading. Origin and fate closely
linked to plate tectonics which will cover in coming weeks.
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Continental crust are thick (~35 Km on average), Heterogenous , less dense(


2.7g/cc), permanent.
 Geomagnetism: Basics of Geomagnetism

Lodestone was known to the Greeks (800 BC) and Chinese (300 BC)

First compass (200 BC) made by Chinese, but not clear why it worked

Europeans thought the compass needle attracted to North Star (Polaris)

More sophisticated understanding developed from 1200-1800 AD

In 1830 Hans Christian Oersted showed that electric current flowing in a wire
could deflect a compass needle showed a new source of magnetic fields.

Andre-Marie Ampere (1775-1836) further showed that two wires carrying electric
current would exert a force on each other. This was quantified in Amperes Law.

Oersted and Ampere showed that magnetic fields generated by the motion of
electric charges (electric current). This linked electric current and magnetic fields.

Note that both a bar magnet and loop of wire give a dipole magnetic field pattern.

Earth's geomagnetic field: Since the ancient times, people have known that certain materials
would always point to a fixed direction. Ancient Chinese, based on this principle, invented
compass (known as Si-nan at the time). These materials behave in this way because they are
magnetized and the Earth is surrounded by a magnetic field. Whichever direction such
objects are turned to, they would always revert to the direction of the magnetic field, which is
known as the Earth's geomagnetic field.
The Earth's geomagnetic field cause: The Earth's geomagnetic field is a combination of
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several magnetic fields generated by various sources superimposing on each other. More than
90% of the field is generated by the movement of conducting material inside the Earth's core,
which is
often referred to as the Main Field. Other important sources of the geomagnetic field include
electric current flowing in the ionized upper atmosphere and currents flowing within the
earth's crust. There are also local anomalies produced by mountain ranges, ore deposits,
geological faults, and artificial products such as trains, aircraft, power lines etc
The application of geomagnetic knowledge:The discovery of geomagnetism and the invention of compass enabled seafaring and paved
the way for the Age of Exploration, causing tremendous impacts on trades, wars and cultural
exchanges. To date, compass is still a necessary tool for activities such as hiking, stargazing
as well as marine and air navigation.
Basics physics of magnetism:

Magnetic Poles and dipole.

Magnetic potential and magnetic field.


Earths Magnetic field

Intensity (F), Inclination (I) and Declination (D).

External and Internal

The dipole field and magnetic pole.

Secular variation

Geo dynamo.

 Geosynclines:

In geology, geosynclines is occasionally used for a subsiding linear trough that


was caused by the accumulation of sedimentary rock strata deposited in a
basin and subsequently compressed, deformed, and uplifted into a mountain
range, with attendant volcanism and plutonium.
The Geosynclines are major structural and sedimentation units of the crust of
the earth. They are elongated trough like depressions submerged beneath
the sea water. They are considered as future sites of mountain building

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activity and of fold Mountains.


A long, relatively narrow and deep trough in the earths crust within a
geosynclinals belt. It may extend for tens or hundreds of kilometers. It is
found on the bottom of marine basins and is usually bounded by faults and
filled with thick strata of sedimentary and volcanic rocket is subsiding linear
trough that was caused during accumulation of succeeding sediments
and volcanic rocks.
The concept of the geosynclines was introduced by the American geologist
James Hall in 1859. Most modern geologists regard the concept as obsolete and
largely explain the development of linear troughs in terms of plate tectonics; the
term geosynclines, however, remains in use.

Types of geosynclines: There are seven types of geosynclines as follows:


1. Ortho-geosynclines are linear lying outside the relatively stable continental interior.
These are elongated basins which become filled with very great thickness of
sediments, which is subsequently deformed to form a fold-mountain chain.

2. Eugeosyncline is composed of thicker layers of sediments and is composed of


deeper marine sediments like shale, volcanic rock and chart. In these geosynclines,
the piles of sediments are found with an abundance of volcanic rocks; they are
formed at some distance from the shield areas, i.e., Kratons

3. Mio geosynclines consist of sequences of shallow marine sand stones and limestone
that thin towards the craton and thicken toward the ocean basin. These are formed
adjacent to the Kraton, where there is a thinner development of sediments which lack
volcanic rocks.
4. Taphrogeosyncline is geosynclines that were bounded by subsiding blocks. This is an
elongated depression, formed because of faulting. These are also known as 'graben'
or 'rift-valley'.
5. Parageosyncline is formed when sinking troughs that lie between the continents
and ocean basins. This is the geosynclines which lie within the Kraton
6. Zeugo -geosynclines is geosynclines that is adjoined by uplifted areas and is
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receiving clastic sediment. These are para geosynclines with marginal uplifts
7. Auto-geosynclines are limited to areas that are not adjoining highlands. They are not
the typical type of geosynclines tending to be circular or elliptical.

