Chen Guangyao & Char Simp PDF

Maney Publishing
A CONTINUITY OF CONSTRAINTS ON ORTHOGRAPHIC CHANGE: CHEN GUANGYAO AND

CHARACTER SIMPLIFICATION
Author(s): Dayle Barnes
Source: Monumenta Serica, Vol. 38 (1988-1989), pp. 135-166
Published by: Maney Publishing
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Mon. Ser. 38 (1988-89)
A CONTINUITY OF CONSTRAINTS ON ORTHOGRAPHIC
CHANGE:
CHEN GUANGYAO AND CHARACTER SIMPLIFICATION*

Dayle Barnes
University
of Pittsburgh
". . . Scriptreformdoes not depend on whether
or not it is possible to do something,but on
whetheror not people are willingto do it"
[Wang] Liaoyi (1936: 6).
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Content
Script and Society in Chen Guangyao's Time
An Uncelebrated Script Reformer
Chen's Contributions to the Simplification Movement
Chen's Controversial Positions on Simplification
The Continuity of Constraints on Character Simplification
Chen Guangyao in the 1950s
References
136
137
140
143
156
159
161
* My introduction
to therelationship
betweenethnicity
and attitudestowardlanguage,thetheme
of thisarticle,came in the formof a coursetaughtby JoshuaA. Fishmanat the LinguisticSociety
of America's1977LinguisticInstitute,
of Hawaii and theEast-West
Center.
sponsoredbytheUniversity
The emphasesof thatcourseare reflected
in thispaper,the earliestformof whichwas entitled
"EthnicConstraints
on Orthographic
in China, 1935-36," read at
Change: CharacterSimplification
thepanelon LanguageChangein Chinaat theannualmeetingof theInternational
StudiesAssociation
in Washington,
1978.
D.C., February24,
mustbe made to the followingforfinancialassistance:theEast-WestCenter,
Acknowledgement
forProfessional
Associateawardsto attendthe LanguagePlanningProgramof the CultureLearning
in 1977,and to participate
Institute
in theConference
on LinguisticModernization
and LanguagePlanof East Asian Languages
ningin ChineseSpeakingCommunities,
sponsoredjointlybytheDepartment
of theUniversity
of Hawaii and theCenter'sCultureLearningInstitute,
Honolulu,Hawaii, September
of Pittsburgh,
fora 1982 awardforthe
6-14, 1983;the FacultyGrantsCommitteeof the University
conductof parallelresearch;and the University's
Asian Studiesprogramand its Departmentof East
Asian Languagesand Literatures.
For havingreadand commented
on thepre-publication
draftof thispaper,or forhavingotherwiserendered
assistance,I wishto register
myappreciationto RobertL. Cheng,Chu Wen-djang,John
De Francis,LloydE. Eastman,HelmutMartin,S. RobertRamsey,Donald S. Sutton,JamesL. Watson,
and Zhou Youguang.Final responsibility
forthe contentof the paper remainsmy own.
of nameswhichare notgivenin thetext,thereadersare referred
to theRefer(For thecharacters
ences at the end of the paper. - The Ed.)
135
136
DAYLE BARNES
1. Scriptand Societyin Chen Guangyao'sTime

China enteredthe twentieth
centurya nationand a cultureon the defensive.The
abdicationof the Manchu-dominated
Qing rulinghouse in 1912broughtan end to
in
China.
Sorelytestedduringits finalyears,the Qing house
dynasticgovernment
enduredhumiliationat the hands of westernnationsand threeseparaterebellions
at home.1
Castingabout for an explanationfor theircountry'sforeignand domestic
adultilliteracy
and a scantyschoolsystroubles,manyconcernedChineseidentified
to nationalweakness.The firsttwentyyearsof thiscentemas major contributors
saw
more
of
the
tury
youngin school,but the numberstilldid not exceedfifteen
per centof thoseof school age.2Of these,fewerthantenper centcompleteda full
sixyearprogram:overninetypercentoverallspentfouror feweryearsin elementary
school.3In the 1930s,it was said thatthosewho learnedto read and writein rural
schools wereas rareas "phoenixfeathersand unicornhorns."4
literate.5But in China the label of
Westernpeoples seemedoverwhelmingly
out
of
was
worn
four
everyfive,seventy-five
illiteracy
by
people
per centof them
above the age of thirteen.6
The taskof meetingChina'seducationalneedswouldhaverequiredmanyyears
was modest.7Some thoughtit
underthe best of conditions.Actual improvement
withthe
at
all
Some
of the dissatisfaction
Others
saw
nothing
happening.8
glacial.
to the characterscript,whichradical critics
was transferred
pace of achievement
to bothregularand adulteducation.9The remediesprofounda majorimpediment
of thescriptsincethe 1920shaveincluded(1) proposed to amelioratethedifficulty
limitedcharacter
and promotepracticallyorientedand distinctly
gramsto identify
the
retirement
of
the
character
forbasic literacy,
inventories
scriptand
(2) calls for
of the characterscript,
its replacement
by a phoneticsystem,and (3) simplification
1) This briefsketchis condensedfromSheridan1977: 18.

2) CNAAE 1923: 35.
3) Ibid., 37.
4) TJYSB,June10, 1935: 1.
5) Chu 1965: 109; Fu Baochen 1930: 1-2.
figure.Adultilliterates,
6) JYBGB II, 7: 81 (Feb. 23, 1930).This,of course,is a comprehensive
school-agedyouth,ages 6-12, were
ages 13-49, wereestimatedat 46%, but mostof the elementary
too.
believedilliterate,
7) Cameron1963: 86.
8) [Li Jinhui]1922: 157.
9) Qian Xuantong1920: 111;Gao Fushen 1935: 44-46.
CHEN GUANGYAO AND CHARACTER SIMPLIFICATION
137
bywhichis meanttheacceptanceof thesimplervariantof an extantcomplexgraph

and its uniformuse in all domainsof publication.10
Today,China retainsits characterscriptbut in a simplifiedform.This paper
thatshaped the courseof
examinesthe principalculturaland linguisticconstraints
the continuity
of
charactersimplification.
Even more important,it demonstrates
theseconstraints
fromthe 1920s,whenthediscussionof simplifithoughtregarding
undergovcationbeganin earnest,throughthe 1930s,whenit was firstattempted
in the People's Republicof
ernment
auspices,until1956,whenit was implemented
China. The consensuswhichdevelopedon theseissuesis contrastedpointby point
withtheworkof Chen Guangyao^3fcfi whoseviews,comprising
all thathis conand
definition
to
the
of themajority.
clarity
positions
temporaries
rejected,provide
2. An Uncelebrated Script Reformer
Chen Guangyao(1906-1973/74)was not a seminalintellectual

figureof his time.11
Since he did
He could not boast a degreefroma prestigiouswesternuniversity.12
educationin China,13he lacked the credentialsto
not evencompletea university
obtaina university
teachingpositionor to hold a government
post in his own counwiththe evolutionof thecharacterscript,he
try.14
Despitehis profoundfamiliarity
in
of
the
no
role
the
work
played
government's
languagecommissionin the 1930s.15
of theseinclude(1) the"basic character"literacy
10) Descriptions
campaignsof JamesYen [Yan
of
letter
the
Roman
1923;
Yangchu]
(2)
proposalsfavoringadoption
phoneticscripts(cf. De Francis
1943, 1950); and (3) [Cao Bohan] 1960.
11) Chen Guangyaowas born in 1906, in Chenggu,Shaanxi Province,near the borderwith
Sichuan(Chen 1931: 1; ffi^SttBII
Chen
[The SimplifiedCharacterMovementin Retrospect],
1933:58-62, see pp. 61-62) and died in 1973/74,in Beijing(ZhengLinxi 1988,also Zhou Youguang
1983). His father'sname was Chen Yi WBt, whose stylename was Chen Xiaoyun BtBKSûNt
Evolutionin the Evolutionof the CharacterScript],Chen 1931: 172-183, see
t^WiM
[Aesthetic
p. 180).
12) Chen Guangyao,fgj^Fp^H^^H [The Problemof SimplifiedCharacters- Responseto a
Reader],1933: 43-57, see p. 48.
13) ChenGuangyaoattendeda middleschooloperatedbythearmythrough1926(S^-SlJfnB
[A Recordof (My EarlyYearsin) the Simplification
Movement],Chen 1931:14-30, see p. 17). After
two yearsin Shanghai,he returnedto Beijingand during1928-29 continuedhis formaleducation,
in college(Chen 1931:1). Chen'slack of a university
presumably
degreewas confirmed
byZhengLinxi
(1988).
14) Chen Guangyao,"Jianziwentida ke nanM(n. 12), 1933: 48.
15) Chen (ibid.) statedhe occupiedno government
position.Neitherwas he a memberof the
choubei
CommissionfortheUnification
#
31
itS
Guoyutongyi
lgl;weiyuanhui
"Preparatory
of theNationalLanguage"(CBWYHMD 1929:29-31). Two sourcesgivehimthetitlexi-jingchoubei
Commissionfor Xi'an," an honorary
weiyuanhuizhuanmenweiyuan"memberof the Preparatory
appointment
relatingto the war effort.See ^Cffi[Da-gongnewspaper],May 27, 1934; Wu Zhihui
1935. This appointment
is consistent
withZheng Linxi's identification
of Chen as a memberof the
138
DAYLE BARNES
about languagewas his principalpassion.16Languagewas also thebasis of

Writing
his livelihood;he mentionedworkingas a newspaperreporter
and as an editorfor
a book publisher.17
His youthalone limitedhis capacityto influenceothers.Most of theprincipal
in simplification
weretwicehis age. The bulkof hiswriting
and relatedactivfigures
itiestookplace in thetenyearspreceding
theMinistry
of Education'scharactersimIn a
plificationinitiativein 1935, beforeChen had attainedthe age of thirty.18
to seniority
as China, a man of twentycarriedlittleweight.
countryas deferential
Chenfeltkeenlythecondescension
of oldermenand was notscrupulousabout
If he was not particularly
well likedby them - and
concealinghis resentment.19
one suspectshe was not - thisscarcelydisguisedresentment
may have been part
of the explanation.He delightedin tauntinghis enemies the old scholarswho
resistedany attempts
stolidlydefendedthe traditionalcharactersand intransigently
to simplify
them displayingat thosetimesa substantialgiftforhistrionics
and
ill-will.He railedat opponentsof simplification
adroitnessin generating
who had
"shallowbutpedanticminds,"who were"incapableof rethinking
and who
matters,"
were"onlytoo readyto sacrificetheirtime,wealth,effort,
and vitality[forthetraditional characterscript]."20
The sharp point of his pen was not aimed only at such obvious villains.
Friendsof simplification
werenot necessarily
safe fromit, either.Essayshe did not
likeweresummarily
dismissedas "one-shotaffairs,piecesthatare unreasonableor
Without
outrageous."21
complaining,he acceptedthe need to subordinatepersonal
of professionalism:
theworkof another
modestyto thestrictrequirements
reviewing
scholardid not precludereaffirmation
of the superiority
of his own work.22The
in particulara resolutedetermination
sinsof officialdom,
to avoidabettinganything
like
character
were
noted.23
revolutionary
firmly
simplification,
NationalistPartyduringthisperiod(Zheng Linxi 1988). Later in the 1950s,he was a staffmember
of the Committeeforthe Reformof the ChineseWrittenLanguage(Zhou Youguang1983).
16) Chen Guangyao,"Jianziwentida ke nan" (n. 12), 1933: 48.
17) Chen Guangyao1938c:22.
18) Chao [Qun] 1928: 39.
20) For examplesof this, Chen Guangyao, ^^M'^M&W^m.B
[ProvisionalDeclaration
1931:
also
the
Character
see
12;
1-13,
Simplification
Movement],
p.
fS^9iHf& [Simplified
Initiating
Charactersand Slogans], 1931:48-58, see p. 57.
(Hu Huaichen1928)Jianyi
22) Chen Guangyao,ftm [SES 3^5fcII]rfBl^tSJ [Introducing
zi shuo], 1933: 110-122, see p. 112.
23) Chen Guangyao1934a.
139
in hisexposureof others'
It is nothardto appreciatewhya man so evenhanded
or
The
even
a
man
without
status
could
become
errors,
fairlywell-known.
position,
list of people he knew,or who knewof him,includedmost of the leadingscript
reform
of hisday.He was personally
figures
acquaintedwithQian Xuantong(1887of the Ministryof Education'sill1939) and Li Jinxi(1890-1978), co-architects
starred1935 simplification
Hu
Shi
plan.24
(1891-1962) and Liu Fu SOU (1891on his work.25He was in communication
about matters
1934)read and commented
relatedto simplification
withWu Zhihui(1864-1953),head of theMinistry
of Eduand WangYunwuIS
cation'slanguagecommission,
(1888-1979),of Shanghai's
CommercialPress.26
Otherscame to knowhimthroughhis writings,
two of whichstimulatedLin
in his widelylaunch
a
for
Yutang(1895 1976) to
publiccampaign
simplification
27
read journal, Lunyu,beginningin 1933. By the time Chen was thirty,
he was
as
the
of
one
of
the
two
schools
of
leadingrepresentative
principal
acknowledged
charactersimplification.28
No one publishedas muchor as oftenabout simplification
as Chen Guangyao,
and his passionatecommitment
to thiscause led himbeyondadvocacyto activism.
He promiseda journal(it did not appear).29Twoorganizations
to promotesimplificationwereannounced(neither,it seems,everactuallyfunctioned).30
He wroteto
24) Chen Guangyao,"Jianziyundongshiji" (n. 13), 1931:20; Li Jinxi1934.

25) Chen Guangyao,"Jianziyundongshiji" (n. 13), 1931: 18, 22-23.
Itemsof Correspondence
about Simplified
Char26) ChenGuangyao,ffi^MiS- +H [Twenty
acters],1933: 141-161,see p. 147; also "Jianziyundongzhi huigu" (n. 11), 1933: 60.
to simplification
27) [Lin] Yutang1933: 215. Chen was recognizedas a leadingcontributor
withQian Xuantong,Lu Feikui,Hu Huaichen,Ai Wei,and Xu Zemin(Li Congzhi 1930:4;
together
Zhou Gan 1935: 133); Zhuo DingmoJ^fS and Rong Geng ggg (Li Jinxi1934).
28) Xiao Dichen 1935: 43; WangLiaoyi 1940: 54; Du Zijin 1936: 70-71.
29) Chen Guangyao1930b:8; also "Jianzitongxunershipian" (n. 26), 1933: 161.The journal
was to have been namedfg^Mfl] [The SimplifiedCharacterWeekly].
30) The firstof these,the Hanzi gaige yanjiuhui9t^gfc:03# "The ResearchAssociation
fortheReformof theChineseScript,"was conceivedduringtheearly1930s.Erroneousreportsabout
its membership
appearedin ^^f$g [Shi-shinew newspaper],May 24, 1934 (see Chen Guangyao
1934c:296), and in Da-gong bao, May 27, 1934. Its charter,namingChen as the convener,
appeared
in ChenGuangyao(1936:70-74). The second,Zhongguowenzigaijinhuic^BI^t 3fel#"The Society
forthe Improvement
of the ChineseScript,"was disclosedin the journal Jinlun heng(Editor1938)
and mentionedsubsequently
by Ai Wei (1965: 147), who reportedthatthe Society'schartermembers
well-known
but did not name them.WangJu (1951:74-75) reporteda
comprisedthirty
personalities
communication
in 1938requesting
theMinistry
of Education's
by theGuangxiProvincialGovernment
efforts
to gain supportforcharactersimplification.
The relationship
betweenthis
supportto forestall
eventand Chen's attemptto formthe Societyis unclear.
140
DAYLE BARNES
the LiteracyAssociationin Beijing,urgingit to adopt simplifiedcharactersin its

work(itschairmain,He Qigong M^ [b. 1898],was politelynoncommittal).31
He
criticizedthe workof scholarsin the NationalAcademyof Beijingwho wereconAnd afterseveralunanswered
temporaneously
investigating
simplifiedcharacters.32
letters
of Educationto assumetheleadershipof thesimplicallingupontheMinistry
ficationmovement,
he finallytookhiscase directly
to PresidentChiangKaishek(the
PresidentacknowledgedChen's letterand forwardedit to the Ministry).33
Perhapsthe mostconvincing
proofof Chen's impacton the men of his time
is theenduringimpression
he leftamongtheconservatives
he foughtso combatively.
him
remembered
decades
later
as
one
of
the
archenemies
of China'straditional
They
script.34
In viewof theextentand depthof his involvement,
one mightreasonablyask
has
inventive,
whythelaborof thisprolific,
indefatigable
championof scriptreform
been cloakedin such obscurity?The answeremergesreadilyfroman examination
of Chen's viewsabout charactersimplification.
Withoutintendingto do so, Chen
wrotethetextbookon hownotto simplify
thecharacterscript.By industriously
following his heterodoxnotions to their jarring conclusions,he succeeded in
how totallyunacceptablethose notionsreallywere.Almostsingledemonstrating
handedly,he drewintofocustheboundariesoutsidewhichassentto charactersimplificationwas sure to be withheld.
3. Chen's Contributions
to the Simplification
Movement
ChenGuangyao'sadvocacyof simplification
beganin 1926whenhe was stillin middle schooland onlytwenty
yearsold. It took the formof an essayentitled"A Proof SimplifiedCharacters."35
He soon disposal Lookingtowardthe Promulgation
coveredthathis idea had been anticipatedby the scholarQian Xuantong,who advanced the firstmature proposal for simplificationin 1920. Qian regarded
as a temporary
measureto be employedin theinterim
beforepreparasimplification
tions fora phoneticscriptwerecompleted.36
fgH^Htfr [Some Remarkson the LiteracyMovement],1933: 67-70,
31) Chen Guangyao,Bgsee p. 69.
and zhangStyleCursiveChar32) ChenGuangyao,fljj^S^ftSC^ [The Storyof Simplified
acters],1933: 83-89, see pp. 85-86.
33) Chen Guangyao1936. Chen's behaviormay be explainedin part in termsof his standing
as a memberof the NationalistParty(Zheng Linxi 1988).
34) For example,see Liao Weifan1965.
35) In Chinese,"Qing banxingjianzi yi'an" IffSSirffi^^ in Chen Guangyao,"Jianziyundong shiji" (n. 13), 1931: 17.
36) Qian Xuantong1920. The earliestpublicationson the subject,of course,wereLu Feikui
1909a, 1909b.
141
Qian had just spentthepreviousyearengagedin thecreationof a Latinletter

phoneticsystem,designedto representthe speech of Beijing and subsequently
knownas NationalLanguageRomanization(GuoyeulomatzyhS&fi^?). This
effort
of the"Committeeof Six," all of whomwerephosystemwas a collaborative
of Education'sadvisorycommissionon lannologistswho belongedto theMinistry
guage matters(Guoyu tongyichoubeihui fS$!c;-^1Sl#), and includedQian,
Zhao Yuanren7r;f(1892-1981),Li Jinxi,Lin Yutang,Liu Fu, and WangYi Efn.37
In 1927,Chen and Qian met.Enthusiasticand committed,
theyouthful
Chen
was readyto marchunderthebannerof simplification.
But all themostprominent
in
were
then
National
reformers
just
script
engrossed
LanguageRomanization.Simnevermorethana secondmagnitudestarin thescriptreformfirmament,
plification,
had all but been eclipsed.The olderman was courteousbut, perhapsuneasywith
thedirectionof Chen's work,distancedhimselffromtheeagervolunteer.
Chen was
soon thereafter
also in contactwithZhou Zuoren(1885-1966),Hu Shi, and Li Jinxi,
all of whomhad endorsedthe practicalutilityof simplification.
His receptionwas
him
but
did
not
recruit
into
their
ranks.38
cool; they
polite,
was premature.
His thinkChen,forhispart,was convincedthatromanization
of
his
a
and
echoed
day: first, practical
technically
adequate
ing
manygradualists
phoneticsystemwas not yetavailable;second,no singlephoneticscriptcould serve
China's linguistically
heterogeneous
population;third,the public would not relinGiven this situation,
quish its ethnicallydistinctscriptfor an alien surrogate.39
untilthe social and
Chen argued,the sensiblecoursewas to supportsimplification
technicalpreparationsfora phoneticscriptwerecomplete.40
to raise its drooping
His movementdesertedby all others,Chen determined
his
own
He launched
colorsand advancethecause of simplification
effort.
entirely
by
thiscrusadewitha suddenassaulton publicawareness,writingsix shortpieces in
1927and ninemorein 1928.41Thereafter
and forthe ensuingdecade he produced
morethanany otherauthoron thissubject.In 1931,he broughttheseearlyessays
themin book form(Manzi lunj). This was followedtwo
togetherand republished
yearslaterby a second such volume(Jianzilunji xuji). As part of thiscampaign,
37) Li Jinxi1935a: 164.

38) Chen Guangyao,"Jianziyundongshiji" (n. 13), 1931:20-24. Li Jinxico-sponsoredQian's
Commissionforthe Unificationof the
simplification
proposalwhenit came beforethe Preparatory
NationalLanguagein 1922(Qian Xuantong1922: 163). Zhou Zuoren(1922:71) associatedhimselfwith
Qian's viewat about the same time.
39) Chen Guangyao,"Faqi jianzi yundonglinshixuanyan"(n. 20), 1931:6.
40) Chen Guangyao1929.
142
DAYLE BARNES
of the literature
demonhe appointedhimselfunofficialreviewer
on simplification,
his
with
its
and
a
classification
scheme
devised
strating familiarity
bibliography,42
of simplifiedcharactersin dictionariesof the future.43
forthe arrangement
than,theseshortpieceswhich
Paralleling,but in his viewof moreimportance
in journalsand newspapers,
was a monumental
effort
of a differappearedregularly
ent sort,thatof compilingan exhaustiveinventory
of extantsimplifiedcharacters.
with
As Chen and everyothersimplifier
knew,it was impossibleevento experiment
in
of
characters
because
lead
publicacceptance publications simplified
typeengraved
withsimplified
characterfaceswas unavailable.Customdictatedthatonlythetypicallymorecomplexformof charactertacitlysanctionedbyprevailing
scholarlystandardsshouldappearin print.SinceonlythesezhengtiziJE^ (hereafter,
calledtrain
characters
were
used
fonts
of
ditional)
printing,complete
simplifiedtypehad
neverbeen cut. (Publishers,servinga predominantly
adult
traditionally-oriented
declined
to
invite
derision
and
risk
loss
of
revenue
readership,
public
by takingthe
initiative.
Whichof them,afterall was sufficiently
audacious to challengefrontally
a two thousandyear old scriptregardedin conservativequartersas a national
at a practicallevel,individualpublishers
could notverywell
Furthermore,
treasure?)
act in the absenceof a consensuson whichtraditionalcharactersto simplifyand
whichof thecompetingsimplified
variantsof a traditionalcharacterto adopt.44In
thesematters,only government
authoritycould prevail.
Chen assignedhimselfthe task of miningChina's deep orthographic
veinsto
amass a storeof simplified
characters
fromwhicha finalselectionundergovernment
auspicescould proceed.The severalcomponentsof thisimmenseprojectincluded:
to serveas a basis forthe standardization
(1) a Plan for Simplification,
process;(2)
a Tableof SimplifiedRadical [meaning-indicating]
Elements,forapplicationwhereverthesame radicalappearedin severalcharacters;
(3) the Tableof ChineseSimplithecornerstone
of his endeavor;(4) the SelectedList of Important
fied Characters,
based
on
the foregoing;(5) a Dictionary of Chinese
SimplifiedCharacters,
and (6) a Tableof FrequentlyUsed Charactersin Simplified
SimplifiedCharacters',
the
last
of
thesewas completedand published,althoughpartsof the
Style.Only
othersappearedin abstractedor condensedformelsewhere.45
171.
42) Chen Guangyao1930a,passim, also "JieshaoJianyizi shuo" (n. 22), 1933,passim.

43) Chen Guangyao,fgj^jf^ft [An IndexingSystemforSimplifiedCharacters],1931: 154-
withWangYunwuof theCom44) [Lin] Yutang1933:217. Chen'sMay 2, 1928,correspondence

mercialPress,makesit clearthatthesefactorsinterfered
withQian Xuantong'searliestattemptto promotesimplification
in 1922(ChenGuangyao,"Jianziyundongzhi huigu"[n. 11],1933:60; "Jianziwenti
da ke nan" [n. 12], 1933: 50; "Jianzitongxunershipian" [n. 26], 1933: 147).
45) Chen Guangyao1938c:18. These were:(1) Jianzifang'anf^r~)5M , (2) Jianzipianpangbiao
143
These extraordinary
exertionson behalf of his countrymen
were,Chen frereminded
his
limited
to
an
avocational
readers,necessarily
quently
pursuitby his
benefitsderivablefromsimplificaneed to earn a livelihood.The incontrovertible
themselves
and
sensed
to Chen
tion,onlyfleetingly imperfectly
by others,presented
in a vividand kaleidoscopicarray.Tornbetweenthe wishto serveand the need to
survive,Chen took the unusualstep of seekingthroughthe pressa patronwilling
the cost of his one-mansimplification
to underwrite
program.On threeseparate
occasions he appealed publiclyfor fundsto meet the personaland promotional
and to builda plantwheresimpliexpensesnecessaryto bringhis dreamto fruition,
fiedcharacterpublicationscould be printed.46
No benefactor
appeared,but Chen's
convictionand dedicationare apparentin thisexcerptfromone of theseappeals:
For the negligible sum of 4,500 [ 250 per month for 18 months] to be able ultimately to improvethe Chinese script (the script used by more people than any other
in the entireworld); to provide [a list which would contain] more than 20,000 simplified
charactersforhalf a billion Chinese to select fromand use as theyplease - you cannot
say that this is not one of the world's most beautiful bargains.47
4. Chen's Controversial
Positionson Simplification
Chen Guangyaowas not the sortof personwhosepresencecould have gone unnoof nationallanguage
is now a centerpiece
ticed.Yetin China, wheresimplification
policy,his name,preservedonly in scatteredfootnotes,is rarelymentioned.How
can this anomalybe accountedfor?
The answerto thisquestionis not to be foundin his generaloutlooktoward
He could not accept the conservatives'
scriptreform,whichwas unremarkable.
fÛ^fS, (3) Zhonghua
jianzixuanfflJ^, (5) Zhonghua
jianzibiaotJ^llB^S. (4) Shiyong
jianzibiao Sfflffiîl. A good exposi(6) [ChenGuangyao1936]Changyong

jianzidianc^MB^,
is Chen, |g/ft;fS&f|&|fl|j^
tionof his technicalapproachto simplification
[PoliticallyInformedEducaillustionand SimplifiedCharacters],1931:31-47. A selectionof ninehundredsimplified
characters,
theapplicationof Chen'sapproach,can be foundin ChenGuangyao1934b.Chen also authored
trating
butunfinished
and art.Underway,
fourvolumesof miscellany,
fourof storiesand a dozenon literature
in 1933,wereworkson songs,dialectterms,and phoneticscripts(Chen Guangyao,"Jianziyundong
zhi huigu" [n. 11], 1933: 60-62).
46) In his firstappeal, around 1932,Chen soughta researchstipendof 150 per monthfor
two yearsplus 2,400 to promotesimplification
nationallythroughpublic lecturesin major cities
1933:
wenti
da
ke
nan"
"Jianzi
[n. 12],
50). In 1934,he appealedfora 250 monthly
(ChenGuangyao,
characterprinting
to
establish
a
for
18
months
and
30,000
plant(Chen Guangyao
simplified
stipend
to
two
of workon his unfinished
In
he
asked
for
5,000
1938,
publications
years
1934a).
support
(Chen Guangyao1938c:24).
47) Chen Guangyao1934a.
144
DAYLE BARNES
insistencethatthe entiretraditionalcharactercorpushad to be retainedinviolate,

individualsclingingto the bones of something
likeningsuchpeople to superstitious
that had passed away.48That sort of antiquarianismwas detrimental
to China
because it placed societyin the serviceof the scriptratherthan the otherway
around.49On the otherhand, neitherdid he believethatthe apocalypticannihilathatphoneticizers
tionof thecharacters
clamoredforwas a realisticalternative
for
his time.50These views,however,were commonplaceamong moderatescriptrehim frommen such as Qian Xuantong,
formers
of his day and did not distinguish
Li Jinxi,Hu Shi, and Zhou Zuoren,all of whomstood foursquareforsimplification.
that deprivedhim of a seat in
Rather,it was his approachto simplification
the councilswheredecisionsabout characterreformwerefashionedin the 1930s,51
and whichwon forhimvirtualanonymity
in latertimes.What,then,werethepositionsChen defendedwithrespectto simplification
whichprovedso unacceptableto
his contemporaries?
can
be
addressed
under
five
They
headings:(1) thestrokeissue,
(2) the size of the targetinventory,
(3) the matterof fabricatedcharacters,
(4) the
treatment
of cursivecharacters,and (5) the scope of the reform.
4.1. The StrokeIssue
The demandforscriptreform
has typically
beenjustifiedin termsof itscontribution
to the spread of education.52Chen's unremitting
was
advocacyof simplification
sustainedby his convictionthat it would unlock China's vast humanresources.53
He wrotemovinglyof the debilitating
effectsof traditionon education.54
But readersof his workcame awayconvincedthatendshad been subordinated
to means. In particular,
it seemedthatthe entireenterprise
had becomea narrow,
technicalexercisein reducingthenumberof strokesin a characterto thelowestpossible level.55
48) Chen Guangyao1938b: 10.

similarto thatof Zhou
49) Chen Guangyao1934a. Chen's languageon thispointis remarkably
Zuoren(1922: 71-72), whose advocacyof simplification
Chen had read. Interestingly,
both men had
the same stylename,Qiming^H^.
50) Chen Guangyao,"Jianzijian zi fa" (n. 43), 1931: 154-171.
51) Li Jinxi(1934),forone,said he wouldhavebeenable to workwithChenexceptforthelatter's
attitudetowardcharacterfabrication(see text,following).
52) Chen Guangyao,"Faqi jianzi yundonglinshixuanyan"(n. 20), 1931:9-10.
53) Ibid., 5.
54) Chen Guangyao1938b,passim.
55) Zhou Gan 1935: 137; [Wang]Liaoyi 1940: 54.
145
Chenhelpedto createthisimpression
byregalinghis audiencewithdata about
innocentswiththe knowledgethat the most
the iniquitousstroke.He frightened
one, comprisedfifty-two
althougha rarelyencountered
complexof all characters,
strokes,and remindedthe complacentthatevena verycommonone had no fewer
thatcharactersin ordithanthirty-two.56
Warmingto his theme,he demonstrated
narydictionariesaveragedsixteenstrokes,and that fullyhalf of the charactersin
As forthe cumulative
such worksrequiredfromten to fifteenstrokesto write.57
he estimatedtheiraveragenumber
of 50,000or so characters,
historicalinventory
of strokesper characterat twenty-two.58
theselectionof siminfluenced
Chen'sconcernforstrokereduction
powerfully
foradoption.In thecorpushe had accumulated
he recommended
plifiedcharacters
ninewas
through1938,sixteenwas the largestnumberof strokesof any character,
theaverage,and themajorityhad fromsix to seven.59Qian Xuantong,by compariwithmorethantenstrokes,
son, had originally
onlycharacters
proposedto simplify
leavingthose below ten untouched.60
Chen neveransweredthe challengeto his assumptionabout the overriding
betweencomplexof strokereductionposed by researchon therelationship
priority
recall.Ai Wei(1891-1965),forexample,showedthattheperceived
ityand character
in the ten-to-fifteen
strokecategorywas not determined
of characters
by
difficulty
to the quantityof strokesalone. Equally importantin promotingrecall
reference
wereoverallsymmetry,
proportionamongcharacterswithseveralcomponents,and
adherenceto a verticalor a horizontalorientation.Charactersin the one-to-ten
to recognize.61
difficult
strokegroupwerenot inherently
to the
of provinghis case by reference
It was also notedthatChen's strategy
undifferentiated
contentsof dictionariestendedto magnifythe actual dimensions
of thestrokehazardforthetypicallearner.A morediscriminating
sampleof characof appearancein printedmaterial,for
to theirfrequency
ters,selectedby reference
of
an
that
nine-tenths
revealed
eighthundredcharactercorpuscontained
example,
is pronouncedpin and signifies

56) The firstgraphfeaturesfourlei ft 'thunder'characters,
'to
thesoundof thunder;the secondgraphis theyu in huyufEf
gg appeal (for)' (Chen Guangyao,
Data on CharacterStrokes],1931:126-140, 139; Xu Zemin 1931:45). Xu
[Statistical
Stî^ftfcHof a totalcorpusof 42,239contained
Zemin(1931:43) on theotherhand,notedthatonly116characters
morethanthirtystrokes,and none did in his selectionof 800 most frequently
occurringcharacters.
57) Chen Guangyao,"Hanzi binhuade tongji,"1931: 131.
59) Chen Guangyao1938c:20.
60) Qian Xuantong1920: 112.
61) Ai Wei 1965: 13-14.
146
DAYLE BARNES
fifteenor fewerstrokes,and sixtyper cent of themhad ten or fewer.62

In other
thatlearningwould be made easier simplyby eliminating
words,the presumption
strokesthroughout
the entireinventory
ignoredthe factthatsimplification
yielded
littlebenefit
highestdividendsin charactersused all the timeand proportionately
among those appearingonly infrequently.63
Othersobjectedthat exclusivepreoccupationwith strokeswas linguistically
naiveand resultedin puttingcharacters
on a collisioncoursewithrespectto reading.
Li
zEJ
observed
that, givena finitenumberof stroketypes (b-. 1900)
Wang
characterizable
as horizontal,vertical,left-falling,
dots,and hooks right-falling,
to a quota of six or sevenstrokeswould eventually
limitingcharactersarbitrarily
cause too manygraphsto resembleeach othertoo closely.64
4.2. The Size of the Target Inventory
It was widelybelievedthat,althoughthe cumulativehistoricaltotal of characters

was approximately
fiftythousand,only a small subsetof theseroutinelyoccurred
in modernpublications.Theseintuitive
in statistical
tