Arab J Geosci

DOI 10.1007/s12517-013-1013-3

ORIGINAL PAPER

Magnetic susceptibility of volcanic rocks in geothermal areas:

application potential in geothermal exploration studies
for identification of rocks and zones of hydrothermal alteration
Kailasa Pandarinath & Rajasekhariah Shankar &
Ignacio S. Torres-Alvarado & Anish Kumar Warrier

Received: 1 February 2013 / Accepted: 11 June 2013

# Saudi Society for Geosciences 2013

Abstract Magnetic susceptibility and petrographic studies

of drilled rock cuttings from two geothermal wells (Az-26
and Az-49) of the important electricity-generating geothermal system, Los Azufres, Mexico, were carried out to determine the relation between the magnetic susceptibility of
rocks, the concentration of magnetic minerals and hydrothermal alteration. For this purpose, low-frequency magnetic susceptibility (lf) was measured and compared its distribution
trends with those of magnetic and FeMg silicate minerals,
and with the extent of hydrothermal alteration in rocks of the
two geothermal wells. The study indicates a decrease in lf
values with depth in the two geothermal wells corresponding
with: (1) an increase in the reservoir temperature and hydrothermal alteration; and (2) a decrease in the concentrations of
FeMg silicates and opaque minerals. The data suggest that
ferromagnesian minerals and opaque minerals like ilmenite
are the main contributors to the lf of rocks. The decrease in
lf, ilmenite, and FeMg mineral contents with an increase in
the hydrothermal alteration degree, pyrite and haematite contents suggests the hydrothermal alteration of ilmenite and Fe
Mg minerals (characteristic of high lf values) to pyrite,
haematite and other opaque minerals (with low lf values).
Ignacio S. Torres-Alvarado deceased
K. Pandarinath (*) : I. S. Torres-Alvarado
Departamento de Sistemas Energticos, Instituto de Energas
Renovables, Universidad Nacional Autnoma de Mxico, Privada
Xochicalco s/n, 62580 Temixco, Morelos, Mexico
e-mail: pk@cie.unam.mx
R. Shankar : A. K. Warrier
Department of Marine Geology, Mangalore University,
Mangalagangothri, 574199 Karnataka, India
Present Address:
A. K. Warrier
National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research (NCAOR),
Headland Sada, Vasco-da-Gama, Goa, India 403 804

The interaction of hydrothermal fluids with rocks results in the

hydrothermal alteration of primary minerals. In a geothermal
area, an anomaly of low magnetic susceptibility values of
rocks in a homogenous litho unit characterized by high magnetic susceptibility may suggest hydrothermal alteration.
Magnetic susceptibility can be a useful parameter, during the
initial stages of geothermal exploration, in identifying hydrothermally altered rocks and zones of hydrothermal alteration
both at the surface and from drilled wells in geothermal
systems.
Keywords Magnetic susceptibility . Los Azufres
Geothermal System . Geothermal wells . Hydrothermal
alteration . Magnetic minerals

Introduction
In geothermal areas, hydrothermal fluids reach the Earths
surface through faults, fractures, gaps, and cracks. These
geothermal fluids react with the sub-surface and surface
rocks. Some minerals (primary) present in the rocks become
unstable as a result of interaction with the geothermal fluids.
Due to this instability, a new equilibrium is attained between
the minerals and geothermal fluids through dissolution of
primary minerals and precipitation of new mineral phases
known as hydrothermal (secondary) minerals. The type,
concentration, and distribution of hydrothermal minerals
are controlled by the composition of primary minerals, the
temperature, and the chemical composition of fluids (particularly pH), permeability of the rocks, duration of fluid-rock
interaction, and kinetics of the alteration processes (Browne
1984). Therefore, the distribution of a zone of hydrothermal
minerals provides information on the size of a geothermal
system, the nature of fluid-rock interaction processes and
thermal conditions prevailing at depths (reservoir). These

