Solutions to Chapter 6 exercises

6.1(a) (i) The complement of [a, b] in R is (, a) (b, ), which is the union of two open
intervals and is therefore open in R. So [a, b] is closed in R.
(ii) The complement of (, 0] in R is (0, ) which is open in R so (, 0] is closed in R.
(iii) The complement (, 0) (0, ) is open in R so {0} is closed in R.


(1/(n + 1), 1/n) which is open in R so this set
(iv) The complement is (, 0) (1, )
is closed in R.

nN

(b) The complement of the closed unit disc in R2 is the set S = {(x1 , x2 ) R2 : x21 + x22 > 1}.

If (x1 , x2 ) S , put = x21 + x22 1. Then B ((x1 , x2 )) S, since if (y1, y2 ) B ((x1 , x2 ))
then writing 0, x, y for (0, 0), (x1 , x2 ), (y1 , y2 ) respectively, we have from the reverse triangle
inequality

d(0, y)
d(0, x) d(x, y) > d(0, x) = x21 + x22 = 1, so y S.
hence S is open in R2 , so the closed unit disc is closed in R2 .
(c) Let S be the complement of this rectangle R in R2 . Then S may be written as the union of
the four sets U1 = R (, c), U2 = R (d, ), U3 = (, a) R and U4 = (b, ) R.
Each of these is open in R2 . For example if (x1 , x2 ) U1 then x2 < c; take = c x2 . We
shall prove that B ((x1 , x2 )) U1 . If (y1 , y2 ) B ((x1 , x2 )) then |y2 x2 | < = c x2 so
y2 x2 < cx2 which gives y2 < c so (y1 , y2 ) U1 as claimed. This shows that U1 is open in R2 .
Entirely similar arguments show that U2 , U3 , U4 are open in R2 . Hence S = U1 U2 U3 U4
is open in R2 , and R is therefore closed in R2 .
(d) In a discrete metric space X , any subset is open in X ; in particular the complement of any
subset C is open in X so C is closed in X .
6.2(a) [1, ) is closed in R since its complement (, 1) is open in R.
(b) R \ Q is not closed in R since its complement Q is not open in R (given any r Q, there
does not exist an > 0 with (r , r + ) Q, since for example (r , r) contains irrational
numbers).
(c) This set S is not closed in R, since 1 is in its complement, but there is no > 0 such that
B (1) R\S : for n/(n+1) B (1) whenever 1n/(n+1) < , that is whenever 1/(n+1) < .
(d) This set is closed in R since its complement in R is

(, 0) (1, 2) (2, )
(n/(n + 1), (n + 1)/(n + 2)),
which, as a union of open sets, is open in R.

n=0

6.3 The complement of a singleton set {x} in a metric space (X, d) is open in X , for if y = x
then B (y) X\{x} where = d(x, y). So {x} is closed in X . The union of a nite number
of sets closed in X is also closed in X by Proposition 6.3, and the result follows.
6.4 Suppose that {Vi : i I} is an indexed family of subsets of a metric space X , where each
Vi is closed in X . Then for each i I the set X \ Vi is open in X . But



Vi = (X \ Vi ),
X\
iI

iI

and the latter is open in X by Proposition 5.41, since it is a union of open sets. Hence

Vi is

iI

closed in X .

6.5 Since Cn is the union of a nite number (namely 2n ) of closed intervals, Cn is closed in R
for each n N, so C is closed in R by Exercise 6.4.
6.6 We note that
{f C[0, 1] : f (a) = 0 for all a A} =

Va ,

aA

where Va = {f C[0, 1] : f (a) = 0}, so by Exercise 6.4 it is enough to prove that Va is closed in
C[0, 1]. We prove that its complement is open. For if f C[0, 1] \ Va then f (a) = 0. Consider
B (f ) where = |f (a)|/2. If g B (f ), then d(g, f ) < , so in particular |g(a) f (a)| < .
So by the reverse triangle inequality,
|g(a)| = |f (a) (f (a) g(a))|
|f (a)| |f (a) g(a)| > |f (a)| = > 0.
Hence g C[0, 1] \ Va , showing that B (f ) C[0, 1] \ Va . This shows that the complement of
Va is open hence Va is closed in C[0, 1].
6.7 We note rst that {0, 1} are points of closure of each of these intervals, since given any
> 0 there is a point of each of these intervals in B (i) for i = 0, 1.
But also, if x  [0, 1] then either x < 0 or x > 1, and in either case there exists > 0 such
that B (x) [0, 1] = , so x is not a point of closure of [0, 1]. This completes the proof.
6.8 Write 0 = (0, 0) for the origin in R2 .

First, if x R2 is such that d2 (x, 0) > 1

then we have B (x) B1 (0) = where = d2 (x, 0) 1, since given y B (x) we have
d2 (y, 0)
d2 (x, 0) d2 (x, y) > d2 (x, 0) = 1, using the reverse triangle inequality, so
y  B1 (0).
Secondly, if d2 (x, 0)  1 then for any > 0 there exists y B1 (0)B (x); for we may as well
assume < 1, and take y = (1 /2)x. Then d2 (y, 0) = (1 /2)d2(x, 0) < 1 and y B (x)
since d2 (x, y) = d2 (x, (1 /2)x) = d2 (0, x/2) = d2 (0, x)/2 < . Hence y B1 (0) B (x) as
required.
6.9 Suppose A is a non-empty subset of R which is bounded above, and let u = sup A. Take
any > 0. Then by leastness of u there is some a A with a > u . Since u is an upper
bound for A also a  u. So a A B (u). This shows that u A. The proof for inf is similar.

6.10 Let the metric space be (X, d). If A is empty then so is A and diamA = 0 = diamA.
Suppose A = , and let x0 X and K R be such that d(a, x0 )  K for all a A. Let x A.
By denition of A, there exists a0 A B1 (x), and d(x, x0 )  d(x, a0 ) + d(a0 , x0 )  K + 1.
Since this holds for any x A the latter is bounded. Now suppose diamA = . For any
x, x A and any > 0 there exist a, a A such that a B/2 (x) and a B/2 (x ), so
d(x, x )  d(x, a) + d(a, a ) + d(a , x ) < /2 + + /2 = + .
This holds for all > 0, so is an upper bound for d(x, x ) for all pairs of points x, x A.
Also, A A and is the least upper bound of the distances d(a, a ) for a, a A, so
diamA = .
6.11 The sets in Exercise 6.2 (a) and (d) are closed in R so by Proposition 6.11(c) they are their
own closures in R. The closure of the set in (b) is R: for given any x R and any > 0, there
exists an irrational number in for example (x , x) by Exercise 4.8. The closure of the set A
in (c) is A {1}: for given any > 0 there exists an n N with 1/(n + 1) < , which says
1 n/(n + 1) < , and this shows that 1 A.
Also, no point in the complement of A {1} is in A: for the complement of A {1} in R is
(, 1/2) (1, )

(n/(n + 1), (n + 1)/(n + 2), which is open in R.

n=1

6.12 We show that X \ B r (x) is open in X . For if y X \ B r (x) then d(y, x) > r . Choose
= d(y, x) r. We shall prove that B (y) X \ B r (x), so the latter is open in X . Let
z B (y). Then by the reverse triangle inequality, (and using also the symmetry of d),
d(z, x) = d(x, z)
d(x, y) d(z, y) > d(x, y) = d(y, x) = r, so z  B r (x).
Next we prove that Br (x) B r (x). For if y Br (x) and > 0 then there is a point
z B (y) Br (x), so d(y, x)  d(y, z) + d(z, x) < + r . But this is true for all > 0, so
d(y, x)  r , which says y B r (x).
The inclusion is strict if (X, d) is a discrete metric space containing at least two points and
r = 1. For then B1 (x) = {x} and {x} is closed in X , so B1 (x) = {x}; but all points y X
satisfy d(y, x)  1, so B 1 (x) = X.
6.13 First suppose that f : X Y is continuous, and let y f (A) for some A X and
> 0. Then y = f (x) for at least one x A. By continuity of f at x, there exists > 0
such that f (B (x)) B (y). By denition of A there exists some a A B (x). Then
f (a) f (B (x)) B (y). So f (a) B (y) f (A) which shows that y f (A). Hence
f (A) f (A).

Conversely suppose that f (A) f (A) for any subset A of X . We shall prove that the inverse
image of any closed subset V Y is closed in X , so that f is continuous by Proposition 6.6. For
f (f 1 (V )) f (f 1 (V ), and f (f 1 (V )) V so f (f 1 (V ) V = V , where the equality follows
from Proposition 6.11(c) since V is closed in Y . Hence f (f 1 (V )) V , so f 1 (V ) f 1 (V ).
Since we always have f 1 (V ) f 1 (V ), this shows that f 1 (V ) = f 1 (V ), and f 1 (V ) is
closed in X by Proposition 6.11(c).
6.14 For each j = 1, 2, . . . , m we have Aj

m

Ai , so Aj

i=1
m


j=1

Ai and hence

i=1

m

Aj

m

Ai .

i=1

Conversely, each Aj is closed in X by Proposition 6.11 (e), so as the union of a nite number
m


Aj is closed in X by Proposition 6.3. But for each j = 1, 2, . . . , m we have
of closed sets,
j=1

Aj Aj

m

Aj ,

j=1

so

m

Aj is a closed subset of X containing

j=1

m

Aj , and by Proposition 6.11 (f),

j=1
m

Ai

i=1

Hence
m


i=1

Ai =

m

Aj .

j=1

m

Aj as required.

j=1

6.15 Since for each i I we have

Ai Ai , it follows that

Ai

iI

But each Ai is closed in X by Proposition 6.11 (e), so

Ai .

iI

Ai is closed in X by Proposition 6.4,

iI

and hence by Proposition 6.11 (f)

Ai

iI

Ai .

iI

In R we may take A1 = (0, 1), A2 = (1, 2). Then A1 A2 = so A1 A2 = , whereas

A1 = [0, 1] and A2 = [1, 2] so A1 A2 = {1}.

6.16(a) Suppose rst that d(x, A) = 0. Then given > 0, we know that is not a lower bound
for {d(x, a) : a A}, so there exists a A with d(x, a) < , so x A.
Conversely suppose that x A. Then given > 0 there exists a0 A with d(x, a0 ) < .
Hence inf{d(x, a) : a A} < . This is true for all > 0, so d(x, A) = inf{d(x, a) : a A} = 0.
6.16(b) For any a0 A we have
d(x, A) = inf{d(x, a) : a A}  d(x, a0 )  d(x, y)) + d(y, a0 ),
so d(x, A) d(x, y)  d(y, a0 ) for all a0 A, which says that d(x, A) d(x, y) is a lower
bound for {d(y, a) : a A}, hence it is less than or equal to the greatest lower bound, that is
d(x, A)d(x, y)  inf{d(y, a) : a A} = d(y, A). From this we get d(x, A)  d(x, y)+d(y, A).
6.16(c) From (b) we get, for any x, y X, d(x, A) d(y, A)  d(x, y). By symmetry also
d(y, A) d(x, A)  d(y, x) = d(x, y); together these give |d(x, A) d(y, A)|  d(x, y). So
given > 0 we may take = , and then |d(x, A) d(y, A)| < whenever d(x, y) < , which
proves continuity of x
d(x, A).
6.17(a) Each point in A = [1, ) is a limit point of A, since given any x R with 1  x and
any > 0, the open ball (x , x + ) contains point of A other than x, for example x + /2.
Also, no point in the complement of A is a limit point of A, since any limit point of A is in A,
and we have seen in Exercise 6.9 that A = A. So the set of limit points of A in R is precisely
A.
(b) Any real number is a limit point of R \ Q, since given x R and > 0, by Exercise 4.8
there is an irrational number for example in (x , x) and this is not equal to x. So the set of
limit points here is R.
(c) We know from Denition 6.15 that any limit point is a point of closure of A, and we have
seen in Exercise 6.9 that A = A {1}. Now 1 is a limit point of A in R, since given any > 0
there exists an n N such that 1/(n + 1) < , so 1 < n/(n + 1) < 1, showing that 1 is a
limit point.
But if x = n/(n + 1) for some n N we may take
= (n + 1)/(n + 2) n/(n + 1) = 1/(n + 1)(n + 2)
and then (x , x + ) A = {n/(n + 1)}, so x is not a limit point of A. The upshot is that
the set of limit points is the singleton {1}.

(d) In the case of this set A, we have seen that A = A, so the only possible limit points are in A.
Now 0 is a limit point, since for any > 0 we may choose n N so that 1/n < , and (, )
contains 1/n A \ {0} and 0 is a limit point of A in R. On the other hand, no other point is a
limit point of A. For if x = 1/n with n N, n
2 then take = 1/n 1/(n + 1) = 1/n(n + 1),
and we see that (1/n , 1/n + ) (A \ {x}) = , so 1/n is not a limit point of A. Also, if
x = 1 or x = 2 we may take = 1/2 and we see that (x , x + ) A = {x} so neither 1 nor
2 is a limit point of A. So the set of limit points of A is {0}.
6.18 Let the set be A = {x1 , x2 , . . . , xm } and let the metric space be X . From Exercise 6.3,
A is closed in X so A = A. So as before the only possible limit points of A are the points of
A. But xi is not a limit point, for if we take = min{d(xj , xi ) : j {1, 2, . . . , m} \ {i}} then
> 0 and B (xi ) A = {xi }. So there are no limit points of A in X .
6.19 Assume the result of Proposition 6.18, and rst assume that the subset A is closed in X .
Then A = A by Proposition 6.11(c). By Proposition 6.18 all limit points of A are in A, hence
in A.
Conversely suppose the subset A contains all its limit points in X . Then by Proposition
6.18, A = A and A is closed in X by Proposition 6.11 (c).
6.20 First suppose that f : X Y is continuous, and let B Y . By Proposition 6.21(e)
o

the interior B of B is open in Y , so by continuity, f 1 (B ) is open in X . Now B B, so

o

f 1 (B ) f 1 (B). This gives that f 1 (B ) is open in X and contained in f 1 (B), hence by

Proposition 6.21(f) it is contained in the interior of f 1 (B) as required.
o

Conversely, suppose that f 1 (B ) is contained in the interior of f 1 (B) for any subset B of Y .
o

In particular take B to be open in Y . By Proposition 6.21(c) then B = B , so f 1 (B ) = f 1 (B).

So by the given condition, f 1 (B) is contained in the interior of f 1 (B). But the interior of
any set A X is contained in A, so f 1 (B) equals its interior, which by Proposition 6.21(c)
shows that f 1 (B) is open in X . This shows that f is continuous.
6.21(a) In each case we have already seen that the closure in R is [a, b], (this is the same as
Example 6.8(a)) so it is enough to show that the interior is (a, b). This follows from Proposition
6.21 (f) - the interior of a set A in X is the largest set contained in A and open in X .
(b) We have seen that the closure of Q in R is R. It is therefore enough to show that the
interior of Q in R is . But this is true, since given any x R and any open set U in R
containing x, there is a > 0 such that (x , x + ) U. But any such open interval contains
irrational numbers, so U cannot be contained in Q, so x is not in the interior of Q in R.