 Continental drift:
Continental Drift: The process by which the continents drift about the world is called
plate tectonics. The movement of the Earth's plates, on which the continents ride, is very
slow, being only a few centimeters each year. However, over tens or hundreds of millions
of years, both the size and position of land areas can change appreciably.
Continental drift was the first attempt to explain why similar animal and plant fossils are
found on different continents. The theory was set forth in 1912 by Alfred Wegener and
published in a 1915 book. He wasn't the first person to suggest Earth's continents were
once connected in a giant land mass called a supercontinent, but he was the most reviled.
Continental drift is the movement of the Earth's continents relative to each other by
appearing to drift across the ocean bed. Continental drift is a large scale horizontal
movement of continents relative to one another and to the ocean basins during one or
more episode of geologic time. The speculation that continents might have 'drifted' was
first put forward by Abraham Ortelius in 1596. .This concept was an important precursor
to the development of the theory of plate tectonics which incorporates it. The first truly
detailed and comprehensive theory of continental drift was proposed in 1912 by Alfred
Wegener a German meteorologist. The idea of continental drift has been subsumed by
the theory of plate tectonics, which explains how the continents move.
According to the theory of continental drift, the world was made up of a single
continent through most of geologic time. That continent eventually separated and
drifted apart, forming into the seven continents we have today. The first comprehensive
theory of continental drift was suggested by the German meteorologist Alfred Wegener
in 1912. The hypothesis asserts that the continents consist of lighter rocks that rest on
heavier crustal materialsimilar to the manner in which icebergs float on water.
Wegener contended that the relative positions of the continents are not rigidly fixed but
are slowly movingat a rate of about one yard per century.
According to the generally accepted plate-tectonics theory, scientists believe that
Earth's surface is broken into a number of shifting slabs or plates, which average about
50 miles in thickness. These plates move relative to one another above a hotter, deeper,
more mobile zone at average rates as great as a few inches per year. Most of the world's
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active volcanoes are located along or near the boundaries between shifting plates and
are called plate-boundary volcanoes.

CONTINENTAL DRIFT AN IDEA BEFORE ITS TIME


Alfred Wegener first proposed his continental drift hypothesis in 1915 when he published The
Origin of Continents and Oceans. In his Continental Drift Hypothesis a super-continent called
Pangaea began breaking apart about 200 million years ago. In 1915, the German geologist and
meteorologist Alfred Wegener first proposed the theory of continental drift, which states that
parts of the Earth's crust slowly drift atop a liquid core. The fossil record supports and gives
credence to the theories of continental drift and plate tectonics Continents drifted to their present
positions by plowing through the oceanic crust much like icebreakers moving through ice.
Supporting evidence for the hypothesis was
Fit of the continents
Fossil evidence
Rock types and structures
Climatic Evidence
 Physical condition of earth interior:
The central pressure in the Earth is 3.6 million times higher than on the surface and
temperatures may reach as high as 600 degrees Celsius. The earth core consists of
predominately of iron.
Many hypotheses as to the condition of the earth's interior have been proposed, of which the
following are the most important: (1) that the earth is a molten globe, covered only by a
relatively thin crust. (2) That it is substantially a solid body. (3) That the interior passes gradually
from a solid crust to a gaseous core, heated beyond the critical temperature and yet under
much enormous pressure that the core is as rigid as a solid body, but still a gas in molecular
condition. According to this theory, the temperature of the earth at the centre is about
180,000 F. and the pressure 3,000,000 atmospheres. (4) That it has a very large solid nucleus
surrounded by a layer of fused material, upon which the crust floats in equilibrium.
Physical condition of the earths interior:1) The Crust is the outermost skin of the earth with variable thickness. 98.5% of the crust is
comprised of just 8 elements .The most abundant element in the crust is Oxygen.
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-Thickest under mountain ranges (70km -40 miles)


-Thinnest under mid ocean ridges (3km-2 miles).The lower boundary Moho or the
Mohorovicic discontinuity separates the crust from the upper mantle.
Earth's crust, or upper litho-sphere, is divided into two types of crust:

The continental crust (underlies the continents) makes up the continents and larger
islands. The continental crust is usually much thicker than the oceanic crust. The
contention crust is thickest where highest in mountain region sand usually thinnest
beneath coastal regions. The continental crust is made largely of granitic rocks with a
mineral or chemical composition similar to granite. The average rock density of
continental crust about 2.7g/cm3 and average thickness 35-40 Km.

The oceanic crust (underlies the ocean basins) makes up most of the crust beneath the
oceans. The oceanic crust is composed mostly of basaltic rocks similar in mineral or
chemical composition to basalt. The granite is less dense than the basalt; thus, the granitic
continental crust is less dense than the basaltic oceanic crust. The density of oceanic crust
is about 3.0 g/cm3 and average thickness 7-10Km.
The two are also distinguished by differences in composition and density. Many scientists
think Earth's inner and outer core is composed largely of iron and nickel. There is much
evidence to support this hypothesis, including the iron and nickel composition of many
meteorites and Earth's magnetism iron and nickel are two of a few magnetic elements. In
addition, a combination of iron and nickel at the temperatures and pressures believed to
be in Earth's core can account for the observed properties of the seismic waves that pass
through the core.The high-density iron-nickel composition of the core and the low-density
composition of the crust indicate that the mantle must have a composition different from
the crust and the core and an intermediate density.
Earth's crust is composed mostly of rocks and minerals, depicting minerals, sedimentary
rocks, metamorphic rocks, and igneous rocks. Generally, the crust is composed of lowdensity rocks with a mixture of granitic and basaltic compositions.
Earths Mantle: - The mantle is the solid rock layer between the crust and the core. It
is 82% of earths volume and 2885 km thick. Below 100-150 the rock is hot enough to
flow.
The core: The core is an iron rich sphere with a radius of 3,471 Km. There are two
components with differing seismic waves behavior.
The core is divided into two core:-

