Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
pubs.acs.org/est
Department of Civil, Environmental, and Architectural Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80309,
United States
Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Colorado Denver, Denver, Colorado 80204, United States
ABSTRACT: The microbial fuel cell (MFC) technology oers sustainable solutions
for distributed power systems and energy positive wastewater treatment, but the
generation of practically usable power from MFCs remains a major challenge for
system scale up and application. Commonly used external resistors will not harvest any
usable energy, so energy-harvesting circuits are needed for real world applications. This
review summarizes, explains, and discusses the dierent energy harvesting methods,
components, and systems that can extract and condition the MFC energy for direct
utilization. This study aims to assist environmental scientists and engineers to gain
fundamental understandings of these electronic systems and algorithms, and it also
oers research directions and insights on how to overcome the barriers, so the
technology can be further advanced and applied in larger scale.
1. INTRODUCTION
The microbial fuel cell (MFC) technology has been intensively
researched in the recent decade, because it oers a solution for
environmental sustainability by simultaneously performing
pollutant removal and energy production. MFCs use
exoelectrogenic microorganisms to convert the chemical energy
stored in biodegradable substances to direct electricity.
Furthermore, the electrical current can be utilized for many
other functions, including producing value-added chemicals
such as H2 in microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) or driving
water desalination in microbial desalination cells (MDCs).1,2
The advancements in reactor architecture, material, and
operation optimization of these bioelectrochemical systems
(BES) have remarkably relieved the physical and chemical
constraints of reactor systems,3,4 leading to orders of magnitude
increase in power output. However, one main challenge for
MFCs or BESs to be used in real-world applications is the low
energy output, and to overcome this, one key element that has
been largely neglected is how to harvest and practically utilize
the MFC energy based on the true potential of the system
rather than simply reporting the measured power density using
external resistors.
Compared to other alternative energy systems such as solar
and wind, MFC is a low power system due to its
thermodynamic limitation. The theoretical anode and cathode
potentials calculated by Nernst equation are 0.3 V (vs NHE)
and 0.8 V (vs NHE), respectively, when acetate servers as the
electron donor and oxygen serves as the electron acceptor.
Therefore, the theoretical voltage across the two electrodes is
0.8 V to 0.3 V = 1.1 V.57 However, the experimentally
observed open circuit voltage is only around 0.70.8 V (Figure
1) due to the losses on the electrode potential, such as
activation polarization, concentration polarization and ohmic
losses.6 The potential also varies when dierent electron
2015 American Chemical Society
Critical Review
DOI: 10.1021/es5047765
Environ. Sci. Technol. 2015, 49, 32673277
Critical Review
inductor
transformer
diode
metaleoxideesemiconductor
feld-eect transistor
(MOSFET)
functions
1
C(Ve2 Vb2)
2
46
21,22,40,43,45,47
21,43,45
20,21,50
48
42,46
47
19
74
66
61
20
65,69
40,66
59
65
65
21,45,66
21,45
20
59
65
61
57
68
ref
(1)
DOI: 10.1021/es5047765
Environ. Sci. Technol. 2015, 49, 32673277
3270
25
0.5
3
sediment MFC
12 two-chamber MFCstack
12 two-chamber MFCstack
35
310.4
72
1800
3.3
3.3
3.3
2.85
3.6
9
1800
3.3
72
3.25
2.5
0.48
output voltage
(V)
1.0
0.730.78
input power
(mW)
0.633
0.7
0.3
4.24.55
input voltage
(V)
23
24
2.1
3.25
0.7
0.7
BES
Capacitor-Based Systems
Direct Charging
1
40 single-chamber MFC- capacitor
stack
2
8 single-chamber MFCstack
3
8 single-chamber MFCstack
4
8 single-chamber MFCstack
5
24 single-chamber MFCstack
6
24 single-chamber MFCstack
7
24 single-chamber MFC- rechargeable battery
stack
Intermittent Energy Harvesting (IEH, a.k.a. Intermittent Charging (IC))
8
two-chamber MFC
capacitor
9
single-chamber MFC
10 single-chamber MFC
Alternate Charging and Discharging (ACD)
11 two-chamber MFC/MEC capacitor
Charging Capacitors in Parallel and Discharging in Series
12 single-chamber MFC
capacitor
13 single-chamber MFC
14 single-chamber MFC
Charging Capacitive Electrodes
15 two-chamber MFC
quasi-capacitor (capacitive electrode)
Charge Pump-Based Systems
16 two-chamber MFC
charge pump, capacitor
17 three-chamber MCDC
Boost Converter-Based Systems
Capacitor -Boost Converter Systems
18 upflow MDC (UMDC)
rechargeable battery, DC/DC boost
converter
19 benthic MFC
capacitor, DC/DC boost converter
20 upflow MDC (UMDC)
21 benthic MFC
22 sediment MFC
no.
3.52
36.97
0.730.78
0.152
output power
(mW)
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
41.8a
79b
75.3b
N
Y
N
Y
N
N
86.6a
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
Y
Y
Y
N
N
N
Y
Y
Y
4.3b
0.94b
100a
90a
>90b
95.2b
efficiency (%)
79
48
74
19
46
47
49
46
40
41
30
17
38
39
29
27
36
37
34
33
32
78
76,77
75
35
ref
DOI: 10.1021/es5047765
Environ. Sci. Technol. 2015, 49, 32673277
BES
3271
two-chamber miniaturized
MFC
0.060.17
0.36
0.4
0.60.7
0.328
0.512
0.91.2
>3
2.5
0.62
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.35
>3
2.5
2.2
0.174
3.3
3.3
3.3
3.3
7
3.3
0.3160.372
0.3
0.280.33
0.20.4
0.0520.32
0.6
0.5
1.121.44
0.4
0.3
27.5
3.3
3.3
1.73.3
0.475
0.79
0.18
0.6
output voltage
(V)
4
0.37
input power
(mW)
0.4
input voltage
(V)
85
18
95
95
2500
95
95
output power
(mW)
17b
30b
<85b
N
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
N
N
N
N
36.0a
46.1a
75.9a
73b
66.580.6b
74b
85b
Y
Y
313a
<67.7a
60b
22.5437.80b
<70b
5.33b
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
58b
4.29b
55b
efficiency (%)
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
67
68
16
40
59
60
12
65
69
70
51
57
66
21
22
44
45
42
43
73
71
61
20
21
50
72
ref
a
The eciency presents the circuit eciency (1) only. External power was provided but not included in the calculation. bThe eciency presents both the circuit eciency (1) and the overall system
eciency (2). No external power was provided or external power is included in the calculation.
51
33 sediment MFC
34 benthic MFC
35 sediment MFC
36 benthic MFC
37 benthic MFC
38 sediment-MFC
Custom-Designed Systems
39 two-chamber MFC
capacitor, inductor, diode
40 two-chamber MFC
Maximum Power Point-Based Systems
41 two-chamber MFC
capacitor, inductor, diode
42 two-chamber MFC
capacitor, transformer
43 two-chamber MFC
capacitor, inductor
44 two-chamber MFC
45 single-chamber MFC
capacitor, transformer, diode
46 single-chamber MFC
47 single-chamber MFC
48 benthic MFC
unknown
Integrated Circuit-Based Systems
49 single-chamber MFC
commercial IC, capacitors
50 two-chamber MFC
custom-designed IC
no.
Table 2. continued
DOI: 10.1021/es5047765
Environ. Sci. Technol. 2015, 49, 32673277
Critical Review
pump circuit are rst charged by the power source and then
connected in dierent combinations to generate various
voltages for dierent applications. The S-882Z series charge
pump from Seiko Instruments has been widely used in BES
studies, and it requires a minimum input voltage of 0.3 V in
order to generate a discharge voltage of 1.82.4 V (Figure 2A).
The charge pump consumes a minimum 0.10.5 mA current
during operation when the input voltage is 0.30.6 V, which
may limit its charging speed when the current is low and leads
to long charging/discharging cycles and low energy harvesting
eciency.20,40 For example, using a 316 mL aircathode MFC
as the power source, it took 22 h for the charge pump-based
circuit to output a voltage of 3.3 V during the start-up phase,
but a transformer-based circuit only took 2.5 h to output the
same voltage,21 suggesting that the energy extraction rate of the
charge pump was much slower compared to the transformer.
Similar performance was observed by Wang et al., who found
that due to charge pumps input current limitation, its operating
point was maintained at the low current region of the power
curve which was far away from the MPP (Table 2).40 When
using a charge pump to conduct capacitive discharge from a
microbial capacitive desalination cell for energy production,
Forrestal et al., found the Coulombic eciency was only 0.94%,
indicating that the charge pump is not sucient for energy
harvesting during desalination regeneration (Table 2).41
Therefore, charge pumps can accommodate low-voltage
MFC sources and be used for intermittent energy harvesting
when low charging rate is acceptable, such as for remote
sensors. The performance of the charge pump can be greatly
improved when input current increases. Furthermore, charge
pumps can also be used as dynamic switches in the circuit to
automatically control on/o and prevent reverse current
ows.42,43 S-882Z (Seiko Instruments) has been the most
commonly used commercially available charge pump in BES
studies, and because its maximum output voltage 2.4 V,
sometimes it is not sucient to power common electronic
devices. To further increase the output voltage, another layer of
power converter may be placed after the charge pump for
voltage boost.
2.3. Boost Converter-Based Systems. A DC/DC
converter is an electric circuit to convert direct current (DC)
power from one voltage level to another level, so an
unregulated DC input can be converted to a controlled output.
The input voltage can be stepped down (buck converter),
stepped up (boost converter) or inverted. Boost converters are
widely used in MFC research (Figure 2A), and the circuit of a
boost converter includes both semiconductors, such as diodes
and transistors, and energy storage components, such as
capacitors and inductors, with a more complex structure than
that in the charge pump. While the commonly used charge
pump can step up the voltage from 0.3 V to 1.82.4 V, the
output may still be low for many electronics such as marine
sensors (3.3 V)19,44 In such cases, DC/DC boost converters
can be used to boost the output voltage further. For example,
several studies used a boost converter (L6920DB, STMicroelectronics) to obtain an output voltage of 3.3 V with a
minimum start up input voltage of 0.8 V.21,43,45
Most commercially available low input voltage boost
converters require a minimum input voltage of 0.7 V
(max1797evkit, Maxim Semiconductor) or 0.8 V (L6920DB,
STMicroelectronics), which are practically beyond the voltage
capability of a single air-cathode MFC or a parallel-linked MFC
stack. There are two o-the-shelf boost converters that require
DOI: 10.1021/es5047765
Environ. Sci. Technol. 2015, 49, 32673277
Critical Review
DOI: 10.1021/es5047765
Environ. Sci. Technol. 2015, 49, 32673277
Critical Review
DOI: 10.1021/es5047765
Environ. Sci. Technol. 2015, 49, 32673277
Critical Review
1 =
2 =
Eoutput
EMFC
Eoutput
E input
100%
(2)
100%
(3)
AUTHOR INFORMATION
Corresponding Author
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank the nancial support from Dr. Linda Chrisey
at the Oce of Naval Research (ONR) under Award
N000141310901.
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DOI: 10.1021/es5047765
Environ. Sci. Technol. 2015, 49, 32673277
Critical Review
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