Arab J Geosci

aspects are of great importance during the initial phase of

geothermal exploration. The study of hydrothermal minerals
can also help to determine the geo-hydrological parameters
of the system, locate potential producing areas, and identify
changes in the thermal history of hydrothermal systems
(Browne 1970; Reyes 1990; Patrier et al. 1996).
Magnetic susceptibility of a sample is a measure of the ease
with which it can be magnetized under the influence of an
external magnetic field (Walden et al. 1999). It is a measure of
the magnetic mineral concentration in a sample, though it may
be influenced to a certain extent by magnetic grain size, orientation of minerals, etc. Important magnetic minerals that contribute to the magnetic susceptibility of a sample are ferrimagnets like magnetite, maghemite, titanomagnetite, and greigite,
followed by antiferromagnets like hematite and goethite.
Paramagnetic minerals like clay minerals, olivine, pyroxenes,
and carbonates of iron and manganese become important when
ferrimagnets and antiferromagnets are absent or very low in
content (Thompson and Oldfield 1986). Magnetic susceptibility measurement is simple, quick, non-destructive, and sensitive. It is usually measured as volume susceptibility (k; dimensionless units, ratio of the material magnetization per unit
volume to the weak external magnetic field) and may be
expressed as mass susceptibility (lf; units of cubic meter per
kilogram; ratio of the material magnetization per unit mass to
the weak external magnetic field; Hunt et al. 1995).
Volcanic rocks such as basalts, andesites, dacites, and
rhyolites characterize geothermal systems. Ferrimagnetic minerals (e.g., magnetite, titanomagnetite, etc.) present in significant amounts contribute to the high values of magnetic susceptibility of volcanic rocks (for example, lf of 6,500108,
8.4 to 6,100108, and 10 to 1,500108 m3/kg for andesites,
basalts, and rhyolites, respectively; Hunt et al. 1995). Upon
interaction with hydrothermal fluids in a hydrothermal environment, many minerals (including ferrimagnetic minerals) in
volcanic rocks get altered to new minerals, which are more
stable in the newer hydrothermal conditions. In general, the
hydrothermal alteration of volcanic rocks results in the alteration of primary ferrimagnetic minerals such as magnetite,
ilmenite, and titanomagnetite to hydrothermal minerals like
pyrite, leucoxene, sphene, hematite, and clay minerals. The
replaced hydrothermal minerals generally have much lower
susceptibility values compared to the original primary minerals. Apart from this, depending on the alteration grade
and other factors, other primary minerals too (for example, biotite, chromite, pyroxenes, olivine, etc.) alter to
minerals with lower values of magnetic susceptibility (for
example, feldspars, chlorite, and clay minerals; Thompson
and Oldfield 1986; Hunt et al. 1995). Therefore, an anomaly
of low magnetic susceptibility values of rocks in a homogenous litho unit that is characterized by high magnetic susceptibility, in a geothermal area, may be an indicator of hydrothermal alteration.

In this investigation, an attempt is made to test this hypothesis

in two drilled geothermal wells of the Los Azufres Geothermal
System, Mexico (Fig. 1). Rocks at the surface of the geothermal
wells are relatively fresh or unaltered; however, they have
undergone increasing hydrothermal alteration with increasing
depth. Hence, a study of the magnetic susceptibility of rock
cuttings from different depths in the geothermal wells should
help determine its relation with the grade of hydrothermal alteration and the thermal gradient of the system. The Los Azufres
Geothermal field has been extensively studied for its mineralogical and geochemical aspects and thus is a suitable test case for
evaluating the relationship between magnetic susceptibility and
hydrothermal alteration of rocks in the geothermal wells. For
this, low-frequency magnetic susceptibility of the subsurface
rocks from two wells of this geothermal system was measured
and correlated the obtained values with the data on bore-hole
temperature, petrography and degree of hydrothermal alteration.
Magnetic susceptibility (lf) of rocks, sediments and soils
has been used for various applications: for example, as a
paleorainfall proxy in the tropics (e.g., Shankar et al. 2006;
Shankar and Pandarinath 2008; Vzquez-Castro et al. 2008;
Warrier and Shankar 2009), as a proxy for particulate and
heavy metal pollution (e.g., Schmidt et al. 2005; Sandeep
et al. 2010), as a tool to measure soil erosion and redistribution (e.g., de Jong et al. 1998) and to estimate the opaque and
heavy mineral contents of placer samples (e.g., Shankar et al.
1996). However, there are no previous studies that addressed
the relationship between lf and hydrothermal alteration in
geothermal wells by directly comparing data on lf, bottomhole temperature (BHT), petrography, and hydrothermal alteration degree. Some studies though reported low values of
magnetic susceptibility in highly altered rocks: (1) Lapointe
et al. (1986) measured the magnetic susceptibility of borehole cores from the EyeDashwa lakes pluton, an Archaean
granitic pluton near Atikokan, Ontario. They interpreted
variations in magnetic susceptibility in terms of the alteration
level; highly altered rocks had a low magnetic susceptibility
signal and vice versa; and (2) Soengkono and Hochstein
(1995), Hochstein and Soengkono (1997), and Soengkono
(2001) employed airborne magnetic surveys to determine the
areal extent of rocks with a low magnetic signal resulting
from hydrothermal alteration; these observations were confirmed by studies of down-core variation of total magnetization in the geothermal fields of New Zealand and Indonesia.

Los Azufres Geothermal System

Los Azufres geothermal field (LAGF, Michocn, Mexico) is
one of the four important Mexican geothermal fields presently being used for electricity generation, with a total
installed capacity of 199.5 MWe (Bertani 2005). The geology of the Los Azufres area has been well documented (e.g.,

Arab J Geosci
Fig. 1 Schematic presentation of
the geology of the Los Azufres
Geothermal Field (LAGF) along
with locations of the geothermal
fields. The inset is an index map
of Mexico with the locations of
four important electricityproducing geothermal fields
(modified from Pandarinath et al.
2006; Pandarinath 2011)

Gutierrez and Aumento 1982; Dobson and Mahood 1985;

Verma 1985; Verma et al. 2005). So, only a brief summary is
provided here. Figure 1 presents a simplified geological map of
the LAGF, and shows the locations of the two geothermal
wells, Az-26 and Az-49, selected for this study. The choice of
the wells was based on their locations (representing different
parts of the geothermal system) and availability of drilled rock
cuttings. Both the selected geothermal wells selected, Az-26
and Az-49, are producers (Arellano 2004).
Drilling activity at LAGF began in 1976; currently there are
75 drilled wells at depths ranging between 700 and 3,500 m. At
present, the installed electricity capacity of this geothermal
system is 188 MW. In general, LAGF may be divided into

two zones. The south zone presents the highest temperatures

and accounts for a larger proportion of production of the field.
The original thermodynamic states of the two zones are different. The north zone represents the compressed liquid region and
the south zone is in the vapor dominated, liquid dominated and
compressed liquid region depending on depth. Presently, there
are 43 producing wells, supplying steam to the power units
(Torres-Rodrguez et al. 2005). The geothermal well (Az-26)
that we studied is from the south zone whereas the well Az-49 is
from the north zone.
The geothermal field is characterized by extensive Neogene
volcanic rocks, dominated by andesite and basalt, which unconformably overlie metamorphic and sedimentary rocks of

Arab J Geosci

Late Mesozoic to Oligocene age. The pre-volcanic basement

consists of gently folded shales, sandstones, and conglomerates. The oldest volcanic activity 18 Ma ago gave rise to
andesitic flows. Approximately 2,700-m-thick interstratified
lava flows and pyroclastic rocks (18 to 1 Ma age) of andesitic
to basaltic composition form the local basement. The massive
andesitic unit constitutes the main aquifer in which geothermal
fluids flow principally through fractures. After the last andesitic
lava eruption, there was silicic volcanism, giving rise to a
sequence of rhyodacite, rhyolite, and dacite, ranging in age
between 1.0 and 0.15 Ma and having a thickness of up to
1,000 m (Dobson and Mahood 1985).
The BHT of the drilled wells of LAGF varies between 248
and 352 C in general and those of wells, Az-26 and Az-49,
are 278 and 298 C, respectively (Gonzlez-Partida et al.
2005). Chemical reactions between the rocks and geothermal
fluids of the wells are close to equilibrium. Hydrothermal
alteration has affected most rocks in this geothermal field.
Extensive studies have been carried out on reservoir temperature and the effects of hydrothermal alteration on the chemical composition and mineralogy of the rocks recovered from
the wells of this geothermal system (e.g., Cathelineau et al.
1985; Verma et al. 1989; Torres-Alvarado 2002; Pandarinath
et al. 2006; Pandarinath 2011).

