The Two Diode Bipolar Junction Transistor Model

The bipolar junction transistor (bjt) can be thought of as two diodes connected back to back
(np + pn for an npn, and pn + np for a pnp) with the addition of "transistor action" which arises
when the diodes are brought very close together. This allows most charge carriers from the
forward biased junction (emitter base diode) to cross the join (base region) and be swept up by
the field in the reverse biased diode (base-collector). In real bjts about 99% of the current from
the emitter crosses the base to be collected by the collector. The ratio of base to collector current,
commonly called is then about 99. Thus the model requires a forward biased e-b junction
(diode) and a reverse biased b-c junction (diode) to give current gain, .
(The model suggests that a bjt should work for reversal of collector and emitter connections. In
practice the diodes are very dissimilar and this doesn't work at all well, giving a in this mode
usually not much greater than 1. The e-b diode has a rather low typical reverse breakdown
voltage of 5 to 7 which also makes this mode undesirable.)
Since we know the diode characteristic quite well we can use our knowledge of the diode to
model a transistor, both in a linear approximation and as a nonlinear element. It has a nonlinear

current voltage equation given by the diode equation (Shockley eqn.)

 exp 
  1
where V is the voltage, I the current, q the electronic charge, k Boltzmann's constant and T the
absolute temperature. IS is a strong function of temperature (roughly doubles for every 10 C
temperature rise) and depends on the size of the diode (and its material) but for silicon at room
temperature is 1 pA or less. In addition a diode has a voltage dependent capacitance (of a few
pF for a small bjt like the 2N3904).
The most simple approximation for the diode (zeroth order) is about 0.7 volt drop when forward
biased and zero current when reverse biased. The use of a fixed voltage for all currents implies a
zero source resistance (this is an ideal voltage source). For example SPICE voltage sources are
ideal; real sources never are, but it is often a useful approximation. You can use the diode
equation to see how coarse this approximation is, but it suffices for many biasing problems when
"transistor action" is added. The next level of approximation (first order) assumes a fixed series
resistance in series with 0.7 volts. This is the linear approximation (differentiate the diode
equation and take first order terms only), and the resistance is  or  for the forward biased b-e

junction of the bjt. Since its value is  




near room temperature it is clear that the linear

approximation is not a very good one, because it depends directly on
 which must vary if there
is any output from the transistor. Even so, linear analysis is easy so we use it a lot. The
temperature coefficient can be derived from the diode equation as well, remembering that
 is
temperature dependent, and comes to about - 2 mV/C. (I am using C instead of K, Kelvin or
absolute temperature, because we are used to the symbol and the units are the same size, just
with different zeros).
Now we have a linear model of the e-b junction (0.7 !  looking from the emitter) and of the
b-c junction ("  ). With this is all we need to form useful models. For AC (variations
about a DC bias value) we can ignore the 0.7 V since no AC voltage is developed across it.
From base to emitter currents change by a factor +1 and then a series resistor  appears. Going
the other way one passes  and then currents are reduced by a factor of +1. Thus the emitter
(diode) slope resistance looks +1 times bigger at the base, and any other impedances between
the emitter and ground are transformed in exactly the same way. Looking from the emitter all

impedances in the base are reduced by the factor +1 and then appear in series with  before
arriving at the emitter connection of the bjt. Thus I can derive the input impedance for any
emitter connection and the output impedance at the emitter for any input connection. Since I
know how  varies (with current) I can derive nonlinear results as well unlike normal models.
This is difficult enough to do, so for anything more accurate than estimates we will leave it to
SPICE. Output at the collector does not interact with the emitter and base provided the collector
voltage always maintains the b-c junction reverse bias, because it gives the same current
independent of its voltage (an infinite impedance). The impedance measured at the collector will
then be that of the external components such as the collector bias resistor, Rc.
{We know that varies a lot, about a factor of 3, from transistor to transistor with the same part
number. It also varies with temperature, increasing by about 50% as temperature rises from
25 C to 125 C. It also varies with current by about a factor of 2 for currents changing by three
orders of magnitude. All this means that is not really constant, nor is it really linear (that is, not
constant with current changes). Even so, the linear approximation for is quite a good one,
much better for example than the same assumption for  .}
We can now use this linear model to calculate gains. From base to emitter the voltage at the base
reappears at the emitter in series with  , so the gain (less than one) is given by a simple potential
divider with the total impedance from emitter to ground.
%

$%

 &'

, which is nearly one for  ) .

Since the collector current is almost the same as the emitter current, and now knowing that the
emitter current is the base voltage divided by the total impedance (including  ) at the emitter, I
can calculate the collector current and finally the collector voltage since current is converted to
voltage by the external collector impedance (ignoring the very large internal " ).
So *  %

+,

 &'

and *"  -& %

+,

 &'
%0 +,

then /"  %

 &'

.%

+,

 &'

, this is negative because /" falls as /1 rises

+

The voltage gain, $  +0  %

,

%0

 &'

Alternatively , $  23 )" , where 23  %

 &'

As a check, notice that the (common emitter voltage) gain can be changed by changing the value
of Ze, with lower values giving higher gains. The higher gains correspond to lower input
impedances as derived above. Thus although the voltage needed for a given output has been
reduced, the current has not. This is consistent because the current gain of the transistor () has
not changed and nor has the impedance at the collector.
You can derive all these results using standard linear models. They do not make it clear that
common collector and common emitter modes are really distinguished by where you look at the
output, rather than needing different models. Most texts also require the use of negative
feedback to explain the gain with an external emitter impedance. We will not explicitly use
negative feedback until next semester, although if you are familiar with it you can often use it

this semester. It is perfectly possible, and sometimes useful, to take outputs from emitter and
collector simultaneously, so that common collector and common emitter modes both occur. The
diode model also reminds you that the linear assumption is an approximation and that
appropriate biasing is necessary for you to be able to use it. You can also use it to see how good
a linear approximation is since you have an accurate expression for the e-b junction from the
diode equation.
It is straightforward to derive the voltage gain for a circuit with input to the emitter, base at (AC)
ground, and output at the collector. The output impedance and (voltage) gain are the same as for
the common emitter circuit except that gain is non-inverting. The input impedance is low (= )
which is reasonable because the current gain is also low (just less than 1) from emitter to
collector.
Summary of model and linear derivations
Base - emitter diode must be forward biased and collector base diode must not be forward biased
for normal transistor operation.

c
Describe by diode equation +
excess voltage breakdown +
voltage dependent capacitances

e
NPN transistor

PNP transistor

To make a linear approximation use the emitter slope resistance  derived from the diode
equation.

c
ic
b
re
e
-

The reverse biased c - b diode is now a current source of 4 *1 or -& * . Both collector and

base current flow through  which makes the base input resistance look like 54 ! 16  .
7

0
The voltage gain from base to collector is then ' &7
, where Rc and Re are external resistors


connected in series with the collector and emitter, respectively. These resistances can be
generalized to impedances with the same equation.