6.22 First suppose that x A. By denition then x A but x  A . Let > 0. Since
x A, there is some point of A in B (x), so d(x, A)  . This is true for all > 0, so
o

d(x, A) = 0. Since x  A , there is no > 0 such that B (x) A, so for any > 0 we have
B (x) (X \ A) = . Hence d(x, X \ A) < . This is true for any > 0 so d(x, X \ A) = 0.
Conversely suppose that d(x, A) = 0 = d(x, X \ A). Then for any > 0 we have B (x) A
and B (x) (X \ A) non-empty. The rst of these shows that x A. The second shows that
o

there is no > 0 such that B (x) A, so x  A . These together show that x A.

o

6.23(a) By denition, A = A \ A , and A A A so A = A \ A. Since A A, in fact

o

A = A \ A.
(b) This holds since for x X ,
x X \ A any open set U  x has non-empty intersection with X \ A
o

no open set U  x is contained in A x  A x X \ A .

o

(c) By denition A = A \ A . Now using Exercise 2.1 (with the C, D of that exercise taken to
o

be A , A respectively) A \ A = (X \ A ) A. So
o

A = (X \ A ) A = X \ A A,
where the second equality above uses (b). The second equality in the question follows by symmetry.
(d) This follows from (c), since A is the intersection of the two closed sets X \ A and A.
6.24 Suppose that (xn ) converges to x0 in the metric space (X, d). Then given > 0 there
exists an integer N such that d(xn , x0 ) < /2 for all n
N . So if m
N and also n
N ,
d(xm , xn )  d(xm , x0 ) + d(x0 , xn ) < /2 + /2 = .
This shows that (xn ) is a Cauchy sequence.
6.25 Let the metrics on X, Y be dX , dY . First suppose that f : X Y is continuous. Let
(xn ) be a sequence in X converging to a point x0 X . Then given > 0, by continuity of f
at x0 there exists > 0 such that dY (f (x), f (x0 )) < whenever dX (x, x0 ) < . Since (xn )
converges to x0 , there exists an integer N such that d(xn , x0 ) < whenever n
N . So for
n
N we have d(f (x), f (x0 )) < . This proves that (f (xn )) converges to f (x0 ).
Conversely suppose that f (xn )) converges to f (x0 ) whenever (xn ) converges to x0 . We
prove by contradiction that f is continuous at x0 . For if it is not, then for some > 0 there is
no > 0 such that dY (f (x), f (x0 )) < whenever dX (x, x0 ) < . In particular, for each positive
integer n there exists a point, call it xn , such that dX (xn , x0 ) < 1/n yet dY (f (xn ), f (x0 ))
.
Now (xn ) converges to x0 but (f (xn )) does not converge to f (x0 ). This contradiction proves
that f is continuous at x0 , and the same applies at any point of X .

6.26 Since a Y , for each positive integer n there exists some point, call it yn , in B1/n (a) Y .
The sequence (yn ) is a sequence in Y , and clearly it converges to a since d(yn , a) < 1/n for
each n N.
Now suppose that every sequence in Y which converges in X has its limit in Y . Then from
the above every point in Y is in Y . Since Y Y for any subset Y , we have Y = Y so Y is
closed in X by Proposition 6.11(c).
(2)

6.27 Since d(2) (x, y)  d(x, y) for all x, y X , as in Exercise 5.15(a) Bd (x) Bd (x) for all
x X and > 0. Hence if U X is d(2) -open it is also d-open. Conversely suppose that U
is d-open and let x U . Then Bd (x) U for some > 0, and we may take < 1. Then
(2)

Bd (x) = Bd (x) U, so U is d(2) -open. This shows that (X, d) and (X, d(2) ) are topologically
equivalent.
Since d(3) (x, y)  d(x, y) for all x, y X , as for d(2) when a subset U X is d(3) -open it
is also d-open. Conversely suppose that U is d-open and x U . Then Bd (x) U for some
> 0. Let = min{/2, 1/2}. If d(3) (x, y) < then d(3) (x, y) < 1/2, so
d(x, y) =
(3)

d(3) (x, y)
 2d(3) (x, y) < .
1 d(3) (x, y)

Then Bd (x) Bd (x) U , so U is d(3) -open. This proves that (X, d) and (X, d(3) ) are
topologically equivalent.