Materials and methods

Drilled core cuttings were selected from different depth intervals of the two geothermal wells, Az-26 (n=55; maximum
depth=1,200 m) and Az-49 (n=120; maximum depth=2,360m). Standard thin sections of rock samples were prepared for
petrographic and mineralogical studies. Mineral contents were
estimated by comparison with standard charts of relative
percentage areas (for e.g., Shelley 1992). Similarly, hydrothermal minerals were identified under the microscope; the degree
of hydrothermal alteration is expressed as percentage. For
magnetic susceptibility studies, 31 and 61 rock samples from
Az-26 and Az-49, respectively, representing their entire
depths were selected.
Small pieces of rock cuttings were filled in non-magnetic,
plastic sample holders of 8-cm3 capacity. Low-frequency magnetic susceptibility (at 0.47 kHz, lf) was measured using a
Bartington magnetic susceptibility meter (model MS2B) with a
dual-frequency sensor. After switching the instrument on, it was
allowed to stabilize for half an hour. The sensor was calibrated
using the standard (1 % Fe3O4) provided by the manufacturer.
The average of two air measurements made before and after
each sample measurement was deducted from the sample value,
which was measured in the 0.1 range. Mass-specific magnetic
susceptibility (lf, in units of 108 m3 kg1) was calculated from
the data obtained with the MS2B meter. The diamagnetic effect
of the plastic sample holder is negligible.

Results
Lithology
The volcanic rocks in Az-26 are rhyolite (up to 20 m),
followed by rhyodacite (40180 m), rhyolite (200280 m),
rhyodacite (300360 m), rhyolite (380500 m), andesite
(520600 m), augitic andesite (620700 m), basaltic andesite
(720800 m), and andesite (8201,200 m depth; Fig. 2).
In Az-49, the volcanic rocks are pumice tuff (up to 20 m),
followed by basalt (2040 m), andesite (120240 m), basaltic andesite (260300 m), andesite (320620 m; except a thin
layer of basaltic andesite at 520 m), basaltic andesite (640
720 m), and andesite (7402,494 m; but for thin layers of
basaltic andesite at 740, 1,0601,080, 1,180, 1,300, 1,360,
1,580, 1,8401,860 m, and thin layers of augitic andesite at
1,420, 1,4601,480, 1,540, 1,880, and 2,020 m depths).
Petrography
Petrographic studies indicate that the degree of hydrothermal
alteration is up to 80 % in Az-26 (Fig. 2). Zone-wise details
of hydrothermal alteration are: 018 % (<300 m), 934 %
(320700 m), and 4480 % (7201,200 m). The degree of
hydrothermal alteration is higher in Az-49, going up to 90 %.
The alteration degree varies from 355 % in the top 740 m to
1790 % in deeper levels (7602,494 m).
Opaque mineral concentration in Az-26 rocks ranges from
<10 % (<50 m depth) through 225 % (5001,000 m) to 5
40 % (1,0201,200 m). In general, haematite, ilmenite, and
pyrite are the main opaque minerals. Ilmenite constitutes the
bulk of opaque minerals (6090 %) in the 560660-m depth
interval. Small quantities of other opaque minerals like rutile
and chalcopyrite are also present at some depths.
In Az-49, the opaque mineral concentration is 1035 %
(<340 m), 210 % (360500 m), 1030 % (520760 m), and
225 % (7802,494 m; Fig. 4). Ilmenite, haematite, rutile,
pyrite, and chalcopyrite are the opaque minerals present.
The concentration of ferromagnesian minerals (mainly
biotite, olivine, augite, and hypersthene) in rocks of Az-26
is 214 % in the top 180 m, but absent from 200 to 540 m. It
is high (820 %) in the 560700-m depth range. Below
700 m depth, ferromagnesian minerals are almost absent
but for occasional occurrences (05 %; Fig. 2). In Az-49,
the concentration of ferromagnesian minerals (mainly of
biotite, olivine, augite, and hypersthene) is 215 % in the
top 560 m. Below this depth, they are absent. They occur
occasionally (05 %) at some depths (Fig. 4).
Magnetic susceptibility
Magnetic susceptibility in Az-26 varies between 13 and
1,132108m3 kg1 (Fig. 2). Zone-wise variations are: (1)

Arab J Geosci

Lithounit-1

200

400

600

Lithounit-2

Depth (m)

Fig. 2 Variations of magnetic

susceptibility and mineral
contents with depth in the
geothermal well Az-26. The
dashed line marks the boundary
between the two litho units
(lithounit-1 and lithounit-2) and
the solid line the depth at which
sharp differences are
documented in magnetic
susceptibility and mineral
contents in lithounit-2

800

1000

Rhyolite

low values (13 to 226108m3 kg1) from the surface to

460 m depth, (2) high values (145 to 1,132108m3 kg1)
from 560 to 680 m depth, and (3) low values again (22 to
194108m3 kg1) from 680 m to the well-bottom. In Az-49,
lf varies between 13 and 1,517108m3 kg1(Fig. 4). Zonewise variations of lf are: (1) high values (236 to
1,158108m3 kg1) up to 340 m depth, (3) moderate values
(30 to 706108m3 kg1) from 380 to 740 m, and (3) low
values (12 to 286108m3 kg1) from 780 to 2,360 m.

