Reference Free Part Encapsulation

Journal of Manufacturing Systems
Vol. 16/No. 1
1997
Reference Free Part Encapsulation:

A New Universal Fixturing Concept
Sanjay E. Sarma, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts
Paul K. Wright, University of California-Berkeley, Berkeley, California
Abstract
and assembled from these elements depending on

the shape of the component and the tool paths. For
oddly shaped components, it may be necessary to
construct special dedicated fixturing elements when
the standard equipment does not suffice. This practice has a number of drawbacks, as follows:
Fixturing is an essential prerequisite to machining a

three-dimensional component. With traditional techniques,
the range of fixturable shapes is limited, and the identification of suitable fixtures in a given setup involves complex
reasoning. As a result, automated fixture planning systems
tend to be slow and conservative, and they remain a major
stumbling block in the development of computer-aided
process planning systems. This paper presents a new universal fixturing technique called Reference Free Part
Encapsulation (RFPE), which solves the problems of immobilization, location, and support of the component independently of its shape. At first glance, RFPE closely resembles
other phase-change techniques in that it first relies on
encapsulating the workpiece in a low melting point filler
matrix for immobilization and support. The subtle difference
arises, however, in the manner in which RFPE solves the traditional problems of loss of Iocational information when a
setup change is effected. In RFPE, the filler block is
machined to a known shape like a cube. After machining
features in any setup, the block is refilled and restored to its
original shape. The faces of the filler block are now used as
Iocational cues in refixturing the block in a new setup. The
fact that RFPE is independent of the shape of the component makes planning easier, expands the range of machinable parts, and makes it an ideal component for rapid prototyping by machining. Some technological aspects of
RFPE and their implications on design and process planning
are discussed. Finally, schemes for integrating RFPE-based
fixturing into the functionality of an open architecture
machine tool are presented.
The range of shapes fxturable with these standard devices is limited. In fact, fixturing considerations place serious constraints on the creativity of the designer.
The determination of a fixturing plan for an
arbitrarily shaped component is a craft that does
not lend itself to efficient automation. Today, the
development of fixture planning systems
remains a major stumbling block in general
automated process planning.
The actual physical construction of the fxture
assembly is a human-intensive, and consequently expensive, process.
In recent years, the problems associated with conventional technology have invited research into
novel, universal workholding techniques. Phase
change based fxturing is a universal workholding
technique that is commonly used for fxturing arbitrarily shaped components. As the name suggests, the
workpiece is immersed in a bath of a molten fixturing alloy. The alloy is then permitted to freeze, thereby trapping the workpiece irrespective of its shape.
Typically, this technique is used in conjunction with
locating dies in a pallet, as shown in Figure 1.
Fixturing has three important functions: immobilization, support, and part location. Unfortunately,
typical phase change based fixturing does not aid in
the location/orientation of the workpiece. Dies are
necessary to determine or ensure the correct orientation of the workpiece within the bath of molten filler.
These dies are component-specific. Different dies
are necessary for different setups, unless the component is symmetric. No robust or economically viable
Introduction
To manufacture a mechanical component on a
milling machine, it is necessary to immobilize, support, and locate it in each setup. This is referred to
as workholding or, alternatively, fixturing. This
paper presents the preliminary concepts of a new
universal workholding technique called Reference
Free Part Encapsulation (RFPE).
The current practice in workholding includes the
use of a number of workholding elements, such as
vises, parallels, clamps, toe-clamps, V-blocks, modular plates, and so on. For each operation, an appropriate workholding configuration must be designed
35

Vol. 16/No. 1
1997
Cutting Tool
Lowmeltipoi
ngnt
~=ece
~omponent
material
Mold
Locating
die
Filler
material
Figure 1
Phase Change Based Fixturing
way has yet been devised to immobilize and locate

components independently of their shape (that is,
without using locating dies). Each time a setup
change is necessary during machining, all locational
information is lost and the component has to be relocated using dies or probes. This has made the use of
phase change based techniques cumbersome. In general, they are only resorted to when absolutely necessary, for example, during the manufacture of turbine
blades. ~ Understandably, the aerospace industry has
been a leader in the use of phase change based fixturing in the manner explained above.
Reference Free Part Encapsulation is a phase
change based universal fixturing technique that preserves the location and orientation of the workpiece
across setups. RFPE has been developed as a fixturing technique for the rapid prototyping of arbitrarily
shaped components on a milling machine. The basic
concepts of RFPE, practical issues, and some applications advantages are presented in this paper. The
next section reviews some related work in universal
fixturing.
Background: Previous Research in

Phase Change Based Fixturing
There are two broad classes of phase change
based fixturing techniques: temperature-induced
and pseudo-phase change. In temperature-induced
phase-change techniques, the filler material is formulated to have a low melting point and can be melted for pouring and removal. Pseudo-phase change
based fixturing refers to devices that mimic the
effect of molten alloys by conforming to the surface
of the component.
Temperature-induced phase-change materials
have been used for fixturing in the aerospace industry for many years. Common phase-change materials include thermoplastic materials like Rigidax
and fusible alloys such as those produced under the

Cerro brand. Fusible alloys have the advantage that
they can be formulated to have negligible expansion
coefficients, although they tend to be more expensive. An extensive description of the use of these
materials is given in Boyes) Stangrom 3 also
describes the use of electrorheological fluids as an
alternative to conventional temperature-induced
phase-change materials. Application of voltage
changes the phase of the material from liquid to
solid; however, although electrorheological fluids
may be more amenable to automation, the high voltages required (2-4 kV/mm) and the very low yield
strengths of such materials rule them out for application to machining.
Pseudo-phase change fixtures are attractive
because they are easier to dispense and do not
require the cooling time required of phase-change
materials. The fluidized bed technique uses a container filled with spherical particles rather than a
molten material. 4 The bed is fluidized by permitting
controlled amounts of compressed air to pass
between the spheres. While in a fluid state, a workpiece is inserted into the fixture. Once embedded,
the workpiece is "fastened" by applying pressure on
the bed. In a different patented system, 5 ferromagnetic particles are used in conjunction with an electromagnet to fluidize the bed.
Phase and pseudo-phase change based fixturing
techniques work by conforming to the surface of the
workpiece. This effect can also be approximated by
an array of fingers or plungers. A conformable turbine blade clamp is described in Cutkosky,
Kurokawa, and Wright? Researchers at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology designed a
set of clamps that use shape memory alloy actuators. 6 An extensive review of these and other technologies is presented in Hazen and Wright. 7
Basic Concept
Consider the imaginary scenario in which a stock
of metal could be suspended midair using, say, magnetic forces. All faces of the stock would then be
exposed for machining. Any component could be
machined entirely in a single "setup" by an appropriate machine that can access all the sides of the
component. Unfortunately, such a magnetic device
does not exist. As a result, physical forces of contact
must be relied on to immobilize objects.
36

Vol. 16/No. 1
1997
Mechanisms that deliver forces by physical contact

also prevent machine access in the regions where the
contact occurs. For example, a vise prevents access
to the clamped faces and usually to the bottom faces
during milling. Thus there is the concept of setups-the object must be refixtured in a different configuration to provide access to previously hidden faces.
The action of changing setups, unfortunately, entails
loss of locational information. For example, when an
object is released from a vise, all locational references are lost. Upon immobilization in a new configuration, these references must be re-established
using further locational cues. This is a complex and
time-consuming task that has traditionally required
human expertise and effort.
RFPE is a mechanism that conceptually "freezes
the component in space." Instead of space, the workpiece is embedded in a solid block of low melting
point filler material. During change of setups, the
solid block of filler material is relied on to preserve
locational information. The steps taken to make a
three-dimensional object using RFPE are described
below and shown in Figure 2.
Rller
Stock
Initial block
Machine
features
A'n"
II
Face-mill
Refill with
filler
top
Change
Machine
setup
features
Perfect cube
restored
Restoration
Machining
=: i
Refill with
filler
After ~
melting
Face-mill
top
Ii
Perfectcube
restored
I1~
Figure 2
Steps in R F P E
because the orientation of the filler block in its

old and new setups is exactly known, the location of the stock in the new setup is exactly
known.
6. Machining operations are carried out in this new
setup as discussed in Step 3. Once completed,
the block is refilled and resurfaced as discussed
in Step 4. Every setup is handled in this manner.
7. Once all the features have been completed, the
filler material is melted and recycled. The completed component remains.
8. The machined filler material (either thermoplastic or alloy) can be recovered for reuse.
1. The stock is initially embedded within a cube of

the filler material as shown in Figure 2.
2. The filler cube is then held in a vise as any
square component would be.
3. Machining operations are carried out on the
stock and the filler block. For example, to make
a hole on the top surface, a drilling operation is
carried out on the top surface through the filler.*
4. Once all the features on the top surface are completed, the block is refilled with molten filler
and, after solidification, resurfaced to restore it
to its original cubical dimensions. Areas of the
stock that have been machined out are now
occupied by frozen filler material. This step is
referred to as restoration. Restoration may be
performed either within the same setup or externally in a different setup.t
5. A change of setup can now be carried out by
flipping the filler block over. Because the stock
remains immobilized in the filler block, and
Practical Issues in
Implementing RFPE
Since the original conception of the underlying
principle of RFPE in 1994, an effort has been made
to develop it to a stage where it can be practiced on
the shop floor. This section presents a preliminary
and qualitative description of some practical issues
in this emerging technology. The development of
quantitative models is in its incipience and is a topic
of ongoing research.
The following sections describe the making of the
initial RFPE blank, the problems related to the material properties of the filler material, and some variant forms of RFPE that mitigate the disadvantages
related to the properties of the filler material.
* For deeper features, it may be necessary to mill access pockets to provide

access to the toolholder.
t The significance of internal and external setups in manufacturing systems is described in Black?
37