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Outer core: The core with Liquid iron nickel- sulfur , 2255 Km thick and density is
10-12 g/cm3
Inner core: It is solid iron-nickel alloy with radius of 1220 Km and density is 13g/cm3.
Isostasy: The term Isostasy is derived from Isostasios a work of Greek language meaning
the state of being in balance. It describes the state of equilibrium the state of equilibrium of
a lithosphere plate floating on the Asthenosphere. Isostasy is a term used in geology to refer
to the state of gravitational equilibrium between the earths lithosphere and asthenosphere
such that the tectonic plates float at an elevation which depends on their thickness. In the
simplest example, isostasy is the principle of buoyancy where an object immersed in liquid is
buoyed with force equal to the weight of the displaced liquid. : It is the principle based on
density contrasts within the crust of the earth. Less dense rock material (e.g. granitic
continental rocks) will tend to ride at higher elevation compared to more dense rock material
(e.g. basaltic oceanic rocks).The driving force of isostacy id gravity which is responsive to a
heterogeneous distribution of rock density . Isostatic equilibrium: Masses of crustal rock of a
given density will adjust themselves relative to the earths gravitational field, density and
loading. Isostacy intimately related to epeirogenic movements of the earths crust on a regional
scale.

Isostatic models:
Airy Theory -Crustal thickness block model

Isosatic Balance: views of Airy

Airy, a geologist, considered the density of different columns (plains, plateaus,


mountains, etc.) to be the same. Hence, he proposed the idea of uniform
density with varying thickness. We know that the upper crust of the earth
is made up of lighter material. In this layer, silica and aluminium are found
in abundance, hence it is known as Sial. It is less dense than the lower one.
Airy assumed that the Sialic crust is floating over the Sima (silica and
Magnesium, lower denser layer). Crustal layer is uniform in terms of density
with varying length of columns. Therefore, those columns are projecting
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down into the asthenosphere depending upon the proportions of the column.
It is due to this reason that the root has developed or the sima has been
displaced from below. To prove this concept, Airy took an example of wooden blocks of various
sizes and immersed them into water (Figure 3.1). All blocks are of same
density. They get immersed differently in proportion to their sizes. In the
same way higher features with great height seen on the surface of the earth
have deeper roots whereas short in length has shorter roots beneath. It is the
concept of root which is sustaining the higher elevation. He is of the opinion
that the landmasses are floating like a boat in the substratum (magmatic
asthenosphere). According to this concept, the root beneath the Mt. Everest
would be 8848X8 = 70784 meter below the sea level. On this bases Airy has
been criticized that the root is not possible to be at such a great depth. Because
the root material will melt due to higher temperature found at that depth.
Prett Theory -Crustal density block model
Isostatic Balance: views of Pratt
Pratt considered land blocks of various heights to be different in terms of
their density. The taller landmass has lesser density and smaller height features to be denser. In
other words, there is an inverse relationship between height
and density. If there is a higher column, density will be lesser and if there is
a shorter column, density will be higher. Assuming this to be true, he accepted
that all blocks of different height get compensated at a certain depth into the
substratum. In this way a line is being demarcated above which there is equal
pressure with varying heights. Thus, he denounced the root concept of Airy
and accepted the concept of a level of compensation. For proving his concept
he took a number of metal bars of varying density with same weight and put
them into mercury (Figure 3.2). In this way they form a line by all those bars,
which he regarded to be the level of compensation.
Heiskanens Theory -Crust behave like a flexible sheet.
 Isostatic effects of deposition and erosion
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 Isostaticeffect of plate tectonics


 sostatic effects of ice sheets.

Differences between the views of Airy and Pratt


Views of Airy
1. Uniform density of crustal Varying density of crustal
material.
2. Varying depth up to which Uniform depth up to which
root penetrates crustal material reaches.
3. Deeper root below the mountain No root formation, but a
and smaller beneath plain

Views of Pratt
1. Uniform density of crustal Varying density of crustal
Material.
2. Varying depth up to which Uniform depth up to which
root penetrates. Crustal material reaches.
3. Deeper root below the mountain No root formation, but and smaller beneath plain.
4. Level of Compensation.
 Plate tectonics:
Plate: The Earths crust consists of a number of mobile plates, masses of crust that move
independently of adjacent plates.
Tectonics: dealing with structural features of the Earth (e.g., mountains, ocean basins.
Plate Tectonics: The process that involves the interaction of moving crustal plates and
results in major structural features of the Earth. A Plate tectonic is defined as a solid rock
mass that builds up the Earths surface. The Plate tectonic theory is the theory that
geologists use to help explain the surface processes and events. The word plate means large
pieces of the earth that are always in motion, lithosphere plates. Tectonic means how the
continents formed and move over time. It states that Earth is made up of two layers, the
lithosphere outer and the inner asthenosphere. The theory of plate tectonics (meaning
"plate structure") was developed in the 1960's. This theory explains the movement of the
Earth's plates (which has since been documented scientifically) and also explains the cause of
earthquakes, volcanoes, oceanic trenches, mountain range formation, and other geologic
phenomenon.
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A tectonic plate (also called lithosphere plate) is a massive, irregularly shaped slab of solid
rock, generally composed of both continental and oceanic lithosphere. Plate size can vary
greatly, from a few hundred to thousands of kilometers across; the Pacific and Antarctic
Plates are among the largest. Plate thickness also varies greatly, ranging from less than 15
km for young oceanic lithosphere to about 200 km or more for ancient continental
lithosphere (for example, the interior parts of North and South America).

The plates are moving at a speed that has been estimated at 1 to 10 cm per year. Most of the
Earth's seismic activity (volcanoes and earthquakes) occurs at the plate boundaries as they
interact. The top layers of the plates are called the crust. Oceanic crust (the crust under the
oceans) is thinner and denser than continental crust. Crust is constantly being created and
destroyed; oceanic crust is more active than continental crust.
Significance of Plate Tectonics:
 Global climate by affecting
 Ocean and atmospheric circulation
 Degree of sentimentality
 Rates of weathering related to uplift
 Tidal range and wave energy reaching the cost.
 Large scale trans aggressive and regressive phases
 Glaciations by position continents at high attitudes.
 Plate tectonics: It is a scientific theory that describes the large-scale motions of
Earth's lithosphere.
The lithosphere is broken up into tectonic plates. On Earth, there are seven or eight major
plates (depending on how they are defined) and many minor plates. Where plates meet,
their relative motion determines the type of boundary: convergent, divergent, or transform.
Earthquakes, volcanic activity, mountain-building, and oceanic trench formation occur along
these plate boundaries. The lateral relative movement of the plates typically varies from
zero to 100 mm annually.

TYPES OF PLATE MOVEMENT: Divergence, Convergence, and Lateral Slipping

At the boundaries of the plates, various deformations occur as the plates interact; they separate
from one another (seafloor spreading), collide (forming mountain ranges), slip past one another
(seduction zones, in which plates undergo destruction and re melting), and slip laterally.
Divergent Plate Movement: Seafloor Spreading
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Seafloor spreading is the movement of two oceanic plates away from each other, which results
in the formation of new oceanic crust (from magma that comes from within the Earth's mantle)
along a a mid-ocean ridge. Where the oceanic plates are moving away from each other is called
a zone of divergence. Ocean floor spreading was first suggested by Harry Hess and Robert Dietz
in the 1960's
Convergent Plate Movement:
When two plates collide, some crust is destroyed in the impact and the plates become
smaller. The results differ, depending upon what types of plates are involved.
Lateral Slipping Plate Movement:
When two plates move sideways against each other, there is a tremendous amount of friction
which makes the movement jerky. The plates slip, then stick as the friction and pressure builds
up to incredible levels. When the pressure is released suddenly, and the plates suddenly jerk
apart, this is an earthquake. Tectonic plates are able to move because the Earth's lithosphere has
a higher strength than the underlying asthenosphere.
Plate tectonics: The main features are:

The Earth's surface is made up of a series of large plates (like pieces of a giant jigsaw
puzzle).
These plates are in constant motion travelling at a few centimeters per year.
The ocean floors are continually moving, spreading from the centre and sinking at the
edges.
Convection currents beneath the plates move the plates in different directions. The
source of heat driving the convection currents is radioactive decay which is happening
deep in the Earth.

 Mountain Building: Orogency is the process of mountain building and may be


studied as a tectonic structural event as a geographical event and a chronological
event. Orogenic event cause distinctive structural phenomena and related tectonic
activity affect certain regions of rocks and crust. Some mountains are volcanic in origin
forming where rising magma breaks through the Earth's surface. Volcanic mountains
tend to have sporadic distributions within a mountain range (Mount St. Helens,
Rainier, and Baker) or can occur alone because of a localized hot spot (Hawaiian
Islands). Most mountains were created from tectonic forces that elevate, fold, and
fault rock materials. Tectonic mountains can occur as a single range (the Urals) or as a
belt of several mountain ranges (North American Cordiller. Mountain formation refers
to the geological processes that underlie the formation of mountains. These processes
are associated with large-scale movements of the earth's crust (plate tectonics).[1]
Mountain formation is related to plate tectonics. Folding, faulting, volcanic activity,
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igneous intrusion and metamorphism are all parts of the orogenic process of mountain
building.

 Vulcanicity: Vulcanicity is the process through which gases and molten rock are
either extruded on the earths surface or intruded into the earths crust. Magma is a
molten rock originating from the upper plastic layer of the mantle. When it gets to
the surface and loses its gases it is known as lava.

The Process whereby magma flows into the earths crust or onto the surface. When
magma reaches the surface, it is called lava. The type of landform that arises depends
on:
1.

Location where the magma cools or solidifies

2.

Nature of the magma (viscosity, temperature)

3.

Means by which the magma reaches the surface.

