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Introduction
Various hot forging techniques are used to mass produce bearings to obtain proper shapes with good mechanical properties.
Internal and/or surface cracks may develop 1 during a hot forging process due to a mismatch of the local deformation, when the
process is not well designed and/or not well controlled, causing a
massive and critical production failure. It is generally viewed that
the temperature control is a critical issue 2.
Recently, prime bearing consumers demand not only product
quality certificates but also technical and design reports including
the material behaviors under the forging condition. Material behaviors for the bearing steels at an elevated temperature must be
understood and available for an optimal design of hot forging
processes. It is necessary to characterize the material behavior of
bearing steels at an elevated temperature, as affected by the
variation/distribution of temperature, strain, and strain rate.
Numerical and experimental investigations to predict optimal
hot forging process conditions have been active in recent years
27, which entail material testing at elevated temperature in an
attempt to correlate the effects of workpiece temperature and
strain rate 2. Various attempts have been made to obtain the flow
stress information for common commercial steels 35. Microstructural investigations and related applications to hot metal
working have been carried out by many researchers 6,7. However, the material information of bearing steels under the hot
working condition can hardly be found from the literature, even
1
Corresponding author.
Contributed by the Materials Division of ASME for publication in the JOURNAL OF
ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND TECHNOLOGY. Manuscript received September 24, 2003;
final manuscript received April 9, 2007. Review conducted by Huseyin Sehitoglu.
Experiments
Fig. 2 Hot compression tests of STB2 75% upset at a constant rate of 10/s
Si
Mn
Cr
Ni
Mo
0.951.1
0.170.23
0.150.35
0.150.35
0.5
0.550.9
0.025
0.03
0.025
0.03
1.31.6
0.851.25
0.025
0.08
Table 2 Combination of temperatures and strain rates sampled for the compression test
Temperature C
Strain rate
/s
900
1000
1100
1150
1200
1250
1300
1
5
10
50
Table 3 Strain rate strength coefficient C and strain rate sensitivity exponent m STB2
Temperature C
900
1000
1150
Equivalent plastic
strain
0.1
0.3
0.5
0.7
182.20
190.20
176.60
168.50
0.151
0.151
0.154
0.145
142.00
151.60
138.80
126.00
0.124
0.126
0.123
0.130
89.05
88.40
78.20
69.01
0.123
0.136
0.149
0.178
Table 4 Strain rate strength coefficient C and strain rate sensitivity exponent m SCr420H
Temperature C
900
1100
1250
Equivalent plastic
strain
0.1
0.3
0.5
0.7
169.50
194.20
184.00
177.00
0.096
0.099
0.110
0.110
101.70
113.70
101.40
92.79
0.120
0.124
0.142
0.158
65.84
68.87
60.02
56.63
0.125
0.142
0.167
0.170
recrystallization.
With 28 sets of representative data 4 rates 7 temperatures
for each material, various forms of curve fittings can be done.
Within the framework of rigid-viscoplastic formulation, the
equivalent flow stress is assumed to be a direct function of the
equivalent plastic strain rate , via
= C m
Strain rate
/s
900
1000
1100
1150
1200
1250
1
5
10
50
and obeys the Hubervon Mises yield criterion. Thus, its flow
stress is assumed to be a function of stress, strain rate, and temperature.
The bearing race selected is manufactured by an automatic hot
forging machine. Figure 1 shows the hot forging process for the
bearing race, which is composed of three consecutive hot forging
processes. The final material in the process is pierced into three
pieces and then the outer two materials are used for inner and
outer bearing races after additional machining and ring rolling
processes and surface treatments.
Conclusion
Results from hot compression tests and hot tensile tests were
presented for two bearing steels, STB2 and SCr420H, in an attempt to characterize the material behaviors under hot metal
working conditions. The experimental results show that the elongation of STB2 decreases drastically when the temperature
reaches about 1200C. The material information including flow
stress curves and hot behaviors were employed to reveal the reason for internal cracks founded in the hot forged mechanical part.
The hot forging process for the part was analyzed by the rigidthermoviscoplastic finite element method. It is recommended to
move the highest strain rate region away from the hottest spot as
far as one can to avoid a possible crack formation.
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Acknowledgment
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References
1 Moon, H. K., Chung, J. H., Yoo, S. J., and Joun, M. S., 2001, Analysis of
Internal or External Crack of Bearing Steel During Hot Forging Process,
Proceedings of the KSTP 6th Forging Symposium, Busan, June 1, pp. 920.
2 Altan, T., and Boulger, F. W., 1973, Flow Stress of Metals and Its Application
in Metal Forming Analyses, ASME J. Eng. Ind., 95, pp. 10091019.
3 Rao, K. P., and Hawbolt, E. B., 1992, Development of Constitutive Relation-
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