Vol. 16/No. 1
1997
Initial Blank
The initial blank is cast in an open cubical mold.
The mold needs to have high finish and accuracy
and must also facilitate easy retrieval of the blank.
The accuracy of the box directly impacts the accuracy of the machined component in simple RFPE.
"Supported RFPE," described later, makes the accuracy of the RFPE technique independent of the box
tolerances.
Figure 3a shows the creation of the initial blank.
If the machining is to start from an initial rough
stock, where all critical features will be machined
using RFPE, then the exact location of the stock in
the filler cube is not critical. As long as the volume
occupied by the finished component is within the
volume occupied by the rough stock, it does not
matter where the rough stock is exactly. This is
shown in Figure 3b. Once machining is commenced
using RFPE, all following features will be properly
aligned with respect to each other, and because there
are no pre-existing features to reference off, the
component will be accurate.
When the filler block is removed from the mold,
all faces except the top face are nominally accurate
(problems of shrinkage are discussed later). The top
face needs to be machined to make a perfect cube. If
the side faces are not reliably cast, it may be necessary to square the entire filler block before machining is begtm. If the initial workpiece already has
some features on it before RFPE is used, then it is
(a)
Filler
~ll'~
(b)
/Mold
ock
Problems Related to
Material Properties of Filler
The process step that distinguishes RFPE from
classical encapsulation techniques is restoration,
which involves repouring and refreezing filler material. Because the accuracy of the casting is very
important, the behavior of the filler material during
the restoration step is critical to the accuracy of
RFPE. Some potential problems related to the
behavior of the filler material, especially during
restoration, are discussed below.
Eventual
~===~omponent
Rough I ! i l
Ii
Stock ~
II
~,#,l,,,,,,,,,,=,,J I
envelope:
~ S t a n d
Makingthe initial mold.The
top face is machined after
solidification.
necessary use a locating die (or some other locating

device) before RFPE is begun. This is shown in
Figure 3c. Later features need to be properly oriented with respect to earlier features. The location
requirement in such cases is no worse than that of
conventional fixturing, with the advantage that all
subsequent setups can be performed without the
need for any further referencing. A question that
comes up at this point is how this locating mold can
be manufactured. One solution is to manufacture it
using a rapid prototyping technique such as stereolithography or part-printing. 9 Another alternative is
to machine the locating die in a single 2-1/2D setup.
In the long run, standard filler blocks (with stocks
of specified material and dimensions within) of different sizes may be available for use in rapid prototyping. This is analogous to standard paper sizes
available for printing and photocopying (letter size,
legal size, and so on).
A third issue that needs to be considered in the
creation of the initial blank is mold-release agents.
Initial experiments have shown that temporary coatings of chalk powder and soap solution work well
for manual operation. However, there is a need to
develop more permanent alternatives, such as nonstick materials, that can be permanently coated onto
the inside surface of the mold. This will be especially important if RFPE is to be automated, as discussed later.
As longas the volumeof the

eventualcomponentis within
the roughstock,locationof the
stockis not critical.
(C)
Strength~Stiffness
The most obvious problem related to the use of
filler materials such as Cerro alloys and Rigidax
polymers is their lower strength and stiffness when
compared to the tool steel used in conventional fixtures. As shown in Figure 4, the strength of Rigidax
WI Green is more than two orders of magnitude less
If the componenthas pre-existing

features, an initial locating die is
necessary.
Figure 3
Making the Blank
38

Vol. 16/No. [
1997
than that of tool steel. Fortunately, this problem is

greatly mitigated by the effect of elastic averaging;
because there is much greater area of contact
between the workpiece and the fixture in encapsulation techniques, actual average stresses are much
lower than in conventional fixtures. As a result, the
ill effects of using a weaker material are much less
than expected. Nevertheless, the extra plastic deformation that results from encapsulation techniques
cannot be ignored. Preliminary experiments have
shown that in extreme cases the loss of tolerance
from these factors may be up to 25 microns. One
such experiment is summarized in Figure 5. It is
noted that the availability of the open architecture
machine tool facilitated the force measurements and
probing routines. 1'"
Measured data also show that the strength/stiffness properties of an encapsulated fixture scale
increase favorably with increase in size. As the size
10
9
8
7
==
5
4
3
2
1
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
Strain
0.08
0.1
0.12
It should be noted that, although to a lesser extent than other polymers, Rigidax~ is in
fact viscoelastic.The data are therefore strain-rate dependent.The representativedata
above were collected at a strain rate of 0.05 ips. Ongoing work is modeling the dynamic
behavior of Rigidax~ with the goal of using it to damp machining vibration.
Figure 4
Stress-Strain Response of RigidaxWI Green
Objective:Determine the loss of accuracyin machining from the use of RFPE
DOC)
Machining specimen: A15052 embedded in Rigidax Wl Green
ONOC)
Rigk
encap:
Probe
End m ill
Experimental
procedure
Dynamometer
'- -- J
End mill
Probe
.4l
Embedded i Dynamometer i
length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Workpiece is fixturad in vise. Shoulder feature is

machined, and achieved dimension is probed.
Cutting force is measured.
Process is repeated with component embedded in