Location where the magma cools: When magma enters lines of weakness such as faults in the
earths crust, it may cool underground to form intrusive landforms. When the magma (lava)
cools and solidifies on the surface, it forms extrusive landforms
Pyrocrasts are the ashes, cinders and small particles of magma during an explosive volcanic
eruption. Volcanism is the phenomenon of eruption of molten rock (magma) onto the surface
of the Earth or a solid-surface planet or moon, where lava, pyroclastics and volcanic gases erupt
through a break in the surface called a vent. It includes all phenomena resulting from and
causing magma within the crust or mantle of the body to rise through the crust and form
volcanic rocks on the surface.
Types of volcanoes:1. Active: This is a volcano that has erupted within the last 500 years and still shows signs
of activity.
2. Dormant: This is a volcano that has not erupted within the last 500 years but still shows
signs of activity such as hot springs. An example is Mt. Kilimanjaro.
3. Extinct: This is a volcano that has not erupted within the last 500 years and shows no
signs of activity. An example is Mt. Kenya.
Volcanism (or volcanic activity) is the eruption of magma onto the surface of the Earth. It is an
endogenetic process caused by the movement of plate tectonics. Magma under the crust is
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under very great pressure. When folding and faulting occur, cracks or fractures appear. These
are lines of weakness. When these lines of weakness develop downward in the crust and reach
the magma, they will release the pressure in the magma. This allows magma to rise up along
the lines of weakness and intrude into the crust. Some magma may even reach the Earth's
surface. Volcanism is the phenomenon of eruption of molten rock (magma) onto the surface of
the Earth or a solid-surface planet or moon, where lava, pyroclastics and volcanic gases erupt
through a break in the surface called a vent.[1] It includes all phenomena resulting from and
causing magma within the crust or mantle of the body to rise through the crust and form
volcanic rocks on the surface.
While dealing with Volcanoes we come across certain terms like vulcanicity or Volcanism. The
phenomenon of vulcanicity is associated both with periods of earth movement and also with the
main areas of crustal instability.
Materials emitted during an eruption are put into the following categories:
Gaseous materials.: Various gaseous compounds like those of sulphur, hydrogen, carbon dioxide
and carbon mono oxide are emitted during the course of an eruption, most of which are
dissipated directly into the atmosphere.
These gases present in the molten rock-material produce great heat through their inter-reactions
within the lava being poured out on the surface. It may be pointed out that gases are the main
driving force in volcanic eruptions. A large part of the steam is derived from ground-water which
percolates into volcanic vents or down to the heated rocks several hundred meters beneath the
earth's surface. In addition, sea water also contributes to the supply of steam to the volcanoes
located on the periphery of the ocean basins
Solid matter or pyroclasts.- When a volcanic eruption takes place with a series of explosions,
solid fragmental materials are ejected which are known as Pyroclasts. The ejected fragments vary
in size from gravel and sand down to fine silt size. These fragments are called tempera.

Pyroclasts consist of materials from three different sources:


(i) 'Live Lava' that at the time of the formation of pyroclasts was molten or partly consolidated.
The fragments vary in size from fine particles to pumice or scoriae and volcanic bombs.
(ii) 'Dead' Lava and pyroclasts detached from the walls of volcanic vent.
(iii) Pre-existing crustal rocks from beneath the volcanic cone.
The finer particles which fall from volcanic clouds are called volcanic ash.
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Magmatic material:- Remember that so long as the molten rock materials lie beneath the earth's
surface, they are known as magma, but after they escape on the earth's surface the term 'Lava' is
used for them. Depending on the percentage of silica present in the magma or lava, it is classified
as under: (a) Acidic magma, which has high percentage of silica (more than 70 percent), (b)
Basic lava, which has low percentage of silica (less than 50 percent). It may be pointed out that
the form of a volcanic cone is determined largely by the nature of lava. The type of lava also has
much influence on the nature of eruption.
Acid lavas or magmas have a high melting point and, therefore, they are very viscous. Such lavas
solidify rapidly, and so do not flow far. Lavas with high percentage of silica (felsic lava) build
high, steep-sided cones.
1. Earthquake and Tsunami:
An earthquake is a trembling movement of the earth's crust. These tremors are
generally caused by shifts of the plates that make up the earth's surface. The
movements cause vibrations to pass through and around the earth in wave form, just as
ripples are generated when a pebble is dropped into water. Volcanic eruptions, rock
falls, landslides, and explosions can also cause a quake.
A tsunami (pronounced soo-NAHM-ee) is a series of huge waves that occur as the result
of a violent underwater disturbance, such as an earthquake or volcanic eruption. They
are sometimes mistakenly referred to as tidal waves, but tsunamis have nothing to do
with the tides.
A tsunami earthquake is an earthquake is an earthquake that triggers a tsunami of a
magnitude that is very much larger than the magnitude of the earthquake. Tsunami is
generated when oceans floods shift vertically usually due to earthquake.
An earthquake is the shaking of the earth that occurs after pieces of the crust of the
Earth suddenly shift. The term earthquake describes the sudden slip on a fault and
includes the ground shaking and radiating seismic energy that is caused by the slip.
Volcanic activity, or other geologic processes, may cause stress changes in the earth that
can also result in an earthquake.
Earthquakes can occur anywhere in the world although some areas of the globe are
more likely to experience an earthquake than others. Earthquakes occur in all types of
weather, in all climate zones, in all seasons of the year, and at any time of day making it
impossible to predict with any certainty when an earthquake is likely to occur. The best

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Seismologists (scientists who study earthquakes) can do is to look at the historical


record of earthquake activity for any geographical area and use this data to calculate
the probability of an earthquake occurring in the future. Earthquake prediction is still in
the future.

