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Improper layup practices are a major contributor to boiler tube failures and to steam turbine
pitting and cracking in U.S. fossil plants. EPRIs research into identifying damage mechanisms,
utility best practices, and innovative new methods to protect plant equipment during outages will
aid plant operators in achieving a successful layup.
For several decades, the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) has conducted ongoing
research into the causes of damage mechanisms, utility best practices, and innovative new
methods for protecting boiler and turbine equipment. This research has helped to identify the
most effective planning strategies, evaluate protection techniques, and outline key principles
for successful layups.
Our research confirms that damage to plant equipment from improper layup procedures
continues to be a problem for U.S. fossil plants. There are many underlying factors to be
considered, particularly at plants where equipment is aging and more vulnerable to damage.
Our research confirms that improper layup practices are a major contributor to boiler tube
failures and to steam turbine pitting and cracking, a major cause of reduced plant reliability
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The causes of improper layup procedures are many. At some plants, the duration of the
required layup is not always clear at the beginning of an outage; short-term outages can
quickly become long-term outages, with different unplanned-for layup requirements or
preservation techniques required. For example, some layup techniques, such as nitrogen
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At other plants, correct layup procedures are well known but not always followed. An EPRI
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study found that only 37% of utilities surveyed routinely nitrogen-blanket the boiler, and only
6% protect the turbine.
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and cycling, as well as in response to reduced or seasonal dispatch demands. For these plants,
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Understanding Coal Power Plant Heat
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Page 3 of 12
Proper layup practices must consider the entire unit. Protection strategies should take into
account site-specific factors, operational requirements, and unit design. A seamless transition
from service through shutdown, into the out-of-service or layup period, and through the
subsequent unit startup and return-to-service status must be factored into the strategy.
Finally, proper storage of all major components or systems should be incorporated into a
comprehensive layup procedure for the unit (see sidebar Damage Mechanisms from
Improper Layup Practices).
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corrosion fatigue mechanism depends on mechanical and thermal stresses developed during
the cycle. At a greater than 2% strain, the protective magnetite oxide of the stressed
component cracks, exposing unprotected surfaces to the boiler water. Pitting, the corrosion
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material (Figure 2). Pitting corrosion is the most prevalent layup-initiated corrosion
under-deposit corrosion mechanisms, are initiated or exacerbated by pitting corrosion.
17h
portion of the mechanism, can significantly increase the propagation rate through the
mechanism. Other corrosion mechanisms, such as stress corrosion cracking and various
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2. Permanent damage. This image shows oxygen pitting in a boiler
drum that was given inadequate layup protection. Courtesy: EPRI
Poor layup practices also affect steam turbines. Left open to the atmosphere and sitting over
a full and warm hotwell, the steam turbine is bathed in warm and humid conditions that are
conducive to pitting, particularly on the low-pressure turbine blade/disk surfaces in the phase
transition zone, which is a precursor to corrosion fatigue on the turbine (Figure 3). In cases
where the turbine has been contaminated (for example, following a condenser tube leak),
corrosion can be rapid and severe.
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Page 4 of 12
The corrosion potential and damage risk during a unit outage are nearly independent of the
implemented during the unit shutdown process. Two key points should be emphasized:
Visit our video archive (/power-video Thermal cyclic stresses and rapid startup/shutdown operations mean that short-term
outages can actually be more detrimental than longer, planned outages with controlled
shutdowns.
Corrosion activity is most aggressive in the minutes and hours following shutdown when
the moist, aerated environment is at its highest temperature. A rule of thumb is that the
rate of corrosion doubles for each 10 degrees Celsius of temperature elevation.
Frequent, short-term outages (from unit cycling) are more problematic and damaging than
traditional, but infrequent, long-term outages, because the percentage of operating life and
annual hours that the components are strained or imperfectly protected is increased by
archive/)
nearly an order of magnitude. The more time cumulatively spent in these operating
conditions and the higher the frequency of cycling, the greater the chance of damage.
As a simple example, consider the number of times you can bend a paper clip before it breaks.
Regardless of how slowly you repeat the cycle, the paper clip will eventually fail. But more
rapid and frequent cycling decreases the time before it breaks. Unlike a paper clip, steamgenerating equipment protection must also consider correct water chemistry (corrosive
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The shutdown and layup periods should be viewed as a continuation of the good water
chemistry practices used during operation. The primary purpose of the cycle chemistry is to
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provide protective oxide surfaces on all components throughout the steam and water circuits
practice should be to preserve those protective oxide surfaces and prevent damaging
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1. Trouble spots. Areas of the steam cycle affected by layup and startup practices. Source: EPRI
Based on EPRI research and personal experience, three guiding principles should govern all
layup decisions and practices:
Keep the chemical oxidation-reduction potential of water in the cycle the same during all
operating conditions. This principle refers not only to excluding air but also to
maintaining chemical residuals that exist during operation. If reducing agents (such as
hydrazine) are used during normal operation, they should be used during layup. If they
are not, they should not be introduced just for layup (unless extenuating circumstances
exist that should be reviewed).
Mandla/articleshow/48235714.cms)
(http://www.theintelligencer.net/page/content.detail/id/638518.ht
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Page 5 of 12
For plants without layup systems and procedures in place, several preventative measures can
be taken. For example, consider the equipment that is available and common-sense operating
procedures that can provide significant benefits:
Duration of the Outage. The length of shutdown is fundamental to the type of layup
procedure or technique selected. The rapidity with which plant personnel need to return a
unit to service can place constraints on how it is shut down or on the procedures and
practices used for layup. Although certain approaches are considered more appropriate for
certain types of outages, more than one layup approach can provide equipment protection.
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Purpose of the Outage. A prime factor affecting the choice of a layup procedure is the type
or purpose of the outage: economic dispatch, forced outage, or scheduled outage for
maintenance. Also of importance in planning is the actual outage length, which may be
subject to change. Factors include system conditions or dispatch requirements, system
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Return-to-Service Requirements. The choice of layup practice will be driven by how quickly
the unit is expected to return to service. For example, it takes longer to return a unit to service
when it has been in dry layup than if it is full of water (generally due to activities such as
disconnecting piping, removing or installing blank flanges, realigning valves, filling with
treated water, and so on). A more detailed discussion of these factors is found in the
Page 6 of 12
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anticipated maintenance required during the outage. This consideration may affect whether
the boiler is rapidly drained while hot or allowed to cool with water in the system.
Maintenance scheduling may make it preferable to take advantage of water in the boiler to
more rapidly cool thick-walled headers and steam drums. Draining hot facilitates the
preferred dry storage of a boiler for long outages; cooling with water requires nitrogenblanketing to prevent the introduction of air to wet surfaces.
Environmental Conditions. The most obvious environmental condition is the potential for
freezing water stored within tubes. This condition can be mitigated by temporary enclosures,
heat tracing, or localized sources of heat. Dust, salt spray (including cooling tower drift), and
high humidity also can damage equipment. These conditions can be mitigated by using
http://www.powermag.com/layup-practices-for-fossil-plants/?printmode=1
7/27/2015
Page 7 of 12
Development of plant-specific logic diagrams to provide the basis for layup method
selection.
Designation of a plant layup coordinator responsible for placing appropriate systems
and components into proper layup conditions.
Assignment of a layup team to assist the layup coordinator in accomplishing assigned
responsibilities.
One utility recently completed implementation of a series of layup processes and procedures
based on these planning elements. Plant staff report consistent and effective protection of the
steam generating equipment in less time with better results, including improved startup
chemistry and reduced startup timea real win-win scenario.
Finally, the selection of layup methods for affected plant systems and components should
begin when planning for the next outage begins, not as an afterthought.
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Forced Outage for a Boiler Tube Failure unit will be down just long enough to repair the
boiler tubeless than 24 hours:
Boiler: dry layup (the boiler will need to be drained for repairs)
Deaerator: wet layup
Condenser/turbine: wet layup (residual heat of turbine should mitigate damage)
Scheduled Outage with Return to Service Within 8 to 24 Hours:
Boiler: wet layup (with nitrogen, if pressure decays)
Deaerator: wet layup (with nitrogen, if pressure decays)
Condenser/turbine: maintain steam seals and vacuum on condenser
Scheduled Outage with Uncertain Return to Service needs to be able to return to service
quickly:
Boiler: wet layup with nitrogen
Deaerator: wet layup with nitrogen
Condenser/turbine: dry layup with dehumidified air or wet layup with nitrogen
Seasonal Outage may be called on to produce power with one to two days notice:
Boiler: dry with dehumidified air
Deaerator: dry with dehumidified air
Condenser/turbine: dry with dehumidified air
All Outage Conditions a single methodology now being evaluated:
Boiler: conditioned on shutdown with proprietary barrier-forming amines
Deaerator: conditioned on shutdown with proprietary barrier-forming amines
Condenser/turbine: conditioned on shutdown with proprietary barrier-forming amines
Note that conditioning with proper chemical dosages over a period of 8 to 48 hours permits
extended storage whether equipment is full of treated water, drained in humid to semi-humid
conditions, or dry. Dry conditions have been demonstrated to actually improve the corrosive
inhibition properties when subsequent humid or wet conditions are encountered.
The approach to a shutdown and subsequent layup may be different depending on the
outage duration. Planned, long-term outages are simpler to prepare for. Addressing shortterm outages that become longer is trickier. For example, for a short-term layup, the turbine
set will be hot (above saturation temperature) in many parts, and warm, dry air can be used to
prevent condensation on the surface. But after a time, the metal will cool, and a transition to
dehumidification is required to stay below a relative humidity of 40% and prevent hygroscopic
absorption of moisture and oxygen absorption on the dry salt deposits. When and how to do
this without proper preplanning becomes guesswork, so planning for these eventualities
should be part of every shutdown routine. The same applies to a boiler that is left full, hot,
and pressurized to prevent air intrusion; nitrogen capping must be done before losing the
steam blanket, which happens when the unit cools.
Short-Term Layups. Short-term layup presumes that the unit will be required to operate
within a relatively short timeframe. In general, no major changes are required from normal
operations except that the unit must be protected from air ingress. Short-term outages are
often scheduled outages, as opposed to maintenance outages. The equipment is to be
maintained in a standby condition for restart either on a planned schedule or upon request.
Typically, unit availability is maintained, and the return-to-service period can be as short as 12
to 24 hours or up to 72 hours.
These are some key considerations for short-term layups:
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Page 9 of 12
Follow instructions. Examples of steps used in each of the layup practices discussed. Source: EPRI
Intermediate Layups. Typically, during intermediate layups, the pressure within equipment
will eventually decay to atmospheric pressure and approach ambient temperature. The length
of an intermediate-term shutdown allows some additional flexibility for layup techniques;
however, the selected technique should be determined not by the length of the outage alone
but with consideration of other factors such as return-to-service needs and maintenance work
to be performed.
Wet layup conditions should be used when it might be necessary to return the unit to service
on short notice or when makeup water capacity is limited. Dry storage is the preferred
method as the term of the outage increases or is of an indeterminate length.
Long-Term Layups. For long-term layups, many of the intermediate-term procedures can
effectively protect equipment for a six-month period if conditions are properly monitored and
maintained. During the outage, plant equipment must be stored in a condition that
http://www.powermag.com/layup-practices-for-fossil-plants/?printmode=1
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Page 10 of 12
prevents both corrosion of idle components through moist, aerated conditions and
deterioration of idle components through oxidation of elastomerics and drying of materials
requiring moisture.
Wet layup techniques can be used for normally water-filled or wetted components such as
feedwater heaters, condensate/feedwater piping, deaerators, and boilers. The main
disadvantage of the wet layup method, particularly for long-term conditions, is that it requires
staff time to ensure that the nitrogen or inert atmosphere and chemical conditioning are
appropriately maintained.
Dry layup using dehumidified air is typically chosen for long shutdown periods.
Ongoing Research
EPRI is conducting research on barrier coatings or inhibitors that protect exposed metal
surfaces by preventing interaction of air or moisture with the metal surface. These alternative
preservation techniques can be applied when convenient, do not require capital expenditures
and complicated operating procedures, and are flexible to changes in outage duration period.
Current research has demonstrated that the development of a protective barrier on the metal
surface established by the hydrophobic formation of polyamine products inhibits corrosion
and pitting activity in the presence of aggressive chemical species and moisture.
New products and application methods are currently under test. Showing good promise are
various proprietary products used in predetermined dosages in the hours or days preceding
shutdown. Application during operation of the unit ensures complete distribution to all steam
- and water-touched surfaces. It also provides the needed time and conditions to establish the
impervious barrier on the metal surfaces. The flexibility of this technique, requiring only
turning on a chemical injection pump prior to shutdown, would provide an economic and
simple way to preserve equipment in a wet unit for a period of up to 30 days or in a dry
storage condition for many months. Expect introduction of these new products within a year
or two.
James Mathews (jmathews@epri.com) is the manager of EPRIs Boiler and Turbine Steam and
Cycle Chemistry Program in Charlotte, N.C. He served as the consulting chemist for the Fossil
Generation Division for Duke Energy, where he was employed for 36 years prior to joining EPRI.
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