Route selection

One of the earliest and most critical tasks in a submarine pipeline planning exercise is the route
selection.[5] This selection has to consider a variety of issues, some of a political nature, but most
others dealing with geohazards, physical factors along the prospective route, and other uses of
the seabed in the area considered.[5][6] This task begins with a fact-finding exercise, which is a
standard desk study that includes a survey of geological maps, bathymetry, fishing charts, aerial
and satellite photography, as well as information from navigation authorities.[5][6]

Physical factors

Interaction between a submarine pipeline and the seabed onto which it rests (four possible
scenarios).
The primary physical factor to be considered in submarine pipeline construction is the state of
the seabed whether it is smooth (i.e., relatively flat) or uneven (corrugated, with high points
and low points). If it is uneven, the pipeline will include free spans when it connects two high
points, leaving the section in between unsupported.[2][7] If an unsupported section is too long, the
bending stress exerted onto it (due to its weight) may be excessive. Vibration from currentinduced vortexes may also become an issue.[7][8] Corrective measures for unsupported pipeline
spans include seabed leveling and post-installation support, such as berm or sand infilling below
the pipeline. The strength of the seabed is another significant parameter. If the soil is not strong
enough, the pipeline may sink into it to an extent where inspection, maintenance procedures and
prospective tie-ins become difficult to carry out. At the other extreme, a rocky seabed is
expensive to trench and, at high points, abrasion and damage of the pipeline's external coating
may occur.[7][8] Ideally, the soil should be such as to allow the pipe to settle into it to some extent,
thereby providing it with some lateral stability.[7]

One of a number of reasons why submarine pipelines are buried below the seabed: to protect
them against the gouging action of drifting ice features, such as icebergs.
Other physical factors to be taken into account prior to building a pipeline include the following:
[2][7][8][9][10]

Seabed mobility: Sandwaves and megaripples are features that move with time, such that
a pipeline that was supported by the crest of one such feature during construction may
find itself in a trough later during the pipelines operational lifespan. The evolution of
these features is difficult to predict so it is preferable to avoid the areas where they are
known to exist.

Submarine landslides: They result from high sedimentation rates and occur on steeper
slopes. They can be triggered by earthquakes. When the soil around the pipe is subjected
to a slide, especially if the resulting displacement is at high angle to the line, the pipe
within it can incur severe bending and consequent tensile failure.

Currents: High currents are objectionable in that they hinder pipe laying operations. For
instance, in shallow seas tidal currents may be quite strong in a straight between two
islands. Under these circumstances, it may be preferable to bring the pipe elsewhere, even
if this alternative route ends up being longer.

Waves: In shallow waters, waves can also be problematic for pipeline laying operations
(in severe wave regimes) and, subsequently, to its stability, because of the waters
scouring action. This is one of a number of reasons why landfalls (where the pipeline
reaches the shoreline) are particularly delicate areas to plan.

Ice-related issues: In freezing waters, floating ice features often drift into shallower
waters, and their keel comes into contact with the seabed. As they continue to drift, they
gouge the seabed and can hit the pipeline.[11] Stamukhi can also damage this structure,
either by exerting high local stresses on it or by causing to soil around it to fail, thereby
inducing excessive bending. Strudel are another pipeline hazard in cold waters water
gushing through them can remove the soil from below the structure, making it vulnerable
to overstress (due to self-weight) or vortex-induced oscillations. Pipeline route planning
for areas where these risks are known to exist has to consider laying the pipeline in a
back-filled trench.

Other uses of the seabed

Proper planning of a pipeline route has to factor in a wide range of human activities that make
use of the seabed along the proposed route, or that are likely to do so in the future. They include
the following:[2][8][12]

Other pipelines: If and where the proposed pipeline intersects an existing one, which is
not uncommon, a bridging structure may be required at that juncture in order to cross it.
This has to be done at a right angle. The juncture should be carefully designed so as to
avoid interferences between the two structures either by direct physical contact or due to
hydrodynamic effects.

Fishing vessels: Commercial fishing makes use of heavy fishing nets dragged on the
seabed and extending several kilometers behind the trawler. This net could snag the
pipeline, with potential damage to both pipeline and vessel.

Ship anchors: Ship anchors are a potential threat to pipelines, especially near harbors.

Military activities: Some areas still have mines originating from former conflicts but that
are still operational. Other areas, used for bombing or gunning practices, may also
conceal live ammunition. Moreover, at some locations, various types of instrumentation
are laid on the seafloor for submarine detection. These areas have to be avoided.

Submarine pipeline characteristics

Submarine pipelines generally vary in diameter from 3 inches (76 mm) for gas lines, to 72 inches
(1,800 mm) for high capacity lines.[1][2] Wall thicknesses typically range from 10 millimetres
(0.39 in) to 75 millimetres (3.0 in). The pipe can be designed for fluids at high temperature and
pressure. The walls are made from high-yield strength steel, 350-500 MPa (50,000-70,000 psi),
weldability being one of the main selection criteria.[2] The structure is often shielded against
external corrosion by coatings such as bitumastic or epoxy, supplemented by cathodic protection
with sacrificial anodes.[2][13] Concrete or fiberglass wrapping provides further protection against
abrasion. The addition of a concrete coating is also useful to compensate for the pipelines
negative buoyancy when it carries lower density substances.[2][14]
The pipelines inside wall is not coated for petroleum service. But when it carries seawater or
corrosive substances, it can be coated with epoxy, polyurethane or polyethylene; it can also be
cement-lined.[2][13] In the petroleum industry, where leaks are unacceptable and the pipelines are
subject to internal pressures typically in the order of 10 MPa (1500 psi), the segments are joined
by full penetration welds.[2][13] Mechanical joints are also used. A pig is a standard device in
pipeline transport, be it on-land or offshore. It is used to test for hydrostatic pressure, to check for
dents and crimps on the sidewalls inside the pipe, and to conduct periodic cleaning and minor
repairs.[1][2]

Pipeline construction
Pipeline construction involves two procedures: assembling a large number of pipe segments into
a full line, and installing that line along the desired route. Several systems can be used for a
submarine pipeline, the choice in favor of any one of them is based on the following factors:
physical and environmental conditions (e.g. currents, wave regime), availability of equipment
and costs, water depth, pipeline length and diameter, constraints tied to the presence of other
lines and structures along the route.[2] These systems are generally divided into four broad
categories: pull/tow, S-lay, J-lay and reel-lay.[15][16][17][18]

Simplified drawings showing three configurations used to tow subsea pipelines offshore to the
planned installation site (not to scale).

The pull/tow system

In the pull/tow system, the submarine pipeline is assembled onshore and then towed to location.
Assembly is done either parallel or perpendicular to the shoreline in the former case, the full
line can be built prior to tow out and installation.[19] A significant advantage with the pull/tow
system is that pre-testing and inspection of the line are done onshore, not at sea.[19] It allows to
handle lines of any size and complexity.[17][20] As for the towing procedures, a number of
configurations can be used, which may be categorized as follows: surface tow, near-surface tow,
mid-depth tow and off-bottom tow.[21]

Surface tow: In this configuration, the pipeline remains at the surface of the water during
tow, and is then sunk into position at lay site. The line has to be buoyant this can be
done with individual buoyancy units attached to it.[19] Surface tows are not appropriate for
rough seas and are vulnerable to lateral currents.

Near-surface tow: The pipeline remains below the water surface but close to it this
mitigates wave action. But the spar buoys used to maintain the line at that level are
affected by rough seas, which in itself may represent a challenge for the towing
operation.

Mid-depth tow: The pipeline is not buoyant either because it is heavy or it is weighted
down by hanging chains. In this configuration, the line is suspended in a catenary
between two towing vessels. The shape of that catenary (the sag) is a balance between the
lines weight, the tension applied to it by the vessels and hydrodynamic lift on the chains.
[22]
The amount of allowable sag is limited by how far down the seabed is.

Off-bottom tow: This configuration is similar to the mid-depth tow, but here the line is
maintained within 1 to 2 m (several feet) away from the bottom, using chains dragging on
the seabed.

Bottom tow: In this case, the pipeline is dragged onto the bottom the line is not affected
by waves and currents, and if the sea gets too rough for the tow vessel, the line can
simply be abandoned and recovered later. Challenges with this type of system include:
requirement for an abrasion-resistant coating, interaction with other submarine pipelines
and potential obstructions (reef, boulders, etc.). Bottom tow is commonly used for river
crossings and crossings between shores.[23]

Simplified drawings of three common systems used for the construction and installation of
subsea pipelines (not to scale): S-lay, J-lay and reel.

The Solitaire, one of the largest pipe-laying ships in the world.

The DCV Aegir, a pipelay vessel designed for J-lay and reel-lay.

The Saipem 7000, a semi-submersible crane vessel equipped with a J-lay pipe-laying system.

The S-lay system

In the S-lay system, the pipeline assembly is done at the installation site, on board a vessel that
has all the equipment required for joining the pipe segments: pipe handling conveyors, welding
stations, X-ray equipment, joint-coating module, etc.[24] The S notation refers to the shape of the
pipeline as it is laid onto the seabed. The pipeline leaves the vessel at the stern or bow from a
supporting structure called a stinger that guides the pipes downward motion and controls the
convex-upward curve (the overbend). As it continues toward the seabed, the pipe has a convexdownward curve (the sagbend) before coming into contact with the seabed (touch down point).
The sagbend is controlled by a tension applied from the vessel (via tensioners) in response to the
pipelines submerged weight. The pipeline configuration is monitored so that it will not get
damaged by excessive bending.[24] This on-site pipeline assembly approach, referred to as laybarge construction, is known for its versatility and self-contained nature despite the high costs
associated with this vessels deployment, it is efficient and requires relatively little external
support.[25] But it may have to contend with severe sea states these adversely affect operations
such as pipe transfer from supply boats, anchor-handling and pipe welding.[24] Recent
developments in lay-barge design include dynamic positioning and the J-lay system.[24][26]

The J-lay system

In areas where the water is very deep, the S-lay system may not be appropriate because the
pipeline leaves the stinger to go almost straight down. To avoid sharp bending at the end of it and
to mitigate excessive sag bending, the tension in the pipeline would have to be high.[27] Doing so
would interfere with the vessels positioning, and the tensioner could damage the pipeline. A
particularly long stinger could be used, but this is also objectionable since that structure would be
adversely affected by winds and currents.[27] The J-lay system, one of the latest generations of

lay-barge, is better suited for deep water environments. In this system, the pipeline leaves the
vessel on a nearly vertical ramp (or tower). There is no overbend only a sagbend of catenary
nature (hence the J notation), such that the tension can be reduced. The pipeline is also less
exposed to wave action as it enters the water.[28] However, unlike for the S-lay system, where
pipe welding can be done simultaneously at several locations along the vessel decks length, the
J-lay system can only accommodate one welding station. Advanced methods of automatic
welding are used to compensate for this drawback.[29]

The Reel-lay system

In the reel-lay system, the pipeline is assembled onshore and is spooled onto a large drum
typically about 20 metres (66 ft) x 6 metres (20 ft) in size,[30] mounted on board a purpose-built
vessel. The vessel then goes out to location to lay the pipeline. Onshore facilities to assemble the
pipeline have inherent advantages: they are not affected by the weather or the sea state and are
less expensive than seaborne operations.[20] Pipeline supply can be coordinated: while one line is
being laid at sea, another one can be spooled onshore.[31] A single reel can have enough capacity
for a full length flow line.[31] The reel-lay system, however, can only handle lower diameter
pipelines up to about 400 mm (16 in).[32] Also, the kind of steel making up the pipes must be
able to undergo the required amount of plastic deformation as it is bent to proper curvature (by a
spiral J-tube) when reeled around the drum, and straightened back (by a straightener) during the
layout operations at the installation site.[33]