Rigidax~. Difference in deflections equals
loss of accuracy attributable to the deformation
of Rigidax~.
Results
Conclusions
For relatively severe cuts (low embedded length, significant cutting forces), Rigidaxe may contribute
upward of 25 microns (0.001") of machining error. However,these errors can be reduced by using
conservative cutting parameters. Metallic fillers are expected to reduce errors further.
Figure 5
Loss of Machining Accuracy with Rigidax WI Green
39

Vol. 16/5Io. 1
1997
increases, the cross-sectional area increases as the

square of the length scale. Even if the length of the
filler section increases proportionally to the characteristic length, the effective deflection for a given
force decreases as the size of the component increases. In other words, for components larger than the
one shown in Figure 5, the deflection error from
Rigidax may be expected to be less than 25 microns
for the same cutting forces.
as high as 25 microns in severely undersupported sections. Drift was found to be insignificant with
RigidaxWI Green (less than 10 microns).
The accurate prediction of drift is a difficult problem, and research is currently under way to develop
a reasonable model. In general, however, drift can be
controlled by one or more of the following practices:
Shrinkage
Shrinkage is a primary cause of loss in accuracy
in RFPE. Thermoplastics like Rigidax tend to
shrink more (5%) than fusible alloys like CerroTru
(< 0.05%). Shrinkage, and the resulting warpage of
the initial filler block, may make the reference faces
of the block unreliable.
Thermoplastics and non-eutectic alloys tend to
have higher warpage as a result of the gradual phase
change as the temperature changes. Eutectic alloys
like CerroTru and CerroBend, which have sharp
melting points, are likely to warp less. Furthermore,
because fusible alloys tend to have negligible shrinkage, they are preferable when shrinkage and warpage
are serious problems. In preliminary experiments,
the problems of warpage have been avoided by using
supported RFPE, described in later sections.
Use of higher melting point filler material. This

increases the cooling rate in ambient circumstances and reduces the chance of drift.
Unfortunately, higher temperatures increase
thermal errors as well as exacerbate problems of
shrinkage.
Acceleration of cooling rate with air circulation.
A thin "cold pour"; a layer of filler material
poured in at just above the lower freezing point.
This layer insulates the previously frozen layer
and reduces the melt zone.
The use of a eutectic alloy. If the pour is conducted just above the eutectic temperature, the
amount of local melting is greatly reduced, as
shown in Figure 6. With non-eutectic alloys, the
pour temperature needs to be much higher.
Supported RFPE
An important concept in RFPE is the transference
of coordinates between setups through the maintenance of the cubical shape of the filler block. The
accuracy of the dimensions of the cube is critical to
the accuracy of the technique. If the filler material is
not sufficiently hard, it is possible to compromise the
finish of the block during clamping. Furthermore, the
natural problems of shrinkage and warpage during
pouring and freezing tend to make the face finish of
the block unreliable for some materials, like
Rigidax. To combat these problems, a family of
RFPE techniques called supported RFPE have been
Drift is the movement of the embedded stock in the

filler block during repouring. It is caused by locally
molten zones at the interface between the stock and
the frozen filler, as shown in Figure 7. Initial experiments with RigidaxWS have shown that drift can be
Temperature differential in
non-eutectic alloy
[ure
nperature)
Component is
machined in a
given setup
Filler alloy: Phase diagram

Eutectic alloys require a smaller temperature differential between pouring
temperature and yield temperature; therefore, the melt zone is smaller,
and problems of ddft are less significant.
poured to refill
the block
Figure 6
Figure 7
Drift in Eutectic Alloys
Drift
40
previously
frozen filler
melts at the
interfaces
Component
drifts into the
melt zone
under gravity

Vol. 16/No. 1
1997
developed. Supported RFPE techniques make the

accuracy largely independent of problems like shrinkage. The basic idea of these techniques is that the reference and/or strength are provided by metallic surfaces embedded on the boundary of the filler block.
Figure 8
Solid-Cage R F P E
Cage RFPE
In cage RFPE, an external cage, or skeleton, is
embedded on the outside of the filler block, as
shown in Figure 8. The mold is used merely to contain the molten filler material and not to provide
dimensional accuracy. As a result, the precision of
the mold does not impact the accuracy of the technique. Furthermore, a certain amount of shrinkage
actually helps because the filler material does not
tend to "bulge" out, thereby not interfering with the
reference surfaces.
An obvious drawback of cage-supported RFPE is
the reduced access to the stock, especially for angled
features, due to the support frame. A solution to this
problem is to use disposable, off-the-shelf stands to
assemble the solid cage. If the strut obstructs access
to a certain feature, it can be machined away. This
introduces the need, during the process planning
stage, to ensure that such operations are carried out
later so that the absence of the struts affects few features. An alternative is to use a partial cage, that is, a
single comer of the original cubical framework. This
reference comer floats in the filler block in a comer
that is not accessed for any feature. This comer can be
used as a reliable reference surface during clamping.
Figure 9
Stock-Enclosed R F P E
plastic and aluminum. The essential advantage of

