Razboiul rece -ideologii si perspective

Razboiul rece - ideologii si perspective

Razboiul rece si bipolarizarea relatiilor internationale

a) Definirea razboiului Rece ( termen initiat de Bernard Baruch

consilierul lui Roosevelt si Wilson )
Razboiul rece a fost un conflict intre URSS si Statele Unite care a avut loc incepand cu mijlocul
anilor40 si s-a terminat la inceputul anilor 1990. Nu a existat o confruntare directa, fiind mai
degraba o cursa continua pentru raspandirea dominatiei si influentei politice.
Trei elemente au fost extrem de importante in ecuatia Razboiului Rece:
1.

Dimensiunea ideologica: Democratie vs Totalitarism

2.
3.

Dimensiunea psihologica: Jocul Nervilor

Dimensiunea Militara: Cursa Inarmarilor
Din punct de vedere cronologic sunt cateva teze semnificiative:

1.
2.

Yvan Vanden Berghe: razboiul rece incepe odata cu revolutia bolsevica

Andre Fontaine: Inceputul in 1917 si sfarsitul in 1962

3.

Teoria cea mai vehiculata ( sfarsitul celui de-al doilea razboi mondial- 1990) cu doua
perioade tensionate 1947-1953 si 1978-1980)

In legatura cu responsabilitatea si desfasurarea Razboiului Rece exista trei teorii:

I.

Scoala ortodoxa: Scoala ortodoxa este de origine Americana si a fost rezultatul opiniei pulbice
nemultumita de esecul aliantei din WW II, care a permis extinderea rapid a comunismului.
Aceasta sustine vinovatia URSS datorita expansiunii sale in Estul Europei, in timp ce istoricii care
combat aceasta teorie sustin ca Razboiul a inceput odata cu incercarile SUA de a bloca URSS in

II.

expansiunea sa. ( Arthur Shlesinger Jr.- Origina of the Cold War )

Scoala revizionista: apare la sfarsitul anilor 60 pe fondul izbucnirii conflictului din Vietnam.
Scoala revizionista sustine faptul ca Statele Unite a avut o politica imperialista si ca URSS nu a
facut nimic altceva decat ar fi facut orice Mare Putere in zona rasariteana. Mai mult decat atat
teoriile surprind faptul ca datorita capitalismului American aflat mereu in expansiune, nevoile
acestuia nu puteau fi sustinute decat prin acapararea de noi teritorii. (William Appleman Williams

III.

The tragedy of the American Diplomacy )

Scoala postrevizionista: Aceasta vine si puncteaza deficientele ambelor teorii sustinand ca
ambele state se fac vinovate de inceperea conflictului.

b) Inceputurile razboiului Rece

Intre 1945 si 1947 au existat o multitudine de ciocniri politice si diplomatice intre URSS si SUA.
Totul a culminat cu bombardamentele nucleare asupra Japoniei, iar Stalin luand in calcul un
pericol de asemenea anvergura a incurajat comunistii din tarile invecinate sa preia puterea
pentru a proteja URSS.
Inceputul a constat in doua telegrame, una trimisa de George Kennan diplomat American
acreditat la Moscova in care ii acuza de razboi impotriva capitalismului, ca agresivitatea
sovieticilor nu are sustinere in realitatea politica,lasand clar de inteles pozitia total opusa in care
se situau SUA. Raspunsul vine in sept 1946 cand rusii ii acuza ca sunt presati de monopoluri
economice pentru a declansa inarmari puternice tintind Victoria in cazul unui nou razboi.
Alte elemente ce au condus la incordarea relatiilor;
A) Discursul lui Churchill de la Missouri in care incuraja o alianta anglo-americana impotriova
sovieticilor
B) Doctrina Truman: Prin care americanii sprijineau financiar tarile care doreau sa iasa de sub jugul
communist
C)

Planul Baruch: O comisie pentru controlul activitatii nucleare, plan respins de rusi.

c) Criza Germana
Criza s-a delcansat odata cu capitularea Germaniei si pornirea discutiilor in legatura cu situatia
politica post-belica. S-a cazut de acord ( plan acceptat cu bratele deschise de Franta si URSS)
ca Germania sa nu fie federalizata ci divizata si impartita in sfere de influenta. In aprilie 1949
zona anglo-americana se transforma intr-o democratie parlamentara. Berlinul este diviziat in 4,
partea democrata fiind o mica partea in arealul sovietic. Stalin dorea acapararea intregului Berlin
astfel incat il izoleaza taind electricitatea, gazul. Printr-un pod aerian timp de un an, partea
democrata a primit ajutoare din partea anglo-americanilor. In iunie 1949 sovieticii renunta la
blocada in schimbul unei rediscutari a problemei.
Consecintele crizei germane:
1. Abandonarea doctrine Monroe ( izolationism ) in favoarea rezolutiei vandenberg
2.
3.

