Waterhammer solutions - International Water Power

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Waterhammer solutions
13 October 2006
5

Small hydro plant designers often choose long penstocks

instead of the traditional 'open channel' option, as they can be
cheaper, quickly installed, and easier to maintain. However,
these longer penstocks are usually affected by waterhammer
phenomena, which must be faced with great care and suitable
calculation models to verify in a reliable way that the stresses
remain in a correct range as was the case with one small
hydro scheme in Italy
Gardone V.T. is a small hydro plant, the result of the rehabilitation and
upgrade of a plant once owned by a military factory, where the head of
seven other very small upstream plants, which were all decommissioned
during the last 50 years, was concentrated. The water for Gardone V.T.
originates from the river Mella, by means of a weir located in the north
side of Gardone Val Trompia, a small industrial town in the province of
Brescia, northern Italy. The drainage area is 241km2 with an average
rainfall of 1.2mm per year.

Waterhammer 18

Waterhammer 17

Before the construction of the new plant, the water ran in a long canal,
named Acqualunga, created specifically for it, crossing the whole town
from north to south. Later, a secondary canal, called Gramineto, was built
in the middle part. The existing plants were located on both the main
canal and on the secondary ones, so some exploited the whole diverted
water amount and some only a part of it. Nowadays, this partition has
been removed and the whole flow rate runs in the new penstock.
The present maximum flow is 4.5m3/sec, corresponding to an average
flow rate of about 3m3/sec (the maximum flow being increased slightly
from 4m3/sec in order to guarantee the 3m3/sec average), but under a
reserved flow obligation which is expected to increase dramatically in the
future.

Waterhammer 4

To exploit the whole head potential without any altimetric constraint, the
existing open channels were substituted with a pressured pipe a long
penstock that carries the water from the first plant upstream to the last
one downstream, saving the available head as pressure.
The optimum penstock diameter has been calculated as 1800mm, which
allows an increase in the head exploitation of 6,64% thanks to the
recover of the unexploited heads existing between every couple of
contiguous plants. The main characteristics of the new plant in the final
configuration are:
Maximum flow rate: 4.5m3/sec.
Average flow rate: 3m3/sec.

Waterhammer 5

Gross head: 27.3m.

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Waterhammer solutions - International Water Power

Nominal capacity: 803kW.

Installed capacity: 1.3kVA.
Annual production: 4MkWh.
The power plant and the tailrace, 360m long, will remain about the same
as the last downstream plant.
As the length (>1.5km) of the depleted reach and the storage constant
are significant, a relief discharge device was installed close to the plant to
lower flow rate variations (emptying out and filling up) in the river caused
by the unit start up and shut-down. Essentially, it is a Howell Bunger
valve, installed under water, automatically driven by the control panel to
maintain the flow rate in the penstock when the turbine is out of service.

Waterhammer 6

Penstock characteristics
The first 202.8 m of the existing canal will remain unchanged; only a new
trashrack and an automatic cleaner will be installed. In the following
321.1m, an underground reinforced concrete tunnel is now working in
depressurised (approximately 1m of water) conditions to solve a mistake
made during the construction: the bottom of the channel was rebuilt about
70cm higher than the old one, so only 20m3/sec can run in the open air
channel. As the tunnel cannot be reshaped, nor can another one be
excavated in the heart of the town, the study decided to create a
depression column of about 1m, after having checked that the existing
structures could tolerate the new external loads and having put a plastic
coating to make it as air-proof as possible.
The water then begins to run underground in the 1.38m long penstock,
which was made with three different technologies. The first 254.5m of
penstock, under the national road of Val Trompia, consists of cast iron
pipes, the following 768.4 m, which follow the borders of a new
residential area, are glass reinforced pipes (GRP) and the last 357.1m,
laying into the existing canals, is steel pipe coated with a reinforced
concrete structure. Table 1 sums up the situation.

Waterhammer 10

Waterhammer 8

The first tests on the plant confirmed the good quality of the theoretical
calculation, as the total reflection time was measured as 3.75 secs,
corresponding to an average wave speed of 736m/sec, slightly lower than
the calculation, possibly because of the lower actual value of the modulus
of elasticity of GRP pipes and because of the smaller contribution of the
coverage soil along this part of the penstock.
Waterhammer calculation
The waterhammer effects on the penstock have been investigated in two
stages. First, the hydraulic functioning of the penstock and how the
turbine and dissipation valve actions affect the pipes was calculated (by
means of a simplified mathematical model); the calculations detected the
more dangerous operations for the system and suggested the operating
limitation of the unit to avoid overstress in the penstock. In a second
stage, three sophisticated models were implemented to investigate the
best solution to the waterhammer problems, (which turned out to be a
surge tank) and to define its design parameters. Before the second model
stage, a set of field tests was carried out to verify the hydraulic
parameters of the penstock and the results of the theoretical calculations.
At the end, another field tests campaign was carried out to set the
operating parameters of the turbine and the dissipation valve, and to test
the plant in the hardest working conditions.

Waterhammer 3

Waterhammer 11

Boundary conditions
Penstock relevant data

Waterhammer 9

Static water level: 329.1m asl.

Depressurised length: 321.1m.
Penstock length: 1.380m.
Penstock total length (depressurised + pressurised length): 1,701.1m.
Hydraulic area of the pressurised penstock: 2.596m2.
Theoretical average wave speed: 895m/sec.
Theoretical reflection time: 3.8sec.

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Waterhammer solutions - International Water Power

Actual reflection time: 3.75sec.

Actual wave speed: 736m/sec.
Hydraulic losses coefficient: 0.1068sec2/m5.
Main turbine characteristics

Type: Kaplan.
Number of blades: five.
Runner diameter: 950mm.
Wicket gates axis level: 302.7m asl.
Runner axis level: 302.33m asl.
Geodetic head: 27.1m.
Net head: 25.8m.
Maximum flow rate: 4.5m3/sec.
Rated power: 980kW.
Rated speed: 750rpm.
Maximum runway speed: 2,030rpm.
Unit inertia (PD2): 5,258Nm2.
Water contribution (PD2): 432Nm2.
Total inertia (PD2): 5,690Nm2.
Hydraulic relevant transients
As a preliminary approach, the more dramatic situations for the
penstock stress are assumed to be:
Overspeed caused by electric shut-off without wicket gates
closing (with the runner at stationary runaway condition).
Electric shut off with wicket gates closing.
Mechanical shut-off without over speed.
The preliminary simulations and the field tests are carried out under the
abovementioned items.
Waterhammer stress minus surge tank
The preliminary calculations showed that significant overpressures
(positive and negative) affect the penstock. So many field tests were
carried out on the penstock in its original configuration (without surge
tank) to validate the theoretical results and to define exactly the actual
hydraulic working of the turbine/penstock system.
Phenomena connected with the negative pressures
The hydraulic and mechanical transients depend on the peculiar
characteristics of the plant, which are:
Very high hydraulic inertia, due to the penstock length.
Very low mechanical inertia, due to the small value of the unit PD2.
The characteristic time of the mechanical inertia is about 0.9 secs,
corresponding, when an electric shut-down occurs, to the acceleration
rate of the unit running speed.
As the turbine is a Kaplan type, increasing the running speed
corresponds to a similar increase of the flow rate, which causes a strong
depression in the penstock. The maximum value is reached in case of
overspeed due to runaway condition, but it changes only a little during
the normal shut-down because of the long closing time of the wicket
gates needed to limit the positive waterhammer pressure.
As the reflection time of the penstock is about 3.8 secs and the first
increase of the flow rate comes in less than 1 sec, a direct waterhammer
takes place in the penstock, so the first depression wave runs practically
unchanged along the pipeline until 450m downstream of the siphoned
channel, decreasing only in the last part. Nearby, the whole penstock is

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Waterhammer solutions - International Water Power

engaged by a transient of negative pressure, as reference to the

atmospheric value, with a first maximum close to the absolute vacuum at
the progressive 790, while the main part of the siphoned channel would
be affected by the absolute vacuum.
In this situation, it would be necessary to install suitable devices to
guarantee the air comes in, but the air bubbles in the penstock could
arrive to the dissipation valve, causing a very strong waterhammer, with
positive pressure waves of about 250m as a water column.
On the other side, without aeration valves, vacuum bubbles appear and
they could implode under the ensuing positive pressure wave, causing
very dangerous effects to the penstock. Referring to the positive
overpressure, it occurs at every electric shut-down with correct closing
actions of the wicket gates and runner blades. The calculation and the
field tests show that the maximum pressure waves can be limited to
standard values using a long closing time and suitable law for the wicket
gates (a bilinear closing law is enough).
The main problem from the turbine operating transients is the negative
pressure wave, which cant be mitigated by external devices such as
the dissipation valve, which is very efficient for the positive pressure.
Moreover, the dissipation valve must be operated under great care to
avoid making the penstock situation worse. The only technical solution,
which is consistently reliable, is a surge tank, installed in the penstock
path between the power station and the progressive 790, where the
vacuum problem becomes dramatic.
Waiting for the erection of the surge tank and taking into account the
dangerous effects of the negative pressure of the transient waves, plant
capacity was limited to 250kW, so as to operate in a safe condition in
every situation.
Surge tank
Following the mathematical simulations and the morphology of the town
where the penstock is located, the surge tank was erected at the
progressive 1524.7m. This is quite close to the power station (145m
upstream) so that a long part of the penstock can enjoy the benefits of
the work. The surge tank, circular shaped, was built quite completely over
the ground level, so it resembles a simple cilindric tower made of steel.
A short steel pipe 800mm in diameter connects the penstock to the surge
tank, constituting the surge tank diaphragm. It has an hydraulic smoothed
section, conic shaped (in order to have an asymmetric losses coefficient)
at the top side, towards the tower; the idea was to get higher hydraulic
losses for the water going into the surge tank and lower ones for the
water coming out.
Thanks to its steel structure, the tower, which works as a surge tank, was
erected in two weeks, during a scheduled out-of-service period of the
plant for routine maintenance.
The main characteristics of the surge tank are:
Internal diameter: 4m.
Material: steel UNI EN 10025 S275 JR.
Thickness: 11mm.
Penstock axis level at the progressive 1524.7: 308.7m slm.
Top of the tower: 336.6m slm.
Tower net height from the ground: 23.6m.
Final situation
Thanks to the preliminary simulation and the field tests on the plant at
limited capacity, a sophisticated mathematical model of the penstock was
implemented to investigate the situation of the plant with a surge tank
suitable to maintain the maximum stress in the penstock in the standard
range. Because of the location of the plant in the town, the surge tank
has the following two main constraints:
Maximum diameter 4m, due to small available space.
Reduction of the positive oscillation of water in the surge tank to limit the
tower height.
The calculation scheme was resumed, then, where:

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Lg penstock length upstream of the surge tank: 1526.1m.

Sg average penstock area: 2.596m2.
Sv surge tank area: 12.566m2.
SS diaphragm area: 0.503m2.
Ksu hydraulic losses coefficient for the water going into the tank (m=0.7):
0.249sec2/m5.
Kse hydraulic losses coefficient for the water coming out the tank
(m=0.9): 0.412sec2/m5.
L.S. static level of the water: 329.10m asl.
The preliminary simulation by simplified software finds the situations
which cause the hardest stresses to the penstock, which are:
Electric shut-down just at the end of the maximum positive load ramp:
this is the worst condition for the negative pressure.
Electric shut-down at maximum load when the flow rate in the penstock
is at its maximum transient value: this is the worst condition for the
positive pressure.
The simulation also supplies the law of the flow rate variation during the
closing transient, which was used as an input for more sophisticated
calculations.
The above conditions are used to simulate many different situations by
means of three different software packages, to find out:
The best closing law of wicket gates and runner.
The diaphragm optimum size to fulfill the constraints.
Referring to the turbine closing law, the simulations suggest as a
theoretical approach:
Wicket gates: Quick closing time from 100% to 18% (corresponding to
the braking start) 50 secs, braking time from 18% to 0% 30 secs.
Runner blades: Linear closing time 120 secs.
The calculations face the set of operating actions connected with the
turbine opening till full load and the following shut-down as mentioned
above, adopting a diaphragm with a diameter of 800mm, which the model
said would be the smallest one to satisfy the design constraints. The
calculation results show the pressure variation in the penstock section
just upstream of the surge tank and at the progressive 790 as a very
important issue also, corresponding to more critical vertex for the
negative pressure; the small perturbation waves demonstrates that the
surge tank creates a satisfying decoupling effect.
The maximum oscillation range of the water level in the surge tank has
been verified by means of three different software tools, which confirmed
the following values, which became the input data for the surge tank
design:
Minimum water level in the tower (negative wave): 320.85m asl.
Maximum water level in the tower (positive wave): 335.6m asl.
Elevation of the tower top: 336.6m asl.
Freeboard over the maximum positive wave: 1m.
At end of the erection of the surge tank, a field survey was carried out to
verify the actual situation of the penstock in the most dangerous
situations. The tests allow a better definition of the turbine parameters,
increasing the runner blades and wicket gates closing time in order to
reduce the effects of the related waterhammer phenomena.
Wicket gates: quick closing time from 100% to 12 % (corresponding to
the braking start) 165 secs, braking time from 12% to 0% 140 secs.
Runner blades: linear closing time - 250 secs.
The results of the tests show an excellent concordance with the
theoretical calculations, so that every limitation to the plant which could
start to work with the design flow rate could be removed.
Conclusion
In the particular situation at the Gardone V.T. plant, the calculations, and

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Waterhammer solutions - International Water Power

the adopted solutions are shown, where the most dangerous stresses
come from the negative waterhammer pressures caused by the very
quick increase of the flow rate (+30% on the rated flow in ~ 1 sec) when
the Kaplan unit shuts down at full load. This event, if not completely
analysed and faced in the designing phase, would cause an absolute
vacuum in a part of the penstock, with possible severe damages to pipes
and to nearby installations.
Author Info:
Paolo Cretti, Voith Siemens Hydro Power Generation, Fosse Ardeatine,
7/9 I-20092 Cinisello Balsamo (MI), Italy; and Nino Frosio, Studio Frosio,
P. F. Calvi, 9 I-25125 Brescia, Italy. Emails: Paolo.Caretti@vs-hydro.com
and nino.frosio@studiofrosio.it
This paper was orginally presented at the Hidroenergia 06 conference,
organised by the British Hydropower Association and the European Small
Hydropower Association
Tables
Table 1
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