SE-RFPE is that it can be used to machine components of odd dimensions without separately machining a cage.
2-1/2D RFPE
Stock-Enclosed RFPE
In practice, a large fraction of the components

machined in job shops are "2-1/2D"; they can be
machined entirely in two setups. Stock-enclosed
RFPE can be modified to handle 2-1/2D components conveniently. This is referred to as 2-1/2D
RFPE, which more closely resembles conventional
phase change based fixturing.*
Figure 10 describes the steps in 2-1/2D RFPE.
Initially, a stock is squared and a deep pocket is
machined to create a tray. Next, the features on the
lower side of the 2-1/2D component are machined at
the bottom of the tray. The tray is then filled with filler
material. This step is merely for support rather than for
transference of locational coordinates. The workpiece
can now be flipped around and features on the opposite
A second way to provide support is to use the

stock itself as the exoskeleton of the filler blank. This
is referred to as stock-enclosed RFPE (SE-RFPE).
The first step in SE-RFPE is to square a stock of the
workpiece material to a size that contains the
required component. Features are then machined in
the first setup, and the cavities are filled with filler
material. The stock is switched to a new setup and the
process repeated. Because the stock is larger than the
required component, the outer comers of the stock
remain untouched. These comers act as the supporting structures as in cage RFPE. Figure 9 shows an
SE-RFPE component in its fifth setup.
It should be noted that because SE-RFPE involves
much more material removal than other forms of
RFPE, it is more convenient for softer materials like
* This idea, along with the gripper design, is due to Mark MacKenzie. 12
41
Vol.16/No.1
1997
analysis. In fact, fixturing and rigidity concerns

remain important stumbling blocks in the development of automated process planning systems today.
These are referred to as global interactions. Simply
put, if process planning is done in an environment
that only uses conventional vises and toe-clamps,
the generation of a fixture plan that adequately
immobilizes, locates, and supports a component is a
very difficult task with many ambiguities.
Reference Free Part Encapsulation greatly simplifies process planning because it eliminates the two
important sources of global interactions, namely fixturing considerations and part rigidity concerns.
Fill tray with molten

filler
Machine bay;
Machine dorsal
~Machined lower
1), features
Retrieve component
~'~ ~
Machinboundary
e
Fixturing Constraints
Figure 10
2-1/2DRFPE
With RFPE, the shape of the component is immaterial. There are no requirements on the order in
which operations must be performed because fixturability can be ensured in any orientation.
Furthermore, the need to locate the component in
every new setup is completely eliminated, thus obviating the need for reference surfaces and datums.
side can be machined. Once all the features have been

machined, the finished workpiece can be retrieved.
Advantages of RFPE
RFPE was developed to address certain immediate needs in the field of machining. This section
describes the advantages of RFPE. Specifically discussed is how, by expanding the range of parts that
can be fixtured, RFPE dramatically simplifies
design and process planning. Finally, it is shown
how RFPE is amenable to automation.
Part Rigidity Constraints

After all the features in a given setup in RFPE are
machined, the RFPE filler block is restored to its
original cubical state by repouring frozen filler and
permitting it to freeze. The volume of metal
removed during machining is now replaced by
frozen filler material, and all cavities in the component are filled and supported. Figure 11 shows this
in greater detail. As a result, the possibility of deformation during cutting or clamping in the next setup
is eliminated. This is an important advantage of
RFPE because it not only expands the range ofmanufacturable components but also relieves planning
of an important and difficult responsibility.
The elimination of global interactions means that
planning can be carried out entirely within the realm
of a single directed-graph representation of the
Process Planning
Process planning may be defined as the determination of a complete set of machining instructions to
manufacture a given component. Lower-level planning tasks include tool selection, path generation,
and cutting parameter selection. Important planning
tasks at the higher level include operation sequencing, fixture design, and setup selection.
The legal sequences in which the machining operations can be performed are constrained by so-called
feature interactions--ordering constraints that
ensure that the requirements of each machining
operation are met. Most interactions can be represented as pairwise ordering constraints and can
therefore be handled by straightforward graph-theoretic means, la These are referred to as local interactions. However, there are two classes of interactions-namely those arising from fixturing concerns
and those arising from component rigidity concerns--that do not lend themselves to such a simple
Rller material
supportsslender
sections
Figure 11
Eliminating Rigidity Concerns Through RFPE
42
Journal ofManufactunngSystems
Vol. 16/No. 1
1997
ferred across setups through the datum surfaces

defined by the designer in dimensioning the component. These surfaces must be machined to reasonable accuracy even if they play no part in achieving
the intended functionality of the component.
Orientational information between setups is usually
transferred through "squared" surfaces on the workpiece. Squaring, which is the process of reducing a
rough stock to a nominally rectangular block, is usually performed by the machinist to ensure orthogonality between features in different setups. Most
experienced designers and machinists are cognizant
of these factors and will often create a number of
"pseudo-features" or datum surfaces to transfer
locational/orientational information across setups.
In RFPE, the enclosing filler block provides all
the necessary cues to locate the workpiece in its new
setup. Consequently, operations like squaring and
finishing of nonessential faces become redundant,
and individual features can be accurately oriented
with respect to each other independently of such
cues. This new design paradigm is referred to as reference free component design. An example is shown
in Figure 13. The intent of the design is to create an
elbow for a robotic arm. The two bearing holes are
required to be perpendicular and offset by a certain
distance. To specify this part for conventional fixturing, the user must rely on datums 1, 2, and 3 as
shown. Although these datum surfaces are not critical to the functionality of the part, they must be
machined for transfer of coordinates between setups.
Furthermore, to machine datums 1, 2, and 3 (which
are the back, top, and right faces of the block as
shown) it is also necessary to machine the three
faces opposite to them (that is, the front, bottom, and
left faces). Effectively, therefore, the part must be
completely squared and will take at least six setups.
With RFPE, however, the two holes can be drilled in
remaining manufacturing constraints. As a result,

more efficient algorithms are possible, and greater
plan optimality is guaranteed.
Implications of RFPE on Design
The previous section discussed that conventional
fixturing methods make process planning difficult.
However, a perhaps more important disadvantage of
conventional fixturing techniques is that they greatly
limit the range of components that can be machined.
By eliminating global interactions, RFPE vastly
expands the range of designs that can be manufactured.
In this section, some interesting new possibilities introduced by the capabilities of RFPE are discussed.
Arbitrary Component Shape

Ensuring that the part shape lends itself to fixturing in conventional circumstances restricts the creativity of the designer. For example, to be fixtured in
a vise, the part must yield two parallel and accessible faces in every setup. However, by nature of being
a phase change based fixturing technique, RFPE is
independent of the shape of the component. As a
result, almost any shape can be machined as long as
the capabilities of the machine tool permit it.
RFPE is especially pertinent in light of recent
interest in complex three-dimensional surface modeling and multiaxis milling. In most discussions on
this topic, the essential problem of fixturing is
ignored, perhaps with the tacit assumption that dedicated fixtures will be used or that machining can be
performed in a single setup. With RFPE, it is actually possible to sculpt general three-dimensional
shapes across many setups.
Delicate Components and Built-In Flexures
As indicated earlier, the workpiece in RFPE is
always embedded in a supportive filler matrix.
Consequently, it is possible to realize a wide variety
of small and delicate component designs with little
or no extra effort. Furthermore, it is possible to
design flexures and springs into a component as
shown in Figure 12. This permits the designer t consolidate many functionalities into a single component and potentially simplifies mechanism design.
directly onto gripper chassis
6ripper
Reference Free Parts

In conventional fixtufing, it is necessary to use
datums in the workpiece to locate and orient it in
each new setup. Locational information is trans-
This gripper can be machined in one setup with a two-dimensional version of RFPE
Figure 12
Delicate Gripper with Built-In Flexures
43
Vol. 16/No. 1
1997
Datum 1
Yl
I
Top
Datum2
Datum3
Front
(
Front~
~'~R~ght
Robot elbow
Figure 13
Datumsin MechanicalDesign
exactly two setups. The six faces of the block need

not be machined. In other words, there is no need to
introduce intermediary faces or cuts for information
transfer across setups. Squaring becomes an optional, cosmetic step.
a means for automating the CNC machine tool completely to the extent where general three-dimensional parts can be prototyped rapidly "at the touch of a
button?' This section describes a speculative scenario for integrating the operation of RFPE into a
milling system.
The first step in automating RFPE would be the
development of a mechanism that can simultaneously act as a mold and a vise. Such mechanisms are
referred to as mold-vises. A mold-vise concept is
shown in Figure 14. Essentially, a mold-vise makes
it possible to perform the restoration within the vise
holding the blank; by completely closing around the
blank, the mold-vise acts as a mold and prevents
molten filler material from leaking.
Design for Manufacture

In conventional fixturing, each fixturing arrangement is a solution to a unique problem. It is difficult
to generalize a fixturing strategy to a range of problems. The ad hoc nature of conventional fixturing
makes design for manufacture very difficult because
an assessment can only be made by actually finding
a reasonable fixturing arrangement (such as by
process simulation). With RFPE, on the other hand,
it is easy to generalize and quantify the "envelope of
fixturability." An assessment of whether a part can
be manufactured merely involves simple checks
related to the dimensions of the part (in comparison
to the RFPE equipment). Moreover, a minor modification to a component in RFPE is less likely to render it unfixturable than in conventional fixturing.
Consequently, RFPE can be thought of as a more
predictable and "forgiving" technique than conventional techniques, and it lends itself more easily to
design for manufacture.
Fillerblock
Embedded stock
Bottom
plate
(a)Top view: open
(b) Top view: closed
Rapid Prototyping with RFPE

Figure 14
Fixture manipulation is the one aspect of milling

operations that has resisted automation. RFPE offers
A Mold-Vise Mechanism
44
(c) Side view

Vol. 16/No. 1
1997
University of California-Berkeley. Gripper 1 was

machined from 5052 aluminum, while grippers 2
and 3 were machined from ABS. These components
demonstrate the capability of machining flexures
integrally into the component (as also shown in
Figure 12). The flexure thickness in gripper 1 is 0.5
mm, while in 2 and 3 it is 0.8 mm. All three components were machined in two setups each using
2-1/2D RFPE. These components would have been
very expensive to machine by conventional means
because they would have required at least four
setups and a sacrificial baseplate.
Figure 16, component 4, shows a virtual reality
headgear assembly consisting of seven separate subcomponents that were machined using 2-1/2D
RFPE. The longer struts in this assembly are made
of ABS, 100 mm long, and have square cross sections that are 3 mm (1/8") on the side. Multiple supporting fixtures would have been required to
machine comparably fragile components if using
conventional fixturing techniques.
Components 5-7 in Figure 16 were machined
using the general RFPE in six setups including
squaring. Components 5 and 6 were machined from
The mold-vise mechanism can be incorporated

into the working zone of a milling machine (Figure
15) as follows:
At the beginning of each setup, the filler block

resides in the mold-vise. The lifting plunger is up.
Features are machined out of the filler block and
the embedded stock.
The table of the (milling) machine is moved
such that the mold-vise is under the dispenser.
The lifting plunger is retracted.
Molten filler material is poured into the moldvise. The pour is controlled to approximate the
amount of material removed.
The molten material is permitted to freeze. Air
circulation may be initiated by the dispensing
device to accelerate freezing.
After the material freezes, the lifting plunger is
pushed up. The top face is faced off to restore a
reference surface.
This setup is now completed. A new setup may
be assumed. The change of setup can be performed automatically by a robot. Manipulation
is simplified by the fact that the block is a cube.
Results and Discussion

Since its conception in 1994, RFPE has been used
to manufacture a number of components that would
be very hard to machine by conventional means.
Some examples are shown in Figure 16. This section
describes these test parts and discusses the present
and future capabilities of RFPE.
Machining Tests
Components 1-3 in Figure 16 are robot grippers
that were machined for a separate project at the
/
robot to manipulate
block between setups
(now shown)
CNC Milling Machine

Figure 15
Figure 16
The automated machine tool
Components Manufactured with RFPE
45

Vol. 16/No. 1
1997
aluminum, while component 7 was machined from

ABS. Component 7, which is described topologically as a trefoil knot, is especially remarkable because
the struts are only 1.5 X 1.5 m m (1/16 X 1/16") in
cross section. This component would have required
at least 12 setups and multiple dedicated fixtures
conventionally. In fact, the range o f topologies that
can be machined using RFPE is quite surprising. It
is possible to machine multiple functional components, even those topologically linked, simultaneously from a single stock. In one such example, not
shown here, two intertwined links of a chain were
machined from one stock.
Finally, Figure 16, component 8, shows a pair of
ABS computer casings (top and bottom, shown here
in assembled form) machined using 2-1/2D RFPE.
These components were approximately 300 X 275
m m (11 x 12") in area. The web at the bottom of the
casings was less than 3 m m (1/8") in thickness.
Attempts to machine these components by conventional means were unsuccessful because of the
vibration of the unsupported web section. However,
this c o m p o n e n t was successfully (and easily)
machined using RFPE.
Table 1 summarizes the fixturing and machining
times for each component.
Current and Future Directions

Currently, accuracies in the range of 250 to 500
microns (5 to 10 x 10-3 in.) are being achieved routinely in components machined by RFPE.
Theoretically, machining accuracies better than 25
microns should be achievable. This discrepancy can
be explained by the (current) reliance on supported
RFPE techniques such as cage RFPE and SE-RFPE.
In such techniques, the support structures reduce
access to the workpiece and therefore mandate the
use of longer tools. Tool deflection in deep pocket
machining is a well-known reason for loss of
machining tolerances and finish. Future plans are to
ameliorate these problems by using partial cages and
high-speed cutting (~15,000 rpm as opposed to the
2000 to 3000 rpm currently used). Furthermore, all
experiments to date have been with the polymer
Rigidax . In the future, test materials like CerroTru
will be used; in particular, the possibility of eliminating the need for support altogether will be
explored.
Another future goal is to automate RFPE. In the
cases shown in Figure 16, RFPE was performed
entirely by manual operation. However, the methodology has been developed to the extent that it can be
performed by an untrained operator. In other words,
Table 1
RFPE Manufacturing Times
Part
#
Component
Name
Simple
A1gripper
ABS long
gripper
ABS swivel
gripper
VR headgear
(7 pieces)
Bracket
Escher
part
Trefoil
knot
Computer
casings
(2 pieces)
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Number
of
Setups
Fixmring
Time
(offline)
Machining
Time
Total
Manufacturing
Time
35a
10
45
50
55
35
15
50
14b
300
200
500
6"
3
150
75
100
75
250
150
150
80
230
100
110
140
a. For 2-1/2D RFPE, this time includesthe creationof the tray.

b. Setupsreflecttotal for sevenseparatecomponents.
c. Components5-7 were machinedentirelyfrom unsquaredstock.This is reflectedin the numberof setupsand the cuttingtimes shown.
46

Vol. 16/No. 1
1997
Acknowledgments
the aspects of RFPE that are performed manually are

the ones that are felt to be the easiest to automate.
Finally, an as-yet-untapped advantage of encapsulation techniques in general is the high damping
properties of materials like Rigidax.* This quality
was taken advantage of only peripherally to machine
component 8 in Figure 16. An important avenue of
future research is to model the behavior of the
encapsulation material. As explained earlier, finite
element models are currently under development to
predict drift and the static and dynamic behavior of
an encapsulated blank.
The authors would like to thank Rekha

Ranganathan and Jamie Stori for gathering some of
the experimental data described in this paper. Many
other colleagues contributed to this effort by sharing
their experiences in using RFPE. The authors thank
Mark MacKenzie, Suschiel Gandhi, Jamie Stori,
Steven Schofield, Jane MacFarlane, Rekha
Ranganathan, Chuck Smith, and Matt Giere. This
project was partially supported by the National
Science Foundation and the Lawrence Berkeley
Laboratory.
Conclusions
References
This paper presented the initial technological

aspects of a new universal workholding technique,
Reference Free Part Encapsulation, to machine components on a milling machine. Specifically, the
advantages of this technology are:
1. M.R. Cutkosky, E. Kurokawa, and P.K. Wright, "Programmable

Conformable Clamps," Proceedings of IJCAI-7 (1982), pp766-772.
2. WE. Boyes, ed., Low Cost Jigs, Fixtures & Gages for Limited
Production (Dearborn, MI: Society of Manufacturing Engineers, 1985).
3. J.E. Stangrom, "Electrorheological Fluids," Physical Technology
(v14, 1983), pp290-296.
4. M.V. Gandhi, B.S. Thompson, and D.J. Mass, "Adaptable Fixture
Design: An Analytical and Experimental Study of Fluidized Bed Fixturing,"
ASME Journal of Mechanisms, Transmissions and Automation in Design
(vl08, 1986), pp155-121.
5. L. Coes, "Workholder for Irregular Shaped Workpieces," U.S. Patent
3,660,949 (1972).
6. J.H. Buitrago and K. Youcef-Toumi, "Design of Active Modular and
Adaptive Fixtures Operated by Robot Manipulators," Proceedings of the
ASME Japan-U.S.A. Symposium on Flexible Automation (1988),
pp467-474.
7. K.E. Hazen and P.K. Wright, "Workholding Automation: Innovations
in Analysis, Design and Planning," Manufacturing Review (v3, n4, 1990),
pp224--237.
8. J 3?. Black, The Design of the Facto~ with a Future (New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1991).
9. E. Sachs, M. Cima, P. Williams, D. Brancazio, and J. Comic, "Three
Dimensional Printing: Rapid Tooling and Prototypes Directly from a CAD
Model;' Journal of Engineering for Industry (v 114, n4, 1992), pp481-488.
10. I. Greenfeld, EB. Hansen, and P.K. Wright, "Self Sustaining OpenSystem Machine Tools," Proceedings of the North American
Manufacturing Research Conference (vlT, 1989), pp304--310.
ll. S.E. Sarma and P.K. Wright, "Making a Design Domain
Deterministic: The Case of DFM," submitted to Research in Engineering
Design (1996).
12. Mark MacKenzie, personal communication, 1994.
13. S.E. Sarma, "A Methodology for Integrating CAD and CAM in
Milling," PhD dissertation (Berkeley, CA: University of CaliforniaBerkeley, 1995).
A wide variety of shapes can be machined with

this technique.
Delicate overhangs and slender sections like
flexures can be machined integrally with the
component.
The need to square the workpiece separately is
eliminated. In fact, the technique takes care of
all indexing needs during any change of setup in
machining.
Process planning requirements are greatly simplified.
RFPE can be automated to the extent that the
machining process can be made completely
"hands-free."
Tolerances achieved thus far are in the range of 1O0
microns. Future work, for example, involving new
filler materials, is needed to improve tolerances.
* An initial result of the DOE's TEAM component may be seen on the

World Wide Web at http://kingkong.me.berkeley.edu
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