4 aprilie 1949 s-a creat NATO pact anti-URSS

1955 s-a creat pactul de la Varsovia ca raspuns la NATO ( si la intrarea RFG in NATO )

d) Razboiul din Coreea

Aflata pana in 1945 sub dominatie Japonez, Coreea este eliberata si impartita de catre sovietici
si americani. In 1948 se creeaza doua guverne pentru ca in 1950 sa se declanseze razboiul civil
intre comunistii coreeni sustinuti de URSS si cei din Sud- conflict deschis de kim Ir Sen. Truman
intervine pentru a impiedica implicarea lui Stalin directa ceea ar fi deschis poarta implicarii lui
Stalin oriunde in lume.
In Oct 1950 dupa interventia ONU in Coreea, comunistii chinezi sprijiniti de sovietici au ripostat
( 20k de chinezi ). Conflictul se incheie in 1953 dupa victorii alternative.

Consecinte:
a) Divizarea Koreei in NORDul communist si Sud.
b)
c)

Relansarea economiei americane

Sprijinul active al japonezilor pentru ONU a dus la retragerea trupelor Americane din zona

e) Perioada Dezghetului
In perioada lui Hrusciov ( 1952-1963 ) se resimte o relaxare intrucat URSS atinsese nivelul SUA
in ceea ce proveste inarmarea si a constientizat ca are nevoie de liniste pentru a duce la bun
sfarsit reformele.
In 1955 se semneaza un tratat de neagresiune intre Pactul de la Varsovia si NATO atunci cand
acestia se intalnisera sa discute problema Germaniei. Lucrurile se precipita odata cu
evenimentele de la Budapesta.
In 1959 are loc o noua tentative de destindere. Hrusciov, dorea o recunoastere a impartirii
Europei in sfere ideologice ( dorea recunoasterea RDG). Merge s ail intalneasca pe Eisenhower
si dup ace viziteaza Adunarea Generala a ONU stabileste o conferinta la varf ce trebuia sa aiba
loc in mai 1960, dar care nu va mai avea loc odata cu doborarea unui avion American de
recunoastere deasupra URSS.
In iunie 1960 Hrusciov se retrage de la o conferinta de la Paris unde urma sa se discute
problema RDG. In consecinta in 12-13 august guvernul RDG ridica Zidul Berlinului pentru a
impiedica exodul oamenilor spre RFG.

f) Criza rachetelor din Cuba

Criza rachetelor din Cuba a fost un conflict oprit din fasa si care a condus la o semi-normalizarea
a relatiilor intre sovietici si americani. SUA au flat despre construirea unui amplasament pentru
rachete in Cuba si l-a avertizat pe Hrusciov ca un atac cubanez va fi considerat un atac din
partea URSS. Stiind de faptul ca spre Cuba fusesera transmise arme neconventionale si 40k de
soldati, Hrusciov prin inetrmediul ambsadorului Dobrinin il anunta pe Kenedy ca e dispus sa
renunte la proiectul cubanez daca americanii vor retrage rachetele din Turcia. Pe 28 octombrie
Hrusciov anunta terminarea proiectului cu rachete offensive si la scurt timp Kenedy retrage
bazele militare din SUA.

g) Razboiul din Vietnam

S-a iscat dupa impartirea Vietnamului la Geneva in Nord ( comunistii lui Ho Si Min ) si sudul
democratic ( a lui Bao Dai ) apropiat de SUA. Johnson, presedintele Statelor Unite deschide
atacul impotriva Nordului dupa atacarea unui distrugator American, dar si pentru ca nu dorea
transformarea Vietnamului intr-o regiune complet comunizata. Conflictul a furat pana in februarie
1973, atingand si Laosul si Cambodgia. Castigarea presidentiei de catre Nixon schimba datele
problemei acesta fiind pentru o discutie cu blocul comunist motiv pentru care retrage trupele. Cei
din sud nu abandoneaza dar in doi ani sunt invinsi si intregul Vietnam devine communist

h) Dezghetul si Finalul razboiului rece

Inceput in perioada lui Hrusciov, dezghetul va accelera odata cu venirea lui Henry Kissinger in
fruntea diplomatiei Statelor Unite si a lui Brejnev la conducerea URSS. In iunie 1973 Brejnev
semneaza cu Nixon la Washington o serie de acorduri de cooperare economica si tehnica.
Accesul lui Gorbaciov la conducerea URSS in 1985 a insemnat un nou pas in directia incheierii
razboiului rece mai ales datorita problemelor economice ale URSS care nu mai suportau si o
cursa a inarmarilor. Au inceput discutiile pentru eliminarea armelor nucleare cu raza medie si
lunga de actiune iar in 1987, un tratat bilateral a concretizat cele discutate. Anii 1989 si 1990 au
condus la fdesfiintarea organismelor CAER si PActul de la Varsovia astfel ca ultimele
impediemente in calea incheierii de facto al Razboiului Rece au fost eliminate. Charta de la Paris
semnata de 34 de state a fost ultimul pas spre normalizarea relatiilor intre URSS si SUA

Comisia pentru Energie Atomic a Naiunilor Unite (CEANU)

Comisia pentru Energie Atomic a Naiunilor Unite (CEANU) (United Nations Atomic Energy
Commission) (UNAEC) este primul organism de negociere n problema dezarmrii, creat de
Adunarea General a Organizaiei Naiunilor Unite (ONU) la 24 ianuarie 1946.