Discussion
In this section, the variations of lf in the geothermal wells
Az-26 and Az-49 in relation to lithology, degree of hydrothermal alteration, and ferromagnesian and opaque mineral
contents are discussed and the possible reasons for the coand anti-variations are also presented.
Geothermal well Az-26
The lithology of Az-26 may broadly be categorized into two
litho units: (1) rhyolite and dacite (<500 m) and (2) andesite
with layers of augitic andesite and basaltic andesite (>500 m).
The two litho units are demarcated by a dashed line in Fig. 2.
As the litho units considerably differ in their mineralogy and

Rhyodacite

Andesite

0 20 40

Augitic-andesite

0 20 40

10 20
Pyrite%

0 10 20

Hematite%

50

Total opaque
minerals %

Fe-Mg
silicates %

Mag. sus (lf)

-8 3 -1
(10 m kg )

200 0 600
Temp.
(C)

Lithology

Hyd. Alt%

1200

--Individual opaque-minerals%

Basaltic-andesite

chemistry, it is likely that lithology has some influence on the

content of minerals and mineral-related parameters. Therefore,
the depth-wise changes in magnetic susceptibility and petrographic data and their inter-dependence for the two litho units
are discussed separately.
Magnetic susceptibility (lf) values within lithounit-1
(corresponding to rhyolites and rhyodacites) vary between
13 and 226108m3 kg1. There is a gradual decrease from
the top (49226108m3 kg1; surface to 160 m depth) to the
bottom in this litho unit (13114108m3 kg1; 200460 m
depth). At the beginning of lithounit-2 (corresponding to
andesites) there is a sharp increase in lf values at 560 m
depth (lf =916108m3 kg1; t=between 64 and 88 C).
The high values continue from 560 to 680 m depth. Further
deep, though the rocks are of a similar type (andesites;
lithounit-2), lf values decrease sharply below 720 m
(lf =28108m3 kg1; t=114 C) and the low values prevail up to the bottom of the well.
These contrasting lf values of lithounit-1 and lithounit-2
may be explained by lithological differences. Lithounit-1 has
relatively low lf values because it is composed of acidic
rhyolite and rhyodacite, which are characteristic of low concentrations of magnetic minerals. Lithounit-2, on the other hand
has high lf values because it is composed of andesite, which
contains comparatively high contents of both ferromagnesian
minerals (mainly biotite, olivine, augite, and hypersthene) and

Arab J Geosci

60
40
20
0

(b)

r = 0.83

15
10
5
0

400

800
1200
Mag. Sus (10-8m3kg-1)

Pyrite (%)

15

15
10

10
5

5
0

0
0

400

800
1200
Mag. Sus (10-8m3kg-1)

10

0
20

40

60

80 100

Hydrothermal alteration(%)

25

(f) r = -0.84
20
15
10
5
0
20

40

60

80 100

Hydrothermal alteration (%)

(i) r = 0.29
15

15
10

10
5

0
0

400
800
1200
Mag. Sus (10-8m3kg-1)

20

Pyrite (%)

15

800
1200
Mag. Sus (10-8m3kg-1)

20
Hematite (%)

20

10

(h) r = 0.02

(g) r = -0.24

25

15

400

25

30

r = 0.08

20

Fe-Mg silicate minerals (%)

(e) r = -0.26

(c)

25

800
1200
Mag. Sus (10-8m3kg-1)

(d) r= -0.20

20

30

400

20

25
Hematite (%)

20

Total opaque minerals (%)

(a) r = -0.71

values (FeMg silicate minerals like biotite, olivine, augite, and

hypersthene) to hydrothermal minerals with low lf values (pyrite and chlorite). In situ temperature (t) measured during the
perforation of Az-26 is nearly the same in the top 400 m (36
38 C; corresponding to the lithounit-1), but sharply increases to
64 C at 500 m depth (beginning of lithounit-2) and increases
further, reaching a value of 220 C at the bottom of the well. As
the reservoir temperature increases and the interaction of hydrothermal fluids with reservoir rocks intensifies with depth, the
grade of hydrothermal alteration in these rocks increased and
produced higher contents of hydrothermal/secondary minerals
with depth. Such an increase in hydrothermal alteration with
depth is a common phenomenon in other geothermal systems
as well (e.g., Tecuamburro geothermal systems, Goff et al. 1992;
Los Humeros, Mexico, Lpez et al. 2010). In general, the
products of hydrothermal alteration are silicates, zeolites, clays,
carbonates, sulfides, and FeMn oxides. Except some of the Fe
Mn oxides which are ferromagnetic, the rest are all paramagnetic
or diamagnetic. Hence, hydrothermal alteration decreases the lf
of hydrothermally altered rocks.
As lithounit-2 (andesite) is approached, there is a sharp
increase in lf at 560 m depth (lf=916108m3 kg1;
Fe-Mg silicate minerals (%)

80

Total Opaque mineral (%)

Fig. 3 XY plots showing the

relation between magnetic
susceptibility, grade of
hydrothermal alteration and
mineral contents in lithounit-2
(below 500 m depth) of the
geothermal well Az-26.
Correlation coefficients (r) are
at 0.01 significant levels. The
correlation coefficients marked
with bold and italics are
statistically significant

Hydrothermal alteration (%)

magnetic minerals (mainly magnetite, and ilmenite). Hunt et al.

(1995) compiled the magnetic data of different rocks and
materials and reported the magnetic susceptibility of rhyolites
as between 10 and 1,500108m3 kg1 and that of andesites as
6,500108m3 kg1. As the within-litho unit lithology is
almost the same for lithounit-1 and lithounit-2, lithological
control of mineralogical parameters should be negligible.
As mentioned earlier, in lithounit-1 (rhyolite and rhyodacite),
there is a gradual decrease in lf from the top (49
226108m3 kg1 for <160 m depth) to the bottom of this litho
unit (13114108m3 kg1; 200460 m depth). In contrast, the
grade of hydrothermal alteration, and the total opaque mineral
and pyrite contents register a gradual increase. The ferromagnesian mineral content, which is high (3 to 14 %) in the top 180 m
decreases to zero further down in this litho unit (Fig. 2). The
opaque mineral content increases gradually from the surface to
the bottom of this litho unit. Among the total opaque minerals, no
significant change is documented in the hematite content but the
pyrite content increases in the deeper parts of this litho unit. This
indicates that the gradual decrease in lf values of rocks from the
surface to the bottom of lithounit-1 may be the result of hydrothermal alteration of primary magnetic minerals with high lf

0
20

40

60

80

Hydrothermal alteration (%)

20

40

60

80

Hydrothermal alteration (%)

Arab J Geosci

t=6488 C). As discussed above, high values of lf are

expected for lithounit-2 (andesite) compared to lithounit-1
(rhyolite and rhyodacite) due to lithological differences. The
high lf values continue up to 680 m depth. However, the
value drastically drops at 720 m depth (lf =28108m3 kg1;
t=114 C) in spite of the constant lithology of lithounit-2. The
low lf values continue till the bottom of the well.
Correspondingly, the grade of hydrothermal alteration also
drastically increases at 720 m depth and continues to be high
till the bottom of the well. It is exactly below 720 m depth that
lf values are profoundly low. Similarly, the ferromagnesian
(mainly biotite, olivine, augite, and hypersthene) and total
opaque mineral contents in lithounit-2 sharply decrease
whereas hematite and pyrite contents relatively increase below
this depth (720 m; Fig. 2). These trends suggest the hydrothermal alteration of primary magnetic minerals of high lf
values (FeMg silicates and some opaque minerals) to hydrothermal minerals of low lf values (hematite, pyrite, and clay
minerals like chlorite and illite). Though similar trends of all
these parameters are discernible in both the litho units
(lithounit-1and lithounit-2) of the well, they are less dramatic
in lithounit-1.
The point to be underscored is that there are significant
variations in the various parameters within lithounit-2 (and
Fig. 4 Variations in magnetic
susceptibility and mineral
contents with depth in the
geothermal well Az-49. The
solid line demarcates the two
zones with sharp differences in
magnetic susceptibility and
mineral contents

