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Inertialnavigationsystem
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Thisarticleincludesalistofreferences,butitssourcesremainunclearbecauseithas
insufficientinlinecitations.Pleasehelptoimprovethisarticlebyintroducingmoreprecise
citations.(June2009)

Aninertialnavigationsystem(INS)isanavigationaidthatusesacomputer,motionsensors
(accelerometers)androtationsensors(gyroscopes)tocontinuouslycalculateviadeadreckoningthe
position,orientation,andvelocity(directionandspeedofmovement)ofamovingobjectwithoutthe
needforexternalreferences.[1]Itisusedonvehiclessuchasships,aircraft,submarines,guidedmissiles,
andspacecraft.Othertermsusedtorefertoinertialnavigationsystemsorcloselyrelateddevicesinclude
inertialguidancesystem,inertialreferenceplatform,inertialinstrument,inertialmeasurementunits
(IMU)andmanyothervariations.

Contents
[hide]
1Overview
2Error
3History
4Guidanceinhumanspaceflight
5Aircraftinertialguidance
6Inertialnavigationsystemsindetail
7Basicschemes
7.1Gimballedgyrostabilizedplatforms
7.2Fluidsuspendedgyrostabilizedplatforms
7.3Strapdownsystems
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7.4Motionbasedalignment
7.5Vibratinggyros
7.6Hemisphericalresonatorgyros(wineglassormushroomgyros)
7.7Quartzratesensors
7.8MHDsensor
7.9MEMSGyroscope
7.10RingLaserGyros(RLG)
7.11Fiberopticgyros(FOG)
7.12Pendularaccelerometers
7.13TIMU(Timing&InertialMeasurementUnit)sensors
8Method
9Seealso
10References
11Externallinks

Overview[edit]
Inertialnavigationisaselfcontainednavigationtechniqueinwhichmeasurementsprovidedby
accelerometersandgyroscopesareusedtotrackthepositionandorientationofanobjectrelativetoa
knownstartingpoint,orientationandvelocity.Inertialmeasurementunit(IMUs)typicallycontainthree
orthogonalrategyroscopesandthreeorthogonalaccelerometers,measuringangularvelocityandlinear
accelerationrespectively.Byprocessingsignalsfromthesedevicesitispossibletotrackthepositionand
orientationofadevice.
Inertialnavigationisusedinawiderangeofapplicationsincludingthenavigationofaircraft,tacticaland
strategicmissiles,spacecraft,submarinesandships.Recentadvancesintheconstructionof
microelectromechanicalsystems(MEMS)havemadeitpossibletomanufacturesmallandlightinertial
navigationsystems.Theseadvanceshavewidenedtherangeofpossibleapplicationstoincludeareas
suchashumanandanimalmotioncapture.
Aninertialnavigationsystemincludesatleastacomputerandaplatformormodulecontaining
accelerometers,gyroscopes,orothermotionsensingdevices.TheINSisinitiallyprovidedwithits
positionandvelocityfromanothersource(ahumanoperator,aGPSsatellitereceiver,etc.),and
thereaftercomputesitsownupdatedpositionandvelocitybyintegratinginformationreceivedfromthe
motionsensors.TheadvantageofanINSisthatitrequiresnoexternalreferencesinordertodetermine
itsposition,orientation,orvelocityonceithasbeeninitialized.
AnINScandetectachangeinitsgeographicposition(amoveeastornorth,forexample),achangeinits
velocity(speedanddirectionofmovement),andachangeinitsorientation(rotationaboutanaxis).It
doesthisbymeasuringthelinearaccelerationandangularvelocityappliedtothesystem.Sinceit
requiresnoexternalreference(afterinitialization),itisimmunetojamminganddeception.
Inertialnavigationsystemsareusedinmanydifferentmovingobjects,includingvehiclessuchas
aircraft,submarines,spacecraftandguidedmissiles.However,theircostandcomplexityplace
constraintsontheenvironmentsinwhichtheyarepracticalforuse.
Gyroscopesmeasuretheangularvelocityofthesystemintheinertialreferenceframe.Byusingthe
originalorientationofthesystemintheinertialreferenceframeastheinitialconditionandintegrating
theangularvelocity,thesystem'scurrentorientationisknownatalltimes.Thiscanbethoughtofasthe
abilityofablindfoldedpassengerinacartofeelthecarturnleftandrightortiltupanddownasthecar
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ascendsordescendshills.Basedonthisinformationalone,thepassengerknowswhatdirectionthecaris
facingbutnothowfastorslowitismoving,orwhetheritisslidingsideways.
Accelerometersmeasurethelinearaccelerationofthesystemintheinertialreferenceframe,butin
directionsthatcanonlybemeasuredrelativetothemovingsystem(sincetheaccelerometersarefixedto
thesystemandrotatewiththesystem,butarenotawareoftheirownorientation).Thiscanbethoughtof
astheabilityofablindfoldedpassengerinacartofeelthemselvespressedbackintotheirseatasthe
vehicleacceleratesforwardorpulledforwardasitslowsdownandfeelthemselvespresseddowninto
theirseatasthevehicleacceleratesupahillorriseupoutoftheirseatasthecarpassesoverthecrestofa
hillandbeginstodescend.Basedonthisinformationalone,theyknowhowthevehicleisaccelerating
relativetoitself,thatis,whetheritisacceleratingforward,backward,left,right,up(towardthecar's
ceiling),ordown(towardthecar'sfloor)measuredrelativetothecar,butnotthedirectionrelativetothe
Earth,sincetheydidnotknowwhatdirectionthecarwasfacingrelativetotheEarthwhentheyfeltthe
accelerations.
However,bytrackingboththecurrentangularvelocityofthesystemandthecurrentlinearacceleration
ofthesystemmeasuredrelativetothemovingsystem,itispossibletodeterminethelinearacceleration
ofthesystemintheinertialreferenceframe.Performingintegrationontheinertialaccelerations(using
theoriginalvelocityastheinitialconditions)usingthecorrectkinematicequationsyieldstheinertial
velocitiesofthesystem,andintegrationagain(usingtheoriginalpositionastheinitialcondition)yields
theinertialposition.Inourexample,iftheblindfoldedpassengerknewhowthecarwaspointedandwhat
itsvelocitywasbeforehewasblindfolded,andiftheyareabletokeeptrackofbothhowthecarhas
turnedandhowithasacceleratedanddeceleratedsince,theycanaccuratelyknowthecurrentorientation,
position,andvelocityofthecaratanytime.

Error[edit]
Allinertialnavigationsystemssufferfromintegrationdrift:smallerrorsinthemeasurementof
accelerationandangularvelocityareintegratedintoprogressivelylargererrorsinvelocity,whichare
compoundedintostillgreatererrorsinposition.Sincethenewpositioniscalculatedfromtheprevious
calculatedpositionandthemeasuredaccelerationandangularvelocity,theseerrorsaccumulateroughly
proportionallytothetimesincetheinitialpositionwasinput.Thereforethepositionmustbeperiodically
correctedbyinputfromsomeothertypeofnavigationsystem.Theinaccuracyofagoodquality
navigationalsystemisnormallylessthan0.6nauticalmilesperhourinpositionandontheorderof
tenthsofadegreeperhourinorientation.Ifnavigationsystemsmalfunction,theycansendplanesoff
course,suchasAdamAirFlight574.
Accordingly,inertialnavigationisusuallyusedtosupplementothernavigationsystems,providinga
higherdegreeofaccuracythanispossiblewiththeuseofanysinglesystem.Forexample,if,interrestrial
use,theinertiallytrackedvelocityisintermittentlyupdatedtozerobystopping,thepositionwillremain
preciseforamuchlongertime,asocalledzerovelocityupdate.Inaerospaceparticularly,other
measurementsystemsareusedtodetermineINSinaccuracies,e.g.theHoneywellLaseRefVinertial
navigationsystemsusesGPSandAirdatacomputeroutputstomaintainRequirednavigation
performance.Thenavigationerrorriseswiththelowerprice(andsensitivity)ofthesensorsused.
Currently,devicescombiningdifferentsensorsarebeingdeveloped,e.g.Attitudeandheadingreference
system.Becausethenavigationerrorismainlyinfluencedbythenumericalintegrationofangularrates
andaccelerations,newmeasurementsystemswhichuseabsolutemeasurementtypesarebeing
developed,suchasthePressureReferenceSystem.
Estimationtheoryingeneral,andKalmanfilteringinparticular,provideatheoreticalframeworkfor
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combininginformationfromvarioussensors.Oneofthemostcommonalternativesensorsisasatellite
navigationradio,suchasGPSwhichcanbeusedforallkindsofvehicleswithdirectskyvisibility.
Indoorapplicationscanusepedometers,distancemeasurementequipment,orotherkindsofPosition
sensors.ByproperlycombiningtheinformationfromanINSandothersystems(GPS/INS),theerrorsin
positionandvelocityarestable.Furthermore,INScanbeusedasashorttermfallbackwhileGPSsignals
areunavailable,forexamplewhenavehiclepassesthroughatunnel.

History[edit]
TheexamplesandperspectiveinthissectiondealprimarilywiththeUnitedStatesanddo
notrepresentaworldwideviewofthesubject.Pleaseimprovethisarticleanddiscussthe
issueonthetalkpage.(January2015)
Inertialnavigationsystemswereoriginallydevelopedforrockets.AmericanrocketpioneerRobert
Goddardexperimentedwithrudimentarygyroscopicsystems.Dr.Goddard'ssystemswereofgreat
interesttocontemporaryGermanpioneersincludingWernhervonBraun.Thesystemsenteredmore
widespreadusewiththeadventofspacecraft,guidedmissiles,andcommercialairliners.
EarlyGermanWorldWarIIV2guidancesystemscombinedtwogyroscopesandalateralaccelerometer
withasimpleanalogcomputertoadjusttheazimuthfortherocketinflight.Analogcomputersignals
wereusedtodrivefourgraphiteruddersintherocketexhaustforflightcontrol.TheGN&C(Guidance,
Navigation,andControl)systemforV2providedmanyinnovationsasanintegratedplatformwithclosed
loopguidance.AttheendofthewarVonBraunengineeredthesurrenderof500ofhistoprocket
scientists,alongwithplansandtestvehicles,totheAmericans.TheyarrivedatFortBliss,Texasin1945
undertheprovisionsofOperationPaperclipandweresubsequentlymovedtoHuntsville,Alabama,in
1950[2]wheretheyworkedforU.S.Armyrocketresearchprograms.
Intheearly1950s,theUSgovernmentwantedtoinsulateitselfagainstoverdependencyontheGerman
teamformilitaryapplications,includingthedevelopmentofafullydomesticmissileguidanceprogram.
TheMITInstrumentationLaboratory(latertobecometheCharlesStarkDraperLaboratory,Inc.)was
chosenbytheAirForceWesternDevelopmentDivisiontoprovideaselfcontainedguidancesystem
backuptoConvairinSanDiegoforthenewAtlasintercontinentalballisticmissile[3][4][5][6]
(ConstructionandtestingwerecompletedbyArmaDivisionofAmBoschArma).Thetechnicalmonitor
fortheMITtaskwasayoungengineernamedJimFletcherwholaterservedastheNASAAdministrator.
TheAtlasguidancesystemwastobeacombinationofanonboardautonomoussystem,andaground
basedtrackingandcommandsystem.Theselfcontainedsystemfinallyprevailedinballisticmissile
applicationsforobviousreasons.Inspaceexploration,amixtureofthetworemains.
Inthesummerof1952,Dr.RichardBattinandDr.J.Halcombe"Hal"Laning,Jr.,researched
computationalbasedsolutionstoguidance,andundertooktheinitialanalyticalworkontheAtlasinertial
guidancein1954.OtherkeyfiguresatConvairwereCharlieBossart,theChiefEngineer,andWalter
Schweidetzky,headoftheguidancegroup.SchweidetzkyhadworkedwithWernhervonBraunat
PeenemuendeduringWorldWarII.
TheinitialDeltaguidancesystemassessedthedifferenceinpositionfromareferencetrajectory.A
velocitytobegained(VGO)calculationismadetocorrectthecurrenttrajectorywiththeobjectiveof
drivingVGOtozero.Themathematicsofthisapproachwerefundamentallyvalid,butdroppedbecause
ofthechallengesinaccurateinertialguidanceandanalogcomputingpower.Thechallengesfacedbythe
DeltaeffortswereovercomebytheQsystem(seeQguidance)ofguidance.TheQsystem'srevolution
wastobindthechallengesofmissileguidance(andassociatedequationsofmotion)inthematrixQ.The
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Qmatrixrepresentsthepartialderivativesofthevelocitywithrespecttothepositionvector.Akey
featureofthisapproachallowedforthecomponentsofthevectorcrossproduct(v,xdv,/dt)tobeusedas
thebasicautopilotratesignalsatechniquethatbecameknownascrossproductsteering.TheQsystem
waspresentedatthefirstTechnicalSymposiumonBallisticMissilesheldattheRamoWooldridge
CorporationinLosAngelesonJune21and22,1956.TheQsystemwasclassifiedinformationthrough
the1960s.Derivationsofthisguidanceareusedfortoday'smissiles.

Guidanceinhumanspaceflight[edit]
InFebof1961NASAawardedMITacontractforpreliminarydesignstudyofaguidanceandnavigation
systemforApollo.MITandtheDelcoElectronicsDiv.ofGeneralMotorsCorp.wereawardedthejoint
contractfordesignandproductionoftheApolloGuidanceandNavigationsystemsfortheCommand
ModuleandtheLunarModule.DelcoproducedtheIMUs(InertialMeasurementUnits)forthese
systems,KollsmanInstrumentCorp.producedtheOpticalSystems,andtheApolloGuidanceComputer
wasbuiltbyRaytheonundersubcontract.(seeApolloonboardguidance,navigation,andcontrolsystem,
DaveHoag,InternationalSpaceHallofFameDedicationConferenceinAlamogordo,N.M.,October
1976[7]).
Forthespaceshuttle,anopenloop(nofeedback)guidancewasusedtoguidetheshuttlefromliftoff
untilSolidRocketBooster(SRB)separation.AfterSRBseparationtheprimaryspaceshuttleguidanceis
namedPEG(PoweredExplicitGuidance).PEGtakesintoaccountboththeQsystemandthepredictor
correctorattributesoftheoriginal"Delta"System(PEGGuidance).Althoughmanyupdatestothe
shuttle'snavigationsystemhavetakenplaceoverthelast30years(ex.GPSintheOI22build),the
guidancecoreoftheShuttleGN&Csystemhasevolvedlittle.Withinamannedsystem,thereisahuman
interfaceneededfortheguidancesystem.AsAstronautsarethecustomerforthesystem,manynew
teamsareformedthattouchGN&Casitisaprimaryinterfaceto"fly"thevehicle.

Aircraftinertialguidance[edit]
OneexampleofapopularINSforcommercialaircraftwastheDelcoCarousel,whichprovidedpartial
automationofnavigationinthedaysbeforecompleteflightmanagementsystemsbecamecommonplace.
TheCarouselallowedpilotstoenteraseriesofwaypoints,andthenguidedtheaircraftfromone
waypointtothenextusinganINStodetermineaircraftpositionandvelocity.BoeingCorporation
subcontractedtheDelcoElectronicsDiv.ofGeneralMotorstodesignandbuildthefirstproduction
Carouselsystemsfortheearlymodels(100,200,and300)modelsofthe747aircraft.The747utilized
threeCarouselsystemsoperatinginconcertforreliabilitypurposes.TheCarouselsystemandderivatives
thereofweresubsequentlyadoptedforuseinmanyothercommercialandmilitaryaircraft.TheUSAFC
141wasthefirstmilitaryaircrafttoutilizetheCarouselinadualsystemconfiguration,followedbythe
C5AwhichutilizedthetripleINSconfiguration,similartothe747.TheKC135fleetwasfittedwitha
dualCarouselsystemthatwasaidedbyaDopplerradar.

Inertialnavigationsystemsindetail[edit]

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InertialnavigationunitofFrench
IRBMS3.
INSscontainInertialMeasurementUnits(IMUs)whichhaveangularandlinearaccelerometers(for
changesinposition)someIMUsincludeagyroscopicelement(formaintaininganabsoluteangular
reference).
Angularaccelerometersmeasurehowthevehicleisrotatinginspace.Generally,thereisatleastone
sensorforeachofthethreeaxes:pitch(noseupanddown),yaw(noseleftandright)androll(clockwise
orcounterclockwisefromthecockpit).
Linearaccelerometersmeasurenongravitationalaccelerations[8]ofthevehicle.Sinceitcanmovein
threeaxes(up&down,left&right,forward&back),thereisalinearaccelerometerforeachaxis.
Acomputercontinuallycalculatesthevehicle'scurrentposition.First,foreachofthesixdegreesof
freedom(x,y,zandx,yandz),itintegratesovertimethesensedacceleration,togetherwithan
estimateofgravity,tocalculatethecurrentvelocity.Thenitintegratesthevelocitytocalculatethe
currentposition.
Inertialguidanceisdifficultwithoutcomputers.ThedesiretouseinertialguidanceintheMinuteman
missileandProjectApollodroveearlyattemptstominiaturizecomputers.
Inertialguidancesystemsarenowusuallycombinedwithsatellitenavigationsystemsthroughadigital
filteringsystem.Theinertialsystemprovidesshorttermdata,whilethesatellitesystemcorrects
accumulatederrorsoftheinertialsystem.
AninertialguidancesystemthatwilloperatenearthesurfaceoftheearthmustincorporateSchuler
tuningsothatitsplatformwillcontinuepointingtowardsthecenteroftheearthasavehiclemovesfrom
placetoplace.

Basicschemes[edit]
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Gimballedgyrostabilizedplatforms[edit]
Somesystemsplacethelinearaccelerometersonagimbaledgyrostabilizedplatform.Thegimbalsarea
setofthreerings,eachwithapairofbearingsinitiallyatrightangles.Theylettheplatformtwistabout
anyrotationalaxis(or,rather,theylettheplatformkeepthesameorientationwhilethevehiclerotates
aroundit).Therearetwogyroscopes(usually)ontheplatform.
Twogyroscopesareusedtocancelgyroscopicprecession,thetendencyofagyroscopetotwistatright
anglestoaninputforce.Bymountingapairofgyroscopes(ofthesamerotationalinertiaandspinningat
thesamespeedinoppositedirections)atrightanglestheprecessionsarecancelled,andtheplatformwill
resisttwisting.[citationneeded]
Thissystemallowsavehicle'sroll,pitch,andyawanglestobemeasureddirectlyatthebearingsofthe
gimbals.Relativelysimpleelectroniccircuitscanbeusedtoaddupthelinearaccelerations,becausethe
directionsofthelinearaccelerometersdonotchange.
Thebigdisadvantageofthisschemeisthatitusesmanyexpensiveprecisionmechanicalparts.Italsohas
movingpartsthatcanwearoutorjam,andisvulnerabletogimballock.Theprimaryguidancesystemof
theApollospacecraftusedathreeaxisgyrostabilizedplatform,feedingdatatotheApolloGuidance
Computer.Maneuvershadtobecarefullyplannedtoavoidgimballock.

Fluidsuspendedgyrostabilizedplatforms[edit]
Gimballockconstrainsmaneuvering,anditwouldbebeneficialtoeliminatetheslipringsandbearings
ofthegimbals.Therefore,somesystemsusefluidbearingsoraflotationchambertomounta
gyrostabilizedplatform.Thesesystemscanhaveveryhighprecisions(e.g.,AdvancedInertialReference
Sphere).Likeallgyrostabilizedplatforms,thissystemrunswellwithrelativelyslow,lowpower
computers.
Thefluidbearingsarepadswithholesthroughwhichpressurizedinertgas(suchasHelium)oroilpress
againstthesphericalshelloftheplatform.Thefluidbearingsareveryslippery,andthespherical
platformcanturnfreely.Thereareusuallyfourbearingpads,mountedinatetrahedralarrangementto
supporttheplatform.
Inpremiumsystems,theangularsensorsareusuallyspecializedtransformercoilsmadeinastripona
flexibleprintedcircuitboard.Severalcoilstripsaremountedongreatcirclesaroundthesphericalshellof
thegyrostabilizedplatform.Electronicsoutsidetheplatformusessimilarstripshapedtransformersto
readthevaryingmagneticfieldsproducedbythetransformerswrappedaroundthesphericalplatform.
Wheneveramagneticfieldchangesshape,ormoves,itwillcutthewiresofthecoilsontheexternal
transformerstrips.Thecuttinggeneratesanelectriccurrentintheexternalstripshapedcoils,and
electronicscanmeasurethatcurrenttoderiveangles.
Cheapsystemssometimesusebarcodestosenseorientations,andusesolarcellsorasingletransformer
topowertheplatform.Somesmallmissileshavepoweredtheplatformwithlightfromawindoworoptic
fiberstothemotor.Aresearchtopicistosuspendtheplatformwithpressurefromexhaustgases.Datais
returnedtotheoutsideworldviathetransformers,orsometimesLEDscommunicatingwithexternal
photodiodes.

Strapdownsystems[edit]
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Lightweightdigitalcomputerspermitthesystemtoeliminatethegimbals,creatingstrapdownsystems,
socalledbecausetheirsensorsaresimplystrappedtothevehicle.Thisreducesthecost,eliminates
gimballock,removestheneedforsomecalibrations,andincreasesthereliabilitybyeliminatingsomeof
themovingparts.Angularratesensorscalledrategyrosmeasurehowtheangularvelocityofthevehicle
changes.
Astrapdownsystemhasadynamicmeasurementrangeseveralhundredtimesthatrequiredbya
gimbaledsystem.Thatis,itmustintegratethevehicle'sattitudechangesinpitch,rollandyaw,aswellas
grossmovements.Gimballedsystemscouldusuallydowellwithupdateratesof5060Hz.However,
strapdownsystemsnormallyupdateabout2000Hz.Thehigherrateisneededtokeepthemaximum
angularmeasurementwithinapracticalrangeforrealrategyros:about4milliradians.Mostrategyros
arenowlaserinterferometers.
Thedataupdatingalgorithms(directioncosinesorquaternions)involvedaretoocomplextobe
accuratelyperformedexceptbydigitalelectronics.However,digitalcomputersarenowsoinexpensive
andfastthatrategyrosystemscannowbepracticallyusedandmassproduced.TheApollolunarmodule
usedastrapdownsysteminitsbackupAbortGuidanceSystem(AGS).
Strapdownsystemsarenowadayscommonlyusedincommercialandtacticalapplications(aircraft,ships,
ROV'smissiles,etc.)andarestartingtobecomemorewidespreadinapplicationswheresuperbaccuracy
isrequired(likesubmarinenavigationorstrategicICBMguidance)andFOGbasedstrapdowninertial
navigationsystemshavebeenselectedbytheUKRoyalNavyfortheAstuteclasssubmarineandthe
QueenElizabethclassaircraftcarriers.

Motionbasedalignment[edit]
Theorientationofagyroscopesystemcansometimesalsobeinferredsimplyfromitspositionhistory
(e.g.,GPS).Thisis,inparticular,thecasewithplanesandcars,wherethevelocityvectorusuallyimplies
theorientationofthevehiclebody.
Forexample,Honeywell'sAligninMotion[9]isaninitializationprocesswheretheinitializationoccurs
whiletheaircraftismoving,intheairorontheground.ThisisaccomplishedusingGPSandaninertial
reasonablenesstest,therebyallowingcommercialdataintegrityrequirementstobemet.Thisprocesshas
beenFAAcertifiedtorecoverpureINSperformanceequivalenttostationaryalignproceduresfor
civilianflighttimesupto18hours.Itavoidstheneedforgyroscopebatteriesonaircraft.

Vibratinggyros[edit]
Mainarticle:vibratingstructuregyroscope
Lessexpensivenavigationsystems,intendedforuseinautomobiles,mayuseavibratingstructure
gyroscopetodetectchangesinheading,andtheodometerpickuptomeasuredistancecoveredalongthe
vehicle'strack.ThistypeofsystemismuchlessaccuratethanahigherendINS,butitisadequateforthe
typicalautomobileapplicationwhereGPSistheprimarynavigationsystem,anddeadreckoningisonly
neededtofillgapsinGPScoveragewhenbuildingsorterrainblockthesatellitesignals.

Hemisphericalresonatorgyros(wineglassormushroomgyros)[edit]
Mainarticle:Hemisphericalresonatorgyroscope
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Ifastandingwaveisinducedinahemisphericresonantcavity,andthentheresonantcavityisrotated,the
sphericalharmonicstandingwaverotatesthroughanangledifferentfromthequartzresonatorstructure
duetotheCoriolisforce.Themovementoftheoutercasewithrespecttothestandingwavepatternis
proportionaltothetotalrotationangleandcanbesensedbyappropriateelectronics.Thesystem
resonatorsaremachinedfromquartzduetoitsexcellentmechanicalproperties.Theelectrodesthatdrive
andsensethestandingwavesaredepositeddirectlyontoseparatequartzstructuresthatsurroundthe
resonator.Thesegyroscanoperateineitherawholeanglemode(whichgivesthemnearlyunlimitedrate
capability)oraforcerebalancemodethatholdsthestandingwaveinafixedorientationwithrespectto
thegyrohousing(whichgivesthemmuchbetteraccuracy).
Thissystemhasalmostnomovingparts,andisveryaccurate.Howeveritisstillrelativelyexpensivedue
tothecostoftheprecisiongroundandpolishedhollowquartzhemispheres.NorthropGrumman
currentlymanufacturesIMUs(inertialmeasurementunits)forspacecraftthatuseHRGs.TheseIMUs
havedemonstratedextremelyhighreliabilitysincetheirinitialusein1996.[10]

Quartzratesensors[edit]

Thequartzratesensorinsidean
ESkymodelhelicopter
Thissystemisusuallyintegratedonasiliconchip.Ithastwomassbalancedquartztuningforks,
arranged"handletohandle"soforcescancel.Aluminumelectrodesevaporatedontotheforksandthe
underlyingchipbothdriveandsensethemotion.Thesystemisbothmanufacturableandinexpensive.
Sincequartzisdimensionallystable,thesystemcanbeaccurate.
Astheforksaretwistedabouttheaxisofthehandle,thevibrationofthetinestendstocontinueinthe
sameplaneofmotion.Thismotionhastoberesistedbyelectrostaticforcesfromtheelectrodesunderthe
tines.Bymeasuringthedifferenceincapacitancebetweenthetwotinesofafork,thesystemcan
determinetherateofangularmotion.
Theseproductsinclude'tuningforkgyros'.Gyroisdesignedasanelectronicallydriventuningfork,often
fabricatedoutofasinglepieceofquartzorsilicon.Suchgyrosoperateinaccordancewiththedynamic
theorythatwhenananglerateisappliedtoatranslatingbody,aCoriolisforceisgenerated.
Currentstateoftheartnonmilitarytechnology(asof2005)canbuildsmallsolidstatesensorsthatcan
measurehumanbodymovements.Thesedeviceshavenomovingparts,andweighabout50grams.
Solidstatedevicesusingthesamephysicalprinciplesareusedforimagestabilizationinsmallcamerasor
camcorders.Thesecanbeextremelysmall(5mm)andarebuiltwithMicroelectromechanicalsystems
(MEMS)technologies.
Itsdetailedhere:[1]
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MHDsensor[edit]
Mainarticle:MHDsensor
Sensorsbasedonmagnetohydrodynamicprinciplescanbeusedtomeasureangularvelocities.

MEMSGyroscope[edit]
Mainarticle:MEMSgyroscope
SensorsbasedonMEMS

RingLaserGyros(RLG)[edit]
Mainarticle:Ringlasergyro
Aringlasergyrosplitsabeamoflaserlightintotwobeamsinoppositedirectionsthroughnarrow
tunnelsinaclosedopticalcircularpatharoundtheperimeterofatriangularblockoftemperaturestable
Cervitglasswithreflectingmirrorsplacedineachcorner.Whenthegyroisrotatingatsomeangularrate,
thedistancetraveledbyeachbeambecomesdifferenttheshorterpathbeingoppositetotherotation.
Thephaseshiftbetweenthetwobeamscanbemeasuredbyaninterferometer,andisproportionaltothe
rateofrotation(Sagnaceffect).
Inpractice,atlowrotationratestheoutputfrequencycandroptozeroaftertheresultofbackscattering
causingthebeamstosynchroniseandlocktogether.Thisisknownasalockin,orlaserlock.Theresult
isthatthereisnochangeintheinterferencepattern,andthereforenomeasurementchange.
Tounlockthecounterrotatinglightbeams,lasergyroseitherhaveindependentlightpathsforthetwo
directions(usuallyinfiberopticgyros),orthelasergyroismountedonapiezoelectricdithermotorthat
rapidlyvibratesthelaserringbackandforthaboutitsinputaxisthroughthelockinregiontodecouple
thelightwaves.
Theshakeristhemostaccurate,becausebothlightbeamsuseexactlythesamepath.Thuslasergyros
retainmovingparts,buttheydonotmoveasfar.

Fiberopticgyros(FOG)[edit]
Mainarticle:Fiberopticgyroscope
Amorerecentvariationonthis,thefiberopticgyroscope,usesanexternallaserandtwobeamsgoing
oppositedirections(counterpropagating)inlongspools(severalkilometers)offiberopticcable,withthe
phasedifferenceofthetwobeamscomparedaftertheirtravelthroughthespoolsoffiber.
Thebasicmechanism,monochromaticlaserlighttravellinginoppositepaths,andtheSagnaceffect,is
thesameinaFOGandaRLG,buttheengineeringdetailsaresubstantiallydifferentcomparedtoearlier
lasergyros.
Precisewindingofthefiberopticcoilisrequiredtoensurethepathstakenbythelightinopposite
directionsisassimilaraspossible.TheFOGrequiresmorecomplexcalibrationsthanaLaserringgyro
makingthedevelopmentandmanufactureofFOG'smoretechnicallychallengingthatforaRLG.
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HoweverFOG'sdonotsufferfromlaserlockatlowspeedsanddonotneedtocontainanymovingparts,
increasingthemaximumpotentialaccuracyandlifespanofaFOGoveranequivalentRLG.

Pendularaccelerometers[edit]

Principleofopenloop
accelerometer.Accelerationinthe
upwarddirectioncausesthemass
todeflectdownward.
Thebasic,openloopaccelerometerconsistsofamassattachedtoaspring.Themassisconstrainedto
moveonlyinlinewiththespring.Accelerationcausesdeflectionofthemassandtheoffsetdistanceis
measured.Theaccelerationisderivedfromthevaluesofdeflectiondistance,mass,andthespring
constant.Thesystemmustalsobedampedtoavoidoscillation.Aclosedloopaccelerometerachieves
higherperformancebyusingafeedbacklooptocancelthedeflection,thuskeepingthemassnearly
stationary.Wheneverthemassdeflects,thefeedbackloopcausesanelectriccoiltoapplyanequally
negativeforceonthemass,cancelingthemotion.Accelerationisderivedfromtheamountofnegative
forceapplied.Becausethemassbarelymoves,thenonlinearitiesofthespringanddampingsystemare
greatlyreduced.Inaddition,thisaccelerometerprovidesforincreasedbandwidthpastthenatural
frequencyofthesensingelement.
Bothtypesofaccelerometershavebeenmanufacturedasintegratedmicromachineryonsiliconchips.

TIMU(Timing&InertialMeasurementUnit)sensors[edit]
DARPA'sMicrosystemsTechnologyOffice(MTO)departmentisworkingonaMicroPNT("Micro
TechnologyforPositioning,NavigationandTiming")programtodesign"TIMU"("Timing&Inertial
MeasurementUnit")chipsthatdoesabsolutepositiontrackingonasinglechipwithoutGPSaided
navigation.[11][12][13]
MicroPNTaddsahighlyaccuratemastertimingclock[14]integratedintoanIMU(InertialMeasurement
Unit)chip,makingita"TIMU"("Timing&InertialMeasurementUnit")chip.SotheseTIMUchipsfor
MicroPNThaveintegrated3axisgyroscope,3axisaccelerometer,and3axismagnetometer,and
togetherwiththeintegratedhighlyaccuratemastertimingclockitsimultaneousmeasurethemotion
trackedandcombinesthatwithtimingfromthesynchronizedclock,andwithsensorfusionitmakesa
singlechipthatdoesabsolutepositiontracking,allwithoutexternaltransmitters/transceivers.[11][12]

Method[edit]
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Inoneform,thenavigationalsystemofequationsacquireslinearandangularmeasurementsfromthe
inertialandbodyframe,respectivelyandcalculatesthefinalattitudeandpositionintheNEDframeof
reference.

Where:fisspecificforce, isangularrate,aisacceleration,Risposition, andVarevelocity, is

theangularvelocityoftheearth,gistheaccelerationduetogravity,
andharetheNEDlocation
parameters.Also,super/subscriptsofE,IandBarerepresentingvariablesintheEarthcentered,Inertial
orBodyreferenceframe,respectivelyandCisatransformationofreferenceframes.[15]

Seealso[edit]
AdamAirFlight574
Aircraft
Attitudecontrol
Deadreckoning
Fibreopticgyroscope
Guidancesystem
Inertialmeasurementunit(IMU)
Kalmanfilter
KoreanAirLinesFlight007
PIGAaccelerometer
Quantumcompass
Rateintegratinggyroscope
Schulertuning
SIGI
Spacecraft
LN3InertialNavigationSystem
GenesisoftheLittonInertialNavigationSystem

References[edit]
1. ^"BasicPrinciplesofInertialNavigationSeminaroninertialnavigationsystems.".
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AeroStudents.com.TampereUniversityofTechnology,page5.Retrieved22January2015.
2. ^http://history.nasa.gov/sputnik/braun.html
3. ^http://www.globalspec.com/reference/36925/203279/Introduction
4. ^http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1982JGCD....5...97B
5. ^http://www.history.navy.mil/colloquia/cch9c.html
6. ^GoogleBooks
7. ^http://web.mit.edu/digitalapollo/Documents/Chapter5/r500.pdf
8. ^Eshbach'sHandbookofEngineeringFundamentalsByOvidW.Eshbach,Byronpg9
9. ^DougWeed,etal.:GPSAligninMotionofCivilianStrapdownINS.HoneywellCommercial
AviationProducts.
10. ^TheHemisphericalResonatorGyro:FromWineglasstothePlanets,DavidM.Rozelle
11. ^abhttp://www.darpa.mil/Our_Work/MTO/Programs/Micro
Technology_for_Positioning,_Navigation_and_Timing_%28MicroPNT%29.aspxMicro
TechnologyforPositioning,NavigationandTiming(MicroPNT)
12. ^abhttp://www.darpa.mil/NewsEvents/Releases/2013/04/10.aspxExtremeMiniaturization:Seven
Devices,OneChiptoNavigatewithoutGPS
13. ^http://www.darpa.mil/NewsEvents/Releases/2012/09/20.aspxMicrofabricationmethodstohelp
navigateadaywithoutGPS
14. ^http://www.darpa.mil/Our_Work/MTO/Programs/Micro
Technology_Positioning,_Navigation_and_Timing_%28MicroPNT%29/Clocks.aspxMicroPNT
Clocks
15. ^SherrylH.StovallBasicInertialNavigation,NavalAirWarfareCenterWeaponsDivision,
September1997

Externallinks[edit]
Spaceguidanceevolution
A.D.King(1998)."InertialNavigationFortyYearsofEvolution".GECReview(GeneralElectric
Companyplc)13(3):140149.
Principleofoperationofanaccelerometer
Overviewofinertialinstrumenttypes
E.v.Hinueber(iMARNavigation)(2011)."DesignofanUnaidedAircraftAttitudeReference
SystemwithMediumAccurateGyroscopesforHigherPerformanceAttitudeRequirements".
InertialSensorsandSystemsSymposiumGyroTechnology,Karlsruhe/Germany(iMAR
Navigation/DGON)2011.
[show]
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