Sarcina principal a acestui organism era de a face recomandri i propuneri n vederea

eliminrii armelor nucleare din arsenalele statelor. El trebuia s se ocupe, totodat, de toate
problemele ce decurgeau din descoperirea energiei atomice.

Proiectele de planuri prezentate n acest sens de Statele Unite i URSS (planul Baruch, planul
Gromiko etc.) n cadrul comisiei au fost succesiv respinse, aceasta ajungnd n impas, la 11
ianuarie 1952. Adunarea General a ONU a hotrt dizolvarea CEANU.

Bernard Mannes Baruch (n. 1870 - d. 1965) a fost un om de afaceri american. A

reuit s acumuleze o avere considerabil nainte de a mplini 30 de ani, fcnd
speculaii financiare pe piaa zahrului. n 1903 i nfiineaz propria firm de
brokeraj, intitulat The Lone Wolf of Wall Street (Lupul Singuratic de pe Wall
Street), din cauz c refuza s se alture vreunei companii de investiii. Pn n
1910 devenise cel mai cunoscut investitor de pe Wall Street.
4

i-a dedicat timpul pentru consilierea a doi preedini americani, Woodrow Wilson
i Franklin D. Roosevelt, n chestiuni de aprare naional i probleme economice.
n 1918 a devenit preedintele War Industries Board, o agenie de stat nfiinat n
timpul primului rzboi mondial pentru coordonarea achiziiilor de resurse de
rzboi. Sub conducerea sa, agenia a reuit s gestioneze economia american ntro perioad dificil, impunnd companiilor standardizarea produselor pentru
creterea eficienei, acest lucru ducnd la creterea produciei industriale americane
cu 20% ntre 1917 i 1919.
Dup ncheierea primei conflagraii mondiale, Baruch a susinut nfiinarea unei
agenii mai puternice pentru gestionarea resurselor de rzboi, avertiznd c Statele
Unite trebuie s se pregteasc pentru o posibil nou conflagraie. n 1946 a fost
numit de preedintele Harry Truman ca reprezentat al SUA n Comisia pentru
Energie Atomic a Organizaiei Naiunilor Unite, unde a prezentat planul Baruch,
care propunea colaborarea ntre naiuni n privina energiei atomice n scopuri
panice i distrugerea armamentelor nucleare.
Baruch a fost si un filantrop, contribuind major la iniiativa primei doamne Eleanor
Roosevelt pentru construirea unor comuniti n care s fie relocate familiile
minerilor ce intraser n omaj. Obinuia s se plimbe i s se odihneasc pe
bncile din parcurile centrale din Washington D.C. i New York, timp n care
dezbtea probleme guvernamentale cu trectorii.

Nuclear Testing Chronology

From 1945 until 1998, there have been over 2,000 nuclear tests conducted worldwide.
194549

195059

196069

197079

198089

199099

200009

United States

188

428

232

155

21

0 1,030

Russia/USSR

82

232

227

172

715

United Kingdo
m

21

12

45

France

31

69

92

18

210

China

10

16

10

43

India

Pakistan

North Korea

Totals

291

706

550

438

64

2,05
9

Country

2010Present

Total

United States
First nuclear test: 1945
Most recent nuclear test: 1992
Total tests: 1,030 (815 underground)
The United States has conducted more tests than the rest of the world, and was the first and only
country to use a nuclear weapon in wartime. The U.S. has signed the Comprehensive Test Ban
Treaty, but it has not yet been ratified by the Senate.

Russia
First nuclear test: 1949
Most recent nuclear test: 1990
Total tests: 715 (496 underground)
Russia was the second nation in the world to conduct nuclear tests.

United Kingdom
First nuclear test: 1952
Most recent nuclear test: 1991
Total tests: 45 (24 underground)
Britain tested its first nuclear weapon on Monte Bello Islands, Australia. Atmospheric tests were
carried out there until 1956. Britain has ratified the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty.

France
First nuclear test: 1960
Most recent nuclear test: 1996
Total tests: 210 (160 underground)
France conducted six controversial tests as recently as 1995-1996.

