Sie sind auf Seite 1von 10

CHAPTER

Introduction to Fiber
Communications
CHAPTER FOCUS

Introduction
Optical fiber transmission link
Development of optical fiber communications
Classification of fibers and ray path
Advantages of multimode fibers
Advantages of the cladding
Numerical aperture: Step index fiber
Light collected by a fiber from diffuse source
Ray optics representation
Acceptance angle of the skew rays
Advantages of optical fiber over the copper wire system
Solved examples and review questions

INTRODUCTION
The optical fiber is simply a cylindrical waveguide system operating at optical frequencies. It consists
of a core at the centre and a cladding or sheath outside the core. The core is generally a cylindrical
dielectric glass with a refractive index n1 and the cladding is the second dielectric sheath or cover
usually of glass with a lower refractive index n2 as shown in Fig. 1.1(a). Sometime the cladding is
surrounded by a buffer coating [Fig. 1.1(b)].

n1
core

n2 cladding

n1
core

n2 cladding

n2 cladding

Optoelectronics and Fiber Communications

(a)

Buffer
Coating

(b)

Fig. 1.1 (a) Optical fiber waveguide system with core of refractive index n1 and a cladding of
refractive index n2 where n1 is greater than n2. (b) The cladding of the fiber is coated
by a buffer coating

Lasers or light emitting diodes (LEDs) are capable of generating electromagnetic waves at optical
frequencies which can easily be modulated by an electrical signal to be transmitted. If the light beam of
the electromagnetic wave impinges on the system through the one end face of the fiber, it emerges out
of the other face with a small attenuation. An avalanche photodiode (APD) or a semiconductor p-i-n
diode is capable of detecting the signal. Therefore, the optical fiber is used for the transmission of
optical signal in a manner identical to the propagation of the microwave signal through a cylindrical
metallic waveguide.

1.1 OPTICAL FIBER TRANSMISSION LINK


Fig. 1.2 shows the elements of an optical fiber transmissions link.
1. A light source which may be a laser or a LED is capable of generating an optical signal at desired
frequencies.
2. A drive circuit is a means for modulating the output light beam from the laser or LED. The
envelope of the modulated beam has the same waveshape as the electrical signal to be transmitted.
3. A transmission medium is a cable providing mechanical and environmental protection to the
hair-thin optical fibre. Then the optical signal is launched into the optical fibre which is contained
inside the cable.
4. A receiver whose main component is a photodetector is capable of converting the received
modulated wave back to the original signal which has the same waveshape as the optical wave
envelope. An avalanche photodiode (APD) or a semiconductor p-i-n diode is used as a
photodetector.
5. Electronic amplifier and signal restorer consisting of signal processor circuits, recover the original
signal and present it in a suitable form.

1.2 DEVELOPMENT OF OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATIONS


The cabled optical fiber is one of the most important elements in an optical fibre link. The cable provides
protection to the glass fibre during installation and service, and it may contain a copper wire for boostering
the power of the repeater. The boostering (increasing) of power is needed for periodically amplifying
and reshaping the signal when the link extends for a long distance. The cable generally contains many
hair thin cylindrical glass fibers. Each glass fiber is an independent communication link channel just

Introduction to Fiber Communications

like a copper cable. The installation of the optical fiber can be either aerial or in duct under sea or buried
under ground directly just like the copper cable. Due to the result of installation and manufacturing
limitations, the length of an individual optical fiber cable will range several hundred metres to several
kilometres for long distance applications.
Electric
input
signal

Transmitter
Drive
circuit

Receiver

Optical
signal
Light
source

Signal
restorer

Photodetector

Optical
fiber

Electric
signal out

Amplifier

Fig. 1.2 Basic elements of an optical fiber transmission link

Alternation dB/km

100
One of the important fiber characteristics
50
is its attenuation as a function of wavelength of
the propagating optical signal as shown in
early 1970s
20
Fig.1.3. The attenuation takes place due to the
10
absorption and scattering of the optical wave.
5.0
In the earlier days of fiber communications,
mid 1970
2.0
there was an exclusive use of 0.8 to 0.9 m band.
1.0
Fibers manufactured at that time exhibited a
local minima of attenuation in this region of the
0.5
attenuation curve and at the same time, optical
0.2
sources and photodetectors in this wavelength
early 1980
band were also available. By reducing the
00
00
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
concentration of the hydroxyl ions and metallic
Wavelength (nm)
ion impurities in the fiber materials fiber Fig. 1.3 Optical fiber attenuation as a function
manufacturers were able to fabricate optical
wavelength. Early fiber links were operated
exclusively in the 800 to 900 nm range where
fiber wave guides with low loss in the 1.1 to
there was a local attenuation minimum.
1.6 m wavelength region. This spectral
Achievement of lower attenuation created
bandwidth is referred to as long wavelength band
interest in the longer wavelength operation.
in fiber communications. In the wavelength of 1.3
m a lot of interest, thus, developed, since this is the region of minimum distortion in pure silica fibers.
When the cable is installed, a light source which is dimensionally compatible with the diameter
of the fiber core is to inject optical wave into the fiber. Semiconductor light emitting diodes (LEDs) and
laser diodes are found to be suitable transmitting sources for this purpose. The optical output of these
devices can easily be modulated simple by varying the bias current. The electrical signal to be transmitted
can be either in analog or in digital form. The drive current associated with the transmitter converts the
electrical signal into the optical signal by varying the current through the light source. The envelope of
the optical signal has the same waveform as that of the electrical signal. The optical source is a square
law device and the linear variation in the drive current results in the corresponding linear change in the
optical power of the light source.
When the wavelengths are in the range of 0.8 to 0.9 m, the material of the light source is
generally an alloy of GaAIAs. At the larger wavelengths ranging from 1.1 to 1.6 m, an alloy of

Optoelectronics and Fiber Communications

InGaAsP is the principal optical source material. After the optical signal is launched in the fiber, the
signal will progressively get attenuated and distorted with the increase in the length of the fiber. The
attenuation takes place due to absorption and scattering, whereas the distortion in the shape of the signal
occurs due to the dispersion mechanism in the fiber waveguide. The modulated optical power comes
out of the fiber end after being attenuated and distorted and is to be detected in the receiver with the help
of a photodiode. Just like the optical sources LEDs, the photodiode is also a square law device and it
converts the received optical power directly into a current output (photocurrent). Semiconductor p-i-n
and avalanche photodiode (APD) are the important photodetectors used in fiber optical link.
Both p-i-n and avalanche photodiodes have got a high response speed and good efficiency. When
a low power optical signal is received, the use of an avalanche photodiode is preferred. The advantage
of an avalanche photodiode is that it exhibits a greater sensitivity owing to the internal mechanism as a
result of avalanche effect. Silicon photodetectors are used in the 0.8 to 0.9 m wavelength region. A
number of photodetectors are available in the longer wavelength region. An alloy InGaAs is the principal
material in the fabrication of detector in the 1.1 to 1.6 m wavelength region.
The design of the receiver is more complicated than that of the transmitter, because the receiver
is expected to amplify and reshape the degraded signal received by the photodetector. The principal
figure of merit of a receiver is the minimum power necessary at the desired data rate to attain either
given error probability for the digital system or a specific signal to noise ratio for an analog system.
When an optical signal has travelled a certain distance along the length of the fiber, the signal
becomes attenuated and distorted in such a degree that a repeater is needed in the transmission line to
amplify and reshape the signal. An optical repeater consists of a receiver and a transmitter placed back
to back. The receiver system detects the optical signal, converts it to an electrical signal which is then
amplified and reshaped, and then sends it to the transmitter section. The transmitter then converts the
electric signal back to an optical signal and sends it through the optical fiber waveguide.

1.3

CLASSIFICATION OF FIBERS AND RAY PATH

The basic structure of the optical fiber is given in Fig. 1.1. Variation in the composition of the core
material gives rise to two types of optical fibers. These are (1) Step index fiber and (2) Graded index
fiber.

1. Step Index Fiber


In the case of a step index fiber, the refractive index n1 of the core material is uniform throughout and
undergoes an abrupt change in step at the core cladding boundary as shown in Fig. 1.4 (a) and (b).

2. Graded Index Fiber


In the case of a graded index fiber the refractive index of the core is made to vary as a function of radial
distance from the centre of the fiber as shown in Fig. 1.4(c). The use of graded index fiber is gradually
diminishing. Both step index and graded index fibers can further be divided into singlemode and
multimode classes. A singlemode fiber can sustain only one mode of propagation, whereas multimode
fiber can contain a large number of modes. A typical size of the singlemode and multimode fibers
with ray path is illustrated in Fig. 1.4. The singlemode fibers is also referred to as the monomode
fiber.

Introduction to Fiber Communications

n2

n1

125 mm cladding
8 to 12 mm core

2a

Cladding

n2

Monomode step index fiber


(a)
n1

125 to 400 mm
Cladding
50 to 200 mm core

2a

Multimode step index fiber


(b)
125 mm cladding

r=a

50 mm core
n1
n2

Multimode graded fiber


(c)

ng

ati

o
rc

ffe

Bu

0m

30

din

3m

ad
Cl

re

Co

(d)
Fig. 1.4 Comparison of a singlemode and multimode step index fibers on the basis of size and
ray path (a) Monomode step index (b) multimode step and (c) multimode graded index
fibers (d) singlemode structure, a(core diameter) = 3 m and b(cladding diameter)
=300m.

W-prof ile fibers


Fig. 1.5(a) shows the W-profile fiber. In this case the width of cladding with refractive index n2 is made
thick enough so that it encloses all of the light energy field-ends which extend for a short distance

Optoelectronics and Fiber Communications

beyond the core interface. Thus the desired core-cladding characteristics are obtained. The first cladding
is surrounded by a second thicker cladding layer with a refractive index n3 which is less than core
refractive index n1 and greater than cladding index n2. This produces W-shaped refractive index profile
which also strips out the leaky modes from first cladding. The core diameter of a singlemode fiber in
Fig. 1.4(d) is as small as 3 m, the cladding diameter is as large as 300 m. The second cladding may be
surrounded by air or by a protective sheath. In Figs. 1.5(a) and 1.5(b) both step index and graded index
types of W-shaped fibers are illustrated.

n3
n2
10 mm 15 mm 100 mm

n1
n2
n3

(a)
Step index

n2

n3 n1

Graded index

n2

n3

(b)
Fig. 1.5 A double clad fiber either of step index or graded index profile making W-profile fiber
(a) multimode step index (b) multimode graded index

Figure 1.5(b) also shows the profile of a graded index W-profile fiber which has a high value of
refractive index n1 at the core centre and the refractive index falls off with the radial distance from the
centre of the core. The graded index fiber is used for multimode transmission where it is desirable to
minimize the effect of time dispersion of pulses.

Ray Path inside the Core


The main characteristic of the propagation of light within the core of a step index fiber is that light ray
follows a zigzag path of straight line segments, while in a graded index fiber the light rays are bent by
refraction so that they are curved inward toward the axis as shown in Fig. 1.4.

1.4 ADVANTAGES OF MULTIMODE FIBERS


Multimode fibers possess several advantages as compared to the single mode fibers. These are:
1. The larger radii of the multimode fibers make it easier to launch the optical power into the fiber.
2. The second advantage is that light can be launched in a multimode fiber with the help of a light

Introduction to Fiber Communications

emitting diode source, whereas in a single mode fiber light can only be launched by a laser
diode. Although the LEDs have lesser power output than the laser diodes, LEDs are easier to
manufacture, less expensive, requires less complex electronic circuitry and have a longer life
time than the laser diodes. Thus, LEDs are found to be more suitable in many applications.
The disadvantage of multimode fibers is that they undergo intermodal dispersion which distorts
the shape of the propagating light pulses. This will be discussed in a later section.
n 1 > n2
q2

n2
n1
q1

A
n2
n1
B

90
qc

n2
n1

qr

qr

A
(a)

(b)

(c)

Fig. 1.6 Refraction and total internal reflection at the dielectric interface: (a) ray AA is refracted
according to Snells law of refraction n1 sin 1 = n2 sin 2 (b) ray BB is the critical ray
n1 sin c = n2, (c) ray CC is totally reflected at the interface r = r

1.5 ADVANTAGES OF THE CLADDING


The presence of the cladding is not absolutely essential for the optical fiber for the propagation of
optical signals through the core of the optical fiber, but it serves the following useful purposes:
1. It adds mechanical strength to the fiber and protects the fiber from absorbing surface contaminants
with which it may come in contact.
2. The cladding is capable of reducing the scattering loss of light resulting from dielectric
discontinuities at the core surface.
In low and medium-loss fibers, the core material is generally glass which is usually surrounded
by a glass or plastic cladding. Higher-loss plastic fibers with plastic coating are also available. In addition,
most fibers are encapsulated in an elastic abrasion resistant plastic materials. These materials add further
strength to the fiber and mechanically isolate to buffer the fiber from small geometrical irregularities of
the adjacent surfaces.

1.6 NUMERICAL APERTURE: STEP INDEX FIBER


Refraction of an electromagnetic wave at the surface of separation of two media is determined by
Snells law and is illustrated in Fig. 1.6(a). A ray of light which is an electromagnetic wave is passing
from a medium of higher refractive index n1 into a medium of lower refractive index n2.
For 0 < 1 < c and 0 < 2 < /2
sin 1
n2
=
(1.6.1)
sin 2
n1
where 1 and 2 are the angles of incidence and refraction respectively.

Optoelectronics and Fiber Communications

When the angle of refraction 2 is equal to /2 (or 90) as shown in Fig. 1.6(b), the angle of
incidence 1 = c and the angle c is known as the critical angle. Thus
(1.6.2)
n1 sin c = n2 sin 2 = n2 sin (/2) = n2
or
sin c = (n2/n1)
(1.6.3)
when the angle of incidence 1 is greater than the critical angle c, the total internal reflection of the
light takes place with no loss at the boundary as shown in Fig. 1.6(c). Let us consider a cylindrical glass
fiber consisting of an inner core of refractive index n1 and the outer cladding of refractive index n2
where n1 is greater than n2. The end face of the fiber is cut at right angle to the fiber axis. Fig. 1.7
illustrates that a ray of light enters into end face from air outside with refractive index na. The ray will
propagate unattenuated along the fiber by means of multiple internal reflections provided the angle of
incidence at the core-cladding interface, 1 is greater than the critical angle c. This requires that the
angle of obliqueness to the fiber axis = (/2 1) be less than m = (/2 c) and the angle of
incidence of the incoming ray into the end face of the fiber will be less than a certain angle m. In
order to calculate m and m we assume that the refractive index na of air is equal to 1 and apply Snells
law (Fig.1.7).
(1.6.4)
na sin m = n1 sin m
putting
na = 1 and m = (/2 c) we can write Eq. (1.6.4) as
sin m = n1 sin (/2 c) = n1 cos c
We know from Eq. (1.6.3) that
sin c = n2/n1
1

and

n2 2
cos c = (1 sin2 c)1/2 = 1 22
n1
Substituting the value of cos c from Eq. (1.6.5) we get

(1.6.5)

n2 2
sin m = cos c = 1 22
n1

(1.6.6)

q1

n2

C
A a
m

fm

fc

n1

B
n2

Fig. 1.7 Propagation of a light wave in an optical fiber AA is an axial ray BB is the critical ray
for total internal reflection at n1 n2 interface; CC is too obliquely for reflection at the
interface, and passes into the cladding by refraction
1

na sin m = n1 sin m = n1 cos c =


na sin m = [(n1 + n2) (n1 n2)]1/2

n1 n12 n22 2
n1

= n12 n22 2
(1.6.7)

Introduction to Fiber Communications

If we denote
n1 n2 = n, n1 + n2 = 2n and na = 1
(1.6.8)
We get,
sin m = (2nn)1/2
The greater the value of m, the greater is the portion of the incident light on the end face can be
collected by the fiber and the propagation takes place by total internal reflection. By analogy, with the
term used to define the light gathering power of microscope objectives (na sin m) is known as the
numerical aperture (NA) of the fiber. Thus, putting na = l.
(1.6.9)
Numerical aperture
NA = sin m = (2n n)1/2
and the acceptance angle,
(1.6.10)
m = sin1 (2nn)1/2 = sin1 (NA)

1.7 LIGHT COLLECTED BY A FIBER FROM DIFFUSE SOURCE


We shall now show that when a light is emitted from a diffuse source situated on the fiber axis near the
end face, only a fraction (NA)2 of the total amount of light emitted can be collected by the fiber and
propagated along the fiber. Let us consider a small diffuse light source such as an isotropic (Lambertian)
radiator as shown in Fig. 1.8(a). The radiated light power per unit solid angle in a direction at an angle
normal to the surface is given by
(1.7.1)
I = I0 cos
where I0 and I represent the power radiated per unit solid angle in the direction of the axis of the fiber
and at an angle normal to the surface respectively.
The power radiated in a small solid angle d in the direction with the perpendicular to the
surface is (Fig. 1.8b) I() d = I0 cos d. The elementary annular ring, whose radius substends and
angle and width substends an angle d at the source itself, substends a solid angle d = 2 sin d.
dW = 2p sin qdq

dq

I(q)

(a)

I0

(b)

Fig. 1.8 (a) A diffuse light source (b) the solid angle between and + d is d = 2 sin d

The total power 0 emitted by the source is obtained by integrating over all forward direction
/2

0 =

/2

I o cos d =

/2

= +2 I 0

Io cos 2 sin d

/2

cos2
cos sin d = 2 I o

2 o

10

Optoelectronics and Fiber Communications

= 2 I o o = I 0
(1.7.2)
2

But the power that can be collected by the adjacent fiber whose core diameter is greater than the
diameter of the source is given by where
m

Io cos (2) sin d

o
m

From Eq (1.7.3) and Eq (1.7.2)


Thus,

( Io cos ) 2 sin d
o

2
= I o [cos ]o m
= Io[cos2 m 1] = Io sin2 m

= sin2 m = (NA)2 = 2nn


o

(1.7.3)

(1.7.4)

Thus, in order to collect as much light as possible it is necessary to make n and n large and the
best we can do is to use a glass with high refractive index as core without any cladding.

1.8 RAY OPTICS REPRESENTATION


Two types of rays can propagate through an optical fiber. These are:
(a) Meridional rays and
(b) Skew rays.

(a) Meridional Rays


Meridional rays are confined to the meridional planes of the fiber. These planes are the planes which
contain the axis of symmetry of the fiber (core axis). A given meridional ray propagates in a single
plane and hence it is easy to track its path as it propagates along the fiber axis. Meridional rays can be
further classified into two categories:

1. Bound Rays
These rays are trapped in the core of the fiber and they travel along the fiber axis according to Snells
laws of reflection and refraction.

2. Unbound Rays
These rays are refracted out of the fiber core according to the Snells laws of refraction and cannot be
trapped in the core of the fiber.

(b) Skew Rays


The Skew rays can propagate without passing through the core of the fiber. They are not confined to a
single plane, but they follow a helical path along the fiber as shown in Fig. 1.9(a). It is quite difficult to

Das könnte Ihnen auch gefallen