A tsunami is a series of sea waves that can be caused by earthquakes or landslides at or


beneath the sea floor. The displacement of the sea floor that occurs during certain large
submarine earthquakes and landslides causes displacement of large volumes of the sea
water above it producing large, fast moving waves. When a coast line experiences a
tsunami it can be due to an earthquake near the coast or due to a quake occurring in a
distant part of the ocean. Coastal areas may experience little or no damage from an
earthquake but can be devastated by the resulting tsunami.

Characteristics:
 Tsunami earthquake is that releases of seismic energy occur at long periods relative
to typical tsunami genic earthquakes.
 Tsunami earthquake is an undersea earthquake for which the surface wave
magnitude differs from the moment magnitude.
 Rupture velocities for tsunami earthquakes are typically about 1.0 km per second.
 Tsunami earthquake mainly occur at seductions zones.
Cause:
 Tsunami earthquake such as the 1946 Aleutian Islands earthquakes shows that
the release of seismic moment take place at long period.
 The observation of long period energy release is consistent with slow
rupture propagation velocities.
 Most tsunami earthquake have been linked to rupture within the uppermost part
of seduction zone.

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 Tsunamis, also called seismic sea waves or, incorrectly, tidal waves, generally are
caused by earthquakes, less commonly by submarine landslides, infrequently by
submarine volcanic eruptions and very rarely by a large meteorite impact in the ocean.
Submarine volcanic eruptions have the potential to produce truly awesome tsunami
waves. The Great Krakatau Volcanic Eruption of 1883 generated giant waves reaching
heights of 125 feet above sea-level, killing thousands of people and wiping out numerous
coastal villages.
Examples: The 2011 earthquake of the Pacific coast of tohoku earthquake also known as Great
Earthquake Disaster occurs on Friday, 11 March 2011. It was the most powerful known
earthquake to have hit Japan and one of the most powerful earthquakes in the world. In
addition to loss of life and destruction of infrastructure, the tsunami causes a number of
nuclear accidents. The Japanese National Police Agency has confirmed 15,538 deaths and 7,060
people missing.45, 700 buildings were destroyed and 144,300 were damaged by earthquake
and tsunami.
Geomorphic cycle: The geomorphic cycle was introduced by William Morris Davis as a
comprehensive model of the way in which natural landscapes develop at a regional scale.
Although initiated somewhat earlier, it emerged as a largely finished product in 1899 and
quickly became the dominant way in which landscapes were viewed academically for several
decades.

Fundamental concepts of geomorphic cycle:


1. The same physical processes and law that operate today must have been operated
throughout geological time, although not necessarily always with the same intensity as now.
2. Geological structure is a dominant controlling factor in the evolution of land forms and is
reflected in them.
3. To a large degree the earths surface possesses relief because the geomorphic processes
operate at differential rate.
4. Geomorphic processes leave their distinctive imprint upon land forms and each geomorphic
process develops its own characteristic assemblage of land forms.
5. As the different erosional agents act upon the earths surface, they produced an orderly
sequence of land forms.
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6. Complexity of geomorphic evolution is more common than simplicity.


7. Little of the topography is older than tertiary and most of it no older than Pleistocene.
8. Proper interpretation of present day landscapes is impossible without a full appreciation of
the manifold influences of the geologic and climatic changes during the Pleistocene.
9. An appreciation of world climates is necessary for a proper understanding of the varying
importance of the different geomorphic processes.
10. Geomorphology, although concerned primarily with present day landscapes, attains its
maximum usefulness by historical extension.
Geomorphic cycle also called geographic cycle or cycle of erosion, theory of evolution of
landforms. In this theory , first set forth by William M .Davis between 1884 and 1934. The initial
or youthful stage of landform development began with uplift that produced fold or block
mountains. The cycle could be interrupted by uplift during any period of the life cycle and thus
returned to youthful stage; this return is called rejuvenation. The geomorphic cycle could be
applied to all landforms such as hill slopes, valleys, mountains and river drainage system.
Cycle concept in geomorphology has been quite useful and logical despite those who have
tried to wriggle out of this reality without much success. Those who believe in geomorphic cycle
do not and cannot believe that the evolution of landforms is in a cyclic order in the literal sense
or that at the end of one cycle another cycle of the same magnitude starts.
W.M. Davis: The geographical cycle: the first model of landscape evolution to gain widespread
acceptance within the discipline was remarkably influential and persistent but no longer
dominates research thinking like it did, but still used as a teaching tool and residual influence
reflected in the way geomorphologists cling to cyclical models.
W.M. Davis was geography professor at Harvard University. He wrote about his model from
1880-1938, travelled and spoke widely. Like his contemporaries in natural science he was
strongly influenced by Charles Darwin (On the Origin of the Species) and Charles Lyell
(Principles of Geology), although used evolution as a notion of history (inevitable progress or
change over time) rather than a process and took a deterministic rather than probabilistic view
of evolution like Darwin.
Thus, Davis aspired to a deductive, theoretical, genetic model of landscape evolution. The
concepts of structure, process and time were his theoretical framework:

Structure was regional and considered as an initial condition (beyond the scope of his
model)

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Process was the sum of weathering and transport rather than specific processes or
mechanisms, although since his cycle was based on the assumption of a normal climate,
i.e. humid temperate, fluvial processes predominate

Time was the central theme, but time in the sense of landscape development relative to
the completion of the entire geographical cycle, i.e .,extent of landscape development
or stage

Landscape Development Concepts (German: 'Lands chaft sent wick lungs konzepte',
LEK) are an attempt to realize a creative space for socio-cultural and biological selforganization in the cultural landscape. As a new planning instrument, LEK represents
the implementation level of the Landscape Concept of Switzerland which was accepted
as the guidelines by the Upper House of Parliament in 1998.

2. Denudation and chronology


 Denudation: In geology, denudation is the long term sum of the processes that cause
the wearing away of the earths surface leading to a reduction in elevation and relief of
landforms and landscapes.

 Factors affecting denudation:


 Surface topography
 Geology
 Climate(most directly in chemical weathering)
 Tectonic activity
 Biosphere
 Anthropogenic activity

Rates: Modern denudation estimates are usually based on stream load measurements
taken at gauging stations. The weight of the load is converted to volumetric units and
the load volume is divided by the area of the watershed above the gagging stations.
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Medical use: In medicines, denudation refers to the loss of surface layers such as the
epithelium.
Channel Morphology: Channel morphology is studied in plan form; cross sectional view and
through the longitudinal profile. The classical descriptions of channel plan form by Wolman and
Leopold(1957) include braided, meandering and straight. Gradual growth of the central bar
deflects the main current against the channel banks causing them to erode.
Channel Morphology Influences/Controls:

flows (these have magnitude, duration & frequency)

ground water / surface water + exchanges


base / low flow
flood / storm flows
probable maximum flood
ecosystem
flora (micro to mega)
fauna (micro to mega)
humans (some charismatic)
substrate
rock
alluvium / colluvium/ soil

Factors affecting Channel morphology:


 Channel roughness causes friction which slows flow of river.
o Friction caused by boulders, vegetation, sinuosity & bed form.
 Channel efficiency is measured by Hydraulic radius i.e cross-sectional area.
 Necessary condition for laminar flow:
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o Smooth, straight channel


o Shallow water
Factors Responsible for River Channel Morphology: The river does not follow the constant
path for all the time. The river channel may change time by time according to the factors
affecting to it.
There are different factors affecting for the river channel morphology:Discharge: The volume of water flowing per unit time is known as discharge. The discharge of
water may affect for the river channel morphology. The activities of river may depend on the
discharge of water. The high discharge water may cause erosion, transportation and deposition
in high rate, which activities ultimately may affect for the river channel morphology.
Velocity: The velocity has the significant role for river channel morphology. The fast moving
rivers are capable of erosion and carrying a greater amount of materials. The velocity itself
depends on the gradient and discharge of river.
Lithology: The nature of rocks along the channel and along the side may effect for the river
channel morphology. Some types of rocks are more easily eroded by river water. The river
channel, which passes through the limestone, will be straight.
Load: The river channel may also be affected by the load condition of the river. If the river is
fully loaded it will not have further capacity to erode and transport the materials of the
channel. But if the river is under loaded it will erode its channel effectively.
Activities of River: When a river flows continuously in its way it carries out different activities
along with its continue flow. The activities of river are different in different places according to
the velocity of river, gradient of riverbed and energy level of flow. There are three different
activities generally done by the river.
Erosion :The process in which the existing materials are taking away by the river during its flow
is known as erosion. Erosion takes place in high velocity and maximum gradient. River cuts side
bank and erodes bed in this stage.
Transportation: The process in which the river carries erosion materials from one place to
another place is called transportation. Transportation is completed in solid form, solution form
and biological form. In solid form, there are two different loads of flowing materials, i.e. coarser
materials as bed load and finer materials as suspended load.

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Deposition: The process in which the flowing materials are left by the river and collected it in
the river's side and bed is called deposition. Deposition takes place in small velocity and low
gradient. This process causes the riverbed to be up and sometimes changing the course of river.
Surface erosion: Surface erosion are different forms of erosion that describe how a degrading
polymer erodes. In surface erosion, the polymer degrades from the exterior surface. The inside
of the material does not degrade until all the surrounding material around it has been
degraded.
Applied Geomorphology: The term applied geomorphology can be interpreted to mean the
techniques of geomorphology applied to real world problems that is things society cares
about. This class applies knowledge of geomorphology to problems in the built and coastal
environments.
 Aims and objectives:
 Introduce students to basic concepts of geomorphology, in terms of both
rock formation and weathering.
 To introduce coastal landform morphology and the process of
landform development.
 To practice techniques for recognition and analysis of landforms and process.
 Learning outcomes:
 An understanding of the basic principles of rock formation and weathering.
 An ability to apply lecture based knowledge to our surrounding built development.
 An ability to critically assess methods of conservation and evaluate ethical
issues involved.
 An understanding of basic process of operating along the coast (e.g. waves,
tides, currents and sea level rise).
 Geomorphology is the study of the surface of the earth its form, evolution and the
processes that sculpture it, so applied geomorphology can be defined as the application
of this knowledge in the resolution of engineering, planning and
environmental/resource management problems (Jones (1983) Quart. J. Engineering
Geol. & Hydro geol.
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 Slope Development in Geomorphology


The earths surface is made up of slopes. Most slopes are covered by weathered materials called
regoliths, which are being carried down by the process of transportation. Nearly all slopes have
a number of distinct parts called segments.
Factors affecting the stability of slope
It depends on the relative balance between the forces(stresses) which tends to induce movement
and the resistance(strength) which tends to prevent it.

Stresses
Gravity exerts a constant pull on all earth materials. Several other forces are at work on them:
flowing water, raindrop impact, wind or moving ice.
Strength
Weathered material would not slide down for the fact that it poses a certain strength.
First, all particles have rough surfaces, which results in friction between touching particles.
Secondly, the shape of the particles may cause them to interlock rather as the pieces of a jigsaw
puzzle interlock.
Finally, the clay particles of the weathered material attract each other by electric forces which
produce cohesion between particles.
slope instability, therefore, is caused by increase in stress or decrease in strength of the slopeforming materials.

Factors leading to a decrease in strength


1. Material factor: Bedding planes may decrease in strength if the water content increases.
2. Weathering process: The reduction in effective cohesion and shearing resistance. e.g. increase
of water
3. Increase of pore water pressure increase in pore-water pressure can lead to a reduction in
shearing resistance.
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Factors leading to a increase in stress (forces)


1. Transitory earth stress:e.g. earthquakes, continual passing heavy traffic.
2. Increase disturbing force:e.g. accumulation of talus, snow and water,
~ Man-made pressure through the construction of embankments, dams or buildings. .
Classification of Slope Segments
Slope segments can broadly be classified by 2 Ways:
A. According to slope form
1. Waxing slope (also called convex slope, upper wash slope)
2.Mid /back slope (also termed free face)
3. Waning slope (concave slope, lower wash slope)
B. According to Slope Processes
Such classification has been done in humid temperate slope in New Zealand, suggested by
Dalrymple in 1968.
The classification divides a slope into 9 units. Like slope form. Some segments may repeat or be
absent, or even there may identify more units.
The earth surface is made up of slopes. Most slopes are covered by weathered materials called
regoliths which are being carried by down by the process of transportation. Nearly all slopes
have a number of distinct parts called segments.
Conclusion: There are actually no universal pattern of slope evolution, slopes are related to
rock type, vegetation and various weathering and sediment transport processes.
3 models of slope evolution have been proposed and widely accepted.
1. Slope decline (W.M. Davis, 1899)
2. Slope replacement (W. Penck.1924)
3. Slope retreat (L.C. King, 1948)
The Factors that Influence the Slope Development: - The factors influencing slope
development are numerous. Litho logy, tectonic characteristics and age of rocks form one set of
important factors. Climate and its change constitute another. Tectonic movements and eustatic
change of sea level are highly important. Vegetation by providing a protective cover or
influencing hydrology or affecting transport of weathered material or otherwise must form
another important factor.
The original nature of the surface, e.g., the angle of inclination, its form in respect of concavity,
convexity, uniformity, marked Knicks or breaks and dislocated surfaces like those along faults
will affect the present form of the slopes.
Polycyclic nature of slopes, wherever this is the case, it is definitely an important factor to bear
in mind in the correct interpretation of slopes. Variety of factors is indeed bewilderingly large
and even in the same environment and micro region there may be baffling variations. "Within a
single climatic environment some slopes may recline whereas others retreat parallel"
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Economic geology: It is concerned with earth materials that can be used for economic and
industrial purposes. These materials include precious and base metals, non-metallic minerals,
construction-grade stone, petroleum minerals, coal and water. The technique employed by
other earth science disciplines used to understand, describe and exploit an ore deposit.
 Mineral resources
 Ore geology
 Coal and petroleum
 Criticism

Economic geology is concerned with earth materials that can be used for economic and/or
industrial purposes. These materials include precious and base metals, nonmetallic minerals,
construction-grade stone, petroleum minerals, coal, and water. The term commonly refers to
metallic mineral deposits and mineral resources. The techniques employed by other earth
science disciplines (such as geochemistry, mineralogy, geophysics, petrology and structural
geology) might all be used to understand, describe, and exploit an ore deposit.

Environmental geology:
It is like hydrogeology is an applied science concerned with the practical application of the
principles of geology in the solving of environmental problems. In other words, Environmental
geology is the application of geological information to solve conflicts from the use of natural
and modified environment.
Environmental geology includes:
 Managing geological and hydro geological resources such as fossil
fuels, minerals, water and land use.
 Studying the earths surface
 Defining and mitigating exposure of natural hazards on humans
 Managing industrial and domestic waste disposal and minimizing or
eliminating effects of pollution.
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