China
First nuclear test: 1964
Most recent nuclear test: 1996
Total tests: 43 (22 underground)
China is widely thought to be helping Pakistan with its nuclear efforts.

India
First nuclear test: 1974
Most recent nuclear test: 1998
Total tests: 7
In 1966, India declared it could produce nuclear weapons within 18 months. Eight years later,
India tested a device of up to 15 kilotons and called the test a "peaceful nuclear explosion." In May
1998, India stunned the world when it conducted six underground nuclear tests in Pokharan,
Rajasthan, and declared itself a nuclear state.

Pakistan
First nuclear test: 1998
Most recent nuclear test: 1998
Total tests: 6
In 1972, following its third war with India, Pakistan secretly decided to start a nuclear weapons
program to match India's developing capability. Pakistan responded to India's nuclear tests in 1998
by announcing it exploded six underground devices in the Chagai region (close to its border with
Iran).

North Korea
First nuclear test: 2006
Most recent nuclear test: 2013
Total tests: 3

Nuclear Testing Locations

From 1945 until 1998, there have been over 2,000 nuclear tests conducted worldwide.

Location

Number of Test
s

Nevada Test Site, Nevada, USA

935

Semipalatinsk Test Site, Kazakhstan

496

Russia

214

Mururoa Atoll

175

Enewetak Atoll

43

China (Lop Nur)

41

Christmas Island

30

Bikini Atoll

23

Algeria

17

Johnston Island

12

Australia

12

Fangataufa Atoll

12

India

Pacific Ocean

Malden Island

South Atlantic Ocean

Alaska, USA

New Mexico , USA

North Korea

Pakistan

Mississippi, USA

Colorado, USA

Ukraine

Uzbekistan

Turkmenistan

Total

2,051

Total Nuclear Testing Yields

From 1945 until 1998, there have been over 2,000 nuclear tests conducted worldwide.
Country

Atmospheric

Underground

Total Yields

China

21.9

1.5

23.4

France

10.0

4.0

14.0

India

0.014-0.017

0.014-0.017

Pakistan

0.014-0.017

0.014-0.017

North Korea

0.010-0.036

0.010-0.036

247.0

38.0

285.0

8.0

0.9

8.9

United States

141.0

38.0

179.0

(in megatons)

427.9

~82.428

~510.328

Russia/USSR
United Kingdom

Nuclear Warhead Stockpiles

The five acknowledged nuclear powers possess about 31,000 nuclear warheads.

Country

1945 1955 1965

1975

1985

1995

2000

United States

2 2,280 32,40 28,10 23,50 14,00 10,50

0
0
0
0
0

Russia/USSR

United Kingdo
m

10

310

350

300

300

185

France

32

188

359

500

450

China

185

426

400

450

Totals

2 2,490 39,04 52,32 68,58 43,20 31,53

7
3
5
0
5

200 6,300 23,50 44,00 28,00 20,00

0
0
0
0

Broken Arrows: Nuclear Weapons Accidents

Since 1950, there have been 32 nuclear weapon accidents, known as "Broken Arrows." A Broken
Arrow is defined as an unexpected event involving nuclear weapons that result in the accidental

launching, firing, detonating, theft or loss of the weapon. To date, six nuclear weapons have been
lost and never recovered.

1950s
Date: November 10, 1950
Location: Quebec, Canada
A B-50 jettisoned a Mark 4 bomb over the St. Lawrence River near Riviere-du-Loup, about 300
miles northeast of Montreal. The weapon's HE [high explosive] detonated on impact. Although
lacking its essential plutonium core, the explosion did scatter nearly 100 pounds (45 kg) of
uranium. The plane later landed safely at a U.S. Air Force base in Maine.
Date: March 10, 1956
Location: Exact Location Unknown
Carrying two nuclear capsules on a nonstop flight from MacDill Air Force Base near Tampa, Florida
to an overseas base, a B-47 was reported missing. It failed to make contact with a tanker over the
Mediterranean for a second refueling. No trace was ever found of the plane.
Date: July 27, 1956
Location: Great Britain
A B-47 bomber crashed into a nuclear weapons storage facility at the Lakenheath Air Base in
Suffolk, England, during a training exercise. The nuclear weapons storage facility, known as an
"igloo," contained three Mark 6 bombs. Preliminary exams by bomb disposal officers said it was a
miracle that one Mark 6 with exposed detonators sheared didn't explode. The B-47's crew was
killed.
Date: February 5, 1958
Location: Off Georgia, United States
In a simulated combat mission, a B-47 collided with an F-86 near Savannah, Georgia. After
attempting to land at Hunter Air Force Base with the nuclear weapon onboard, the weapon was
jettisoned over water. The plane later landed safely. A nuclear detonation was not possible since
the nuclear capsule was not on board the aircraft. Subsequent searches failed to locate the
weapon.
Date: February 28, 1958
Location: Great Britain
A B-47 based at the U.S. air base at Greenham Common, England, reportedly loaded with a
nuclear weapon, caught fire and completely burned. In 1960, signs of high-level radioactive
contamination were detected around the base by a group of scientists working at the Atomic
Weapons Research Establishment (AWRE). The U.S. government has never confirmed whether the
accident involved a nuclear warhead.

1960s
Date: January 24, 1961
Location: North Carolina, United States
While on airborne alert, a B-52 suffered structural failure of its right wing, resulting in the release
of two nuclear weapons. One weapon landed safely with little damage. The second fell free and
broke apart near the town of Goldsboro, North Carolina. Some of the uranium from that weapon
could not be recovered. No radiological contamination was detectable in the area.
Date: July 4, 1961
Location: North Sea
A cooling system failed, contaminating crew members, missiles and some parts of a K-19 "Hotel"class Soviet nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarine off Norway. One of the sub's two reactors
soared to 800 degrees Celsius and threatened to melt down the reactor's fuel rods. Several
fatalities were reported.

10

Date: December 5, 1965

Location: Pacific Ocean
An A-4E Skyhawk attack aircraft loaded with one B43 nuclear weapon rolled off the deck of the
USS Ticonderoga. Pilot, plane and weapon were never found.
Date: Mid-1960s (Date undetermined)
Location: Kara Sea
Soviet nuclear-powered icebreaker Lenin was forced to dump its reactors in the Kara Sea. Some
accounts said the Lenin experienced a reactor meltdown.
Date: January 17, 1966
Location: Palomares, Spain
A B-52 carrying four nuclear weapons collided with a KC-135 during refueling operations and
crashed near Palomares, Spain. One weapon was safely recovered on the ground and another from
the sea, after extensive search and recovery efforts. The other two weapons hit land, resulting in
detonation of their high explosives and the subsequent release of radioactive materials. Over
1,400 tons of soil was sent to an approved storage site.
Date: April 11, 1968
Location: Pacific Ocean
A Soviet diesel-powered "Golf"-class ballistic missile submarine sank about 750 miles northwest of
the island of Oahu, Hawaii. Reports say the submarine was carrying three nuclear-armed ballistic
missiles, as well as several nuclear torpedoes. Part of the submarine was reportedly raised using
the CIA's specially constructed "Glomar Explorer" deep-water salvage ship.
Date: November 1969
Location: White Sea
The U.S. nuclear-powered submarine Gato reportedly collided with a Soviet submarine on
November 14 or 15, 1969, near the entrance of the White Sea.

1970s
Date: April 12, 1970
Location: Atlantic Ocean
A Soviet "November"-class nuclear-powered attack submarine experienced an apparent nuclear
propulsion problem in the Atlantic Ocean about 300 miles northwest of Spain. Although an attempt
to attach a tow line from a Soviet bloc merchant ship; the submarine apparently sank, killing 52.
Date: November 22, 1975
Location: Off Sicily, Italy
The aircraft carrier USS John F. Kennedy and the cruiser USS Belknap collided in rough seas at
night during exercises. Although it was declared as "a possible nuclear weapons accident," no
subsequent nuclear contamination was discovered during the fire and rescue operations.

1980s
Date: October 3, 1986
Location: Atlantic Ocean
A Soviet "Yankee I"-class nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarine suffered an explosion and
fire in one of its missile tubes 480 miles east of Bermuda. The submarine sank while under tow on
October 6 in 18,000 feet of water. Two nuclear reactors and approximately 34 nuclear weapons
were on board.
Date: April 7, 1989
Location: Atlantic Ocean
About 300 miles north of the Norwegian coast, the Komsomolets, a Soviet nuclear-powered attack
submarine, caught fire and sank. The vessel's nuclear reactor, two nuclear-armed torpedoes, and
42 of the 69 crew members were lost.

11

Date: August 10, 1985

Location: Near Vladivostok, Russia
While at the Chazhma Bay repair facility, about 35 miles from Vladivostok, an "Echo"-class Soviet
nuclear-powered submarine suffered a reactor explosion. The explosion released a cloud of
radioactivity toward Vladivostok but did not reach the city. Ten officers were killed in the explosion.

1990s
Date: September 27, 1991
Location: White Sea
A missile launch malfunction occurred during a test launch on a "Typhoon"-class nuclear-powered
ballistic missile submarine.
Date: March 20, 1993
Location: Barents Sea
The U.S. nuclear-powered submarine Grayling collided with a Russian Delta III nuclear-powered
ballistic missile submarine. Both vessels reportedly suffered only minor damage.
Date: February 11, 1992
Location: Barents Sea
A collision between a CIS (Commonwealth of Independent States) "Sierra"-class nuclear-powered
attack submarine with the U.S. nuclear-powered attack submarine Baton Rouge. Both vessels
reportedly suffered only minor damage. There is a dispute over the location of the incident in or
outside Russian territorial waters.