in a less impressive manner in lithounit-1), which cannot be

explained as due to lithological control but the process of
hydrothermal alteration has to be invoked.
The inference may be even more clearly seen in the biplots of the parameters studied (Fig. 3) for lithounit-2. The
FeMg mineral % is positively correlated with lf r=0.83;
Fig. 3b), indicating that FeMg minerals are the chief contributors to magnetic susceptibility. There is a negative correlation between lf and degree of hydrothermal alteration
(r=0.71; Fig. 3a), showing that hydrothermal alteration
decreases lf. In fact, most of the intensely altered (>50 %)
samples show extremely low lf values. Only a few of the
less altered (<30 %) ones have high lf. The negative correlation between FeMg mineral % and grade of hydrothermal
alteration (r=0.84; Fig. 3f) suggests that FeMg minerals
get altered as the grade of hydrothermal alteration increases.
The degree of hydrothermal alteration exhibits a weak positive correlation with pyrite % (r=0.29) and no correlation
with haematite % (Fig. 3h, i), suggesting that pyrite and
haematite, both magnetically weak, are produced as a result
of hydrothermal alteration.
Overall there is an increase in the grade of hydrothermal
alteration from the surface to the bottom of the well; correspondingly, there are alteration-related changes in magnetic

500

1500

2000

Andesites

20

0 9

0 2 4
Rutile%

Pyrite%

Hyd. Alt%

Basalts

0 10

Ilmenite%

Mag. Sus (lf)

(10-8m3kg-1)

Pumice Tuff

0 8 16 0 20

Hematite%

0 50

Total opaque
Min (%)

0 800

Fe-Mg
silicates %

0 150
Temp
(C)

2500

Lithology

Depth (m)

1000

------ Individual opaque min. % -----

Basaltic andesite

Augitic andesite

Arab J Geosci

Fe-Mg silicate minerals (%)

100

(a) r = -0.44

80
60
40
20
0
0

400

800

16

(b) r = 0.48
12
8
4
0

1200

20

800

(e) r = 0.69
Ilmenite (%)

12
8

20

10

4
0

0
0

400

800

1200

Mag. Sus (10-8m3kg-1)

400

800

20

40

60

80 100

Hydrothermal alteration (%)

400
800
1200
Mag. Sus (10-8m3kg-1)

16

(f) r = -0.44
12
8
4
0

1200

20

40

60

80 100

Hydrothermal alteration (%)

r = 0.08

(i) r = -0.46
Ilmenite (%)

15
10
5
0

30

(h)
Hematite (%)

10

10

20

(g) r = -0.33

20

20

Mag. Sus (10-8m3kg-1)

40
30

(c) r = 0.42
30

1200

30

(d) r = -0.08

16
Hematite (%)

400

40

Mag. Sus (10-8m3kg-1)

Mag. Sus (10-8m3kg-1)

Total opaque minerals (%)

Fig. 5 XY plots showing the

relation between magnetic
susceptibility, grade of
hydrothermal alteration and
mineral contents in the
geothermal well Az-49.
Correlation coefficients (r) are
at 0.01 significant levels. The
correlation coefficients marked
with bold and italics are
statistically significant

Hydrothermal alteration (%)

This well consists almost entirely of andesite (with occasional thin layers of basaltic andesite and augitic andesite at a few
depths) except pumice tuff in the top 20 m and basalt from 20
to 40 m depth. As the lithology is nearly uniform, the depthwise variations of parameters studied are free of any lithological control.
High lf values (236 to 1,158108m3 kg1) at the top
(<340 m; Fig. 4) decrease to moderate levels (30 to
706108m3 kg1) at 380740 m depth and to low values
(12 to 286108m3 kg1) at 7802,360 m depth. Noteworthy
is the sharp decrease in lf at 780 m depth (shown by a thick

Total opaque minerals (%)

Geothermal well Az-49

line). This depth appears to be crucial as there are sharp

changes in the other parameters also. There is a sharp increase in borehole temperature (t; measured during perforation) at this depth. It was 48 C at the first measured depth of
400 m and it increased sharply to 86 C at 600 m, 142 C at
1,000 m and 160 C at 1,200 m depth. This shows that there
is interaction of hot hydrothermal fluids with rocks at
>780 m depth. As in geothermal well Az-26, lf values
register a sharp decrease in this well too at a critical depth
of 780 m where the following characteristics are also
recorded: (a) a sharp increase in reservoir temperature (t),
this testifies the interaction of hydrothermal fluids with rocks
at this depth; (b) appreciable increase in the degree of hydrothermal alteration due to increase in reservoir temperature; (c) a sharp decrease in FeMg silicate mineral % (mainly biotite, olivine, augite, and hypersthene), which may be
ascribed to the hydrothermal alteration of ferromagnesian
minerals; (d) a drastic decrease in the content of ilmenite
and a sharp increase in pyrite content and, to a lesser extent,
haematite content. Reasons for these changes are as follows:
On interacting with sulfur, ilmenite changes to pyrite+rutile
(Force 1991). Ilmenite may also be thermally altered to

Fe-Mg silicate minerals (%)

minerals and lf. As the lithology of the entire well is not

constant, the trends of lithology-controlled parameters (minerals and lf) do not indicate any particular trend when the
entire depth of the well is considered. However, when
lithounit-1 and lithounit-2 are considered separately, one
may discern significant trends that resulted from hydrothermal alteration. This clearly shows the lithological control of
the distribution of minerals and mineral-related parameters.

20

10

0
0

20

40

60

80 100

Hydrothermal alteration (%)

20

40

60

80 100

Hydrothermal alteration (%)

Arab J Geosci

haematite (Brownlee et al. 2010). Being paramagnetic, pyrite

has a low lf (1 to 100108m3 kg1; Hunt et al. 1995)
whereas haematite is antiferromagnetic and has a lf of only
10 to 76108m3 kg1 Hunt et al. (1995); (e) low content of
rutile, which is intriguing because hydrothermal alteration of
ilmenite produces rutile, as explained in (d) above. Perhaps
there is some mechanism that is responsible for decreasing
content of rutile in this geothermal well, although the present
study did not reveal the exact mechanism responsible for it;
and (f) the total opaque mineral content does not indicate any
significant trend probably because while the content of some
individual opaque mineral content increases, that of another
decreases (Fig. 4).
The xy plots of the parameters studied (Fig. 5) also
support the inferences made above. Magnetic susceptibility
is negatively correlated with the degree of hydrothermal
alteration (r=0.44; Fig. 5a), with most of the intensely
altered samples exhibiting extremely low lf values. It is
generally positively correlated with FeMg silicate mineral
content (r=0.48; Fig. 5b), suggesting the contribution of
these minerals to lf. It is positively correlated with ilmenite
content too (r=0.69; Fig. 5e), demonstrating the important
contribution made by this mineral to lf. Overall, these plots
support the interpretation that ilmenite and FeMg minerals
(with high lf) have been hydrothermally altered to pyrite,
haematite, etc. (with low lf). This is also supported by the
general positive correlation, though statistically not very
significant, between the degree of hydrothermal alteration
and haematite content (Fig. 5h). There is a negative correlation between the degree of hydrothermal alteration and the
total opaque mineral % (r=0.33; Fig. 5g). This is because
with hydrothermal alteration, the content of a primary
opaque mineral decreases whereas that of a hydrothermally
altered mineral increases.

Concluding remarks
The present study of magnetic susceptibility (lf) and petrography of rock samples from two wells (Az-26 and Az49) from the Los Azufres Geothermal System, Mexico has
enabled to draw the following conclusions:
1. A decrease in lf and in FeMg silicate and ilmenite
contents (characterized by high lf values) and a corresponding increase in the degree of hydrothermal alteration and hematite and pyrite contents (characterized by
low lf values) suggest hydrothermal alteration of ilmenite and FeMg silicates to pyrite, haematite, and other
alteration products. There is no lithological control on
the studied parameters.
2. Hence, low lf in a homogenous litho unit that is typified
by high lf may be the result of hydrothermal alteration.

If this is so, magnetic susceptibility may be a useful

parameter during the initial stages of geothermal exploration in identifying hydrothermally altered rocks both at
the surface and from drilled holes in geothermal systems.
3. However, in order to lend support to this proposition,
more such studies are necessary for additional geothermal systems, for more wells with closer sampling intervals and involving fresh rocks at the surface and
hydrothermally altered rocks from the subsurface.
Acknowledgments Magnetic susceptibility was measured using instruments procured with grants from the Ministry of Earth Sciences, Government of India, to RS. We thank K Sandeep and B G Harshavardhana, for
help in magnetic measurements and discussions. We express our sincere
thanks to the reviewers for the valuable comments which were helpful in
revising the earlier version of the manuscript.

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