2000s
Date: August 12, 2000
Location: Barents Sea
The CIS (Commonwealth of Independent States) "Oscar II" class submarine, Kursk, sinks after a
massive onboard explosion. Attempts to resuce the 118 men fail. It is thought that a torpedo
failure caused the accident. Radiation levels are normal and the submarine had no nuclear
weapons on board.

12

13

14

15

16

17

1945 Truman's Message to Congress on the Atomic Bomb

1946 The Baruch Plan

1946 Atomic Energy Act

1946 Churchill's "Iron Curtain" Speech

1950 Niels Bohr's Open Letter to the United Nations

1953 Eisenhower's Atoms for Peace Speech

1962 Sec. of Defense McNamara's "No Cities" Speech

1963 Kennedy's Commencement Address at American University

1963 Kennedy's Address to the American People on the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty

1967 Sec. of Defense McNamara's "Mutual Deterrence" Speech

18

Developing the Hydrogen Bomb

Work on the Hydrogen Bomb began during the Manhattan Project, but not until the Soviet's
exploded their first atomic bomb did efforts toward building the "Super" begin to take shape.

1948 Estimate of the Status of the Russian Atomic Energy Project

1949 Statement Announcing the First Soviet A-Bomb

1949 CIA Report of Surveillance

1949 General Advisory Committee's Majority and Minority Reports on Building the H-Bomb

1949 Strauss' Letter to President Truman

1950 Statement by the President on the Hydrogen Bomb

Arms Control Treaties

Below are brief summaries of the arms control treaties. Many have to complete text of the treaty
available.

1959 Antarctic Treaty

1963 Hot Line Agreement

1963 Limited Test Ban Treaty

1967 Outer Space Treaty

1967 Latin America Nuclear Free Zone Treaty

1968 Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty

1971 Seabed Treaty

1972 Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty I (Interim Agreement)

1972 Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty

1974 Threshold Test Ban Treaty

1974 Vladivostok Agreement

1976 Peaceful Nuclear Explosions Treaty

19

1977 Environmental Modification Convention

1979 Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty II

1985 South Pacific Nuclear Free Zone Treaty

1987 Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty - INF

1988 Ballistic Missile Launch Notification Agreement

1991 Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty

1993 Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty II

1996 Treaty of Pelindaba

1996 Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty

2002 Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty

2005 International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism

2010 New Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (New START)

Timeline of the Nuclear Age

1945
January - First plutonium reprocessing begins at Hanford.
January 20 - First uranium 235 separated at Oak Ridge, Tennessee.
June 11 - The Franck Report is sent to Secretary of War Stimson.
July 16 - U.S. explodes the world's first atomic bomb, the Trinity test, at Alamogordo, New
Mexico.
August 6 - Little Boy, an uranium bomb, was dropped on Hiroshima, Japan. Between 80,000 140,000 people are killed.
August 9 - Fat Man, a plutonium bomb, was dropped on Nagasaki, Japan. About 74,000 people
are killed.
1946
June 14 - Bernard Baruch presents the Acheson-Lilienthal plan to internationalize the atomic
energy. It is rejected by the U.S.S.R.
June 30 - First subsurface detonation by U.S. is achieved at Bikini Atoll in the Pacific.
July - Demonstrations are held in Times Square, New York, against nuclear testing.
August 1 - President Harry S. Truman signs the Atomic Energy Act. Its purpose is to control the
development and production of nuclear weapons and to direct the research and development of
peaceful uses of nuclear energy.
December 25 - The Soviet Union achieves its first nuclear chain reaction in Moscow.
December 31 - Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) takes over nuclear weapons program from the
Army.
1947
January - The United Kingdom authorizes the development of nuclear weapons.
June - Under the direction of William Penney, the UK begins design of its plutonium bomb.
August - The United Kingdom builds its first atomic reactor.

20

1948
April, May - U.S. conducts atomic tests at Eniwetok Atoll.
1949
April 4 - NATO established.
August 29 - Soviet Union detonates its first atomic bomb, Joe 1, at Semipalatinsk in
Kazakhstan. It is a copy of the Fat Man bomb and has a yield of 21 kilotons.
October 30 - General Advisory Committee of the AEC recommends that the more powerful
atomic bombs should be built rather than hydrogen bombs.
1950
January 27 - Klaus Fuchs confesses that he gave atomic secrets to the Soviets while working at
the Manhattan Project.
January 31 - President Truman announces the decision to proceed with development of the
hydrogen bomb.
1951
January 27 - The first nuclear test occurs at the Nevada Test Site.
June - First British nuclear reactor goes critical.
Julius and Ethel Rosenberg are convicted and sentenced to death for passing information on
atomic weapons to the U.S.S.R.
1952
September - A second U.S. nuclear weapons laboratory is established in Livermore, California.
October 3 - First British atomic bomb, "Hurricane," was tested at Monte Bello Islands, Australia,
with a yield of 25 kilotons.
October 31 - U.S. explodes first thermonuclear or fusion device, "Mike," at Eniwetok Atoll. It had
a yield of 10.4 megatons.
1953
August 12 - First Soviet layer cake design bomb explods on a tower in Siberia. It was not a
"true" hydrogen bomb.
1954
March 1 - The first deliverable hydrogen bomb design is tested at Bikini Atoll. "BRAVO" has a
yield of 14.8 megatons. Radioactive fallout affects local islanders and a nearby fishing boat.
April 12 to May 6 - Hearings regarding Oppenheimer's loyalty cause him to lose his security
clearance.
September 30 - The USS Nautilus, the first American nuclear powered submarine, is launched.
1955
The U.S.S.R. deploys two strategic bombers, Bear and Bison.
The United Kingdom announces the decision to develop thermonuclear weapons.
November 22 - The first true fusion device test is acheived by the Soviet Union; it has a yield of
1.6 megatons. The development is lead by Andrei Sakharov.
1957
May 15 - First British H-bomb exploded at Christmas Island. The yield was between 200 - 300
kilotons. It was less than expected.
July 29 - The United Nations International Atomic Energy Agency is created. The agency
inspects nuclear reactors and plants to ensure they are being run for peaceful purposes.
August 26 - The Soviet Union announces the successful launch of an intercontinental ballistic
missile.
September 19 - First underground nuclear test, "Rainier," occurs at the Nevada Test Site. It had
a yield of 1.7 kilotons.
November 8 - Britain's first truly successful thermonuclear bomb test. The bomb had a yield of
1.8 megatons.
October - Fire destroys the core of a reactor at Britain's Windscale nuclear complex, sending
clouds of radioactivity into the atmosphere.
1958
July 2 - President Eisenhower signs amendments to the 1954 U.S. Atomic Energy Act which
opened the way to a bilateral agreement between Britain and America on nuclear weapon design
information.
November 1958 to September 1961 - U.S., U.K., and U.S.S.R. observe an informal moratorium
on nuclear tests.
1959

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June 9 - The first U.S. Polaris nuclear missile-capable submarine enters into service.
October 31 - The U.S. deploys the first operational intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM), the
Atlas D.
1960
February 13 - The first French nuclear test occurs at Reganne, Algeria, in the Sahara Desert. It
has a yield of 60-70 kilotons.
July 20 - The United States submarine USS George Washington successfully launches a Polaris
missile from underwater.
November 15 - USS George Washington and its 16 Polaris A1s begin their first patrol.
U.S. deploys the Atlas and Titan ICBMs.
1961
February 1 - U.S. launches the Minuteman I missile.
September 1 - U.S.S.R. resumes nuclear testing.
September 15 - U.S. resumes nuclear testing.
October 31 - U.S.S.R. explodes the world's largest nuclear bomb, with a yield of 58 megatons.
1962
July 6 - Project Sedan, a Plowshare Program test, is conducted; formed a 1,280-foot diameter
by 320 foot deep crater.
July 8 - Electromagnetic pulse from high-altitude nuclear test turns off street lights in Oahu,
Hawaii.
October 16-28 - The Cuban Missile Crisis occurs. The closest the world has ever come to nuclear
war.
1963
June 20 - The U.S. and U.S.S.R. sign the 'hot line' agreement.
August 5 - Limited Test Ban Treaty signed by the U.S., U.S.S.R. and the U.K., prohibiting tests of
nuclear devices in the atmosphere, in outer space, and underwater.
1964
October 16 - China explodes its first atomic bomb at the Lop Nur test site. It was an uranium
235 implosion fission device named "596" and has a yield of 22 kilotons.
1966
January 17 - U.S. B-52 bomber crashes near Palomares, Spain with four unarmed hydrogen
bombs. All four bombs are recovered.
September 24 - First French atomic bomb tested at Muruoa Atoll.
U.S. Minuteman ICBM enters service.
1967
January 27 - Outer Space Treaty bans nuclear weapons being placed on any celestial body, or in
orbit around the Earth.
February 14 - Treaty of Tlatelolco signed, creates a Latin America nuclear-weapons-free zone.
June 17 - First hydrogen bomb test by the Chinese, with a yield of 3.3 megatons.
1968
July 1 - Non-Proliferation Treaty opened for additional signatures.
August 24 - France tests its first hydrogen bomb at Fangataufa Atoll in the South Pacific. It has
a yield of 2.6 megatons.
1969
March 14 - President Richard M. Nixon announces the decision to deploy a missile defense
system called "Safeguard" to protect U.S. ICBM fields from attack.
November to December - Preliminary Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT) talks take place in
Helsinki, Finland.
1970
March 5 - Non-Proliferation Treaty enters into force; 100 nations ratify it by 1980.
August 19 - U.S. deploys the first missile with multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles
(MIRVs).
1971
March 30 - The first Poseidon submarine-launched ballistic missiles are introduced by the U.S.
1972

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May 26 - President Nixon and General Secretary Brezhnev sign the Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM)
Treaty, the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT) and the Interim Agreement on Strategic
Offensive Arms, in Moscow.
November - SALT II treaty negotiations begin.
1974
May 18 - India sets off a low-yield device (8 kilotons) under Rajasthan desert.
July 3 - The Threshold Test Ban Treaty (TTBT) is signed in Moscow. It limits nuclear test
explosions to under 150 kilotons.
November 24 - President Ford and General Secretary Brezhnev sign the Vladivostok Accord,
agreeing to limit the number of strategic launchers (2400) and MIRV launchers (1320).
1976
March 31 - Threshold Test Ban Treaty enters into force.
May 28 - President Gerald Ford and General Secretary Leonid Brezhnev sign the Underground
Nuclear Explosions for Peaceful Purposes (PNE) Treaty.
1977
July 7 - United States successfully tests a neutron bomb. The primary lethal effects of a neutron
bomb, also known as an enhanced-radiation weapon, come from the radiation damage caused
by the neutrons it emits.
1978
April 7 - United States cancels development of the Enhanced Radiation Weapon or neutron
bomb.
1979
March 28 - Three Mile Island Nuclear Power plant near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, suffers a
partial-core meltdown. Minimal radioactive material is released.
June 18 - SALT II Treaty is signed in Vienna, Austria, by Brezhnev and President Carter.
September 22 - A mysterious flash detected by a U.S. VELA satellite (that were deployed in
support of the Limited Test Ban Treaty of 1963) is determined to be from a clandestine nuclear
explosion. Originally, the Carter administration claims that the event was not the result of a
nuclear test. However, it was revealed in 1993 that this event is from a South African nuclear
test.
December 26 - U.S.S.R. invades Afghanistan; SALT II Treaty removed from consideration from
the U.S. Senate.
1980
July 15 - The U.S. reports that the light signals recorded over the South Atlantic on September
22, 1979 are probably not from a nuclear explosion. However, information later would indicate
that a low yield nuclear test did occur.
1981
August 10 - President Reagan re-authorizes the production of the Enhanced Radiation Weapon
or neutron bomb.
June 7 - Israeli aircraft destroys Iraq's Osirak reactor. It is thought that it was producing
materials for an Iraqi nuclear device.
1982
June 29 - Strategic Arms Reduction Talks (START) begin in Geneva, Switzerland.
1983
March 23 - President Ronald Reagan announces the United States will embark on an extensive
research and development program to examine the feasibility of a missile defense program. The
Strategic Defense Initiative is later dubbed "Star Wars."
1985
The South Pacific Nuclear Free Zone Treaty - Multilateral agreement among the nations of the
South Pacific is signed.
August -The Soviet Union announces a nuclear testing moratorium.
1986
April - Chernobyl nuclear reactor meltdown occurs in the Soviet Union. Massive amounts of
radioactive material are released.
November 28 - The 131st U.S. B-52 bomber is deployed, exceeding the 130 limit on strategic
bombers, thus negating the SALT II Treaty.
December - First 10 U.S. 'Peacekeeper' or MX ICBM become operational.

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1987
December 8 - President Reagan and General Secretary Gorbachev sign the Intermediate-Range
Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty. It eliminates all land-based missiles with ranges between 3003,400 miles.
1988
The U.S. and U.S.S.R. sign the Agreement on Notification of Missile Launches.
1989
The first Trident SLBM is introduced into service.
October 19 - The final Soviet underground nuclear test occurs at the Semipalatinsk testing site
in Kazakhstan.
November 9 - The Berlin Wall falls, as East Germany opens its borders with West Germany,
marking the end of the Cold War.
1990
June 1 - President Bush and President Gorbachev sign new protocols to the Threshold Test Ban
treaty.
September 25 - U.S. ratifies the Threshold Test Ban Treaty.
September 27 - The last Pershing II missile is removed from West Germany
December 11 - The Threshold Test Ban Treaty enters into force.
1991
July 31 - President Bush and President Gorbachev sign the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty
(START). The Treaty calls for the elimination of almost 50 percent of the nuclear warheads
carried by ballistic missiles.
December 5 - Bush signs the Missile Defense Act of 1991, which mandates the Department of
Defense develop a missile defense system.
Communism falls across Eastern Europe, the Soviet Union is replaced by the Commonwealth of
Independent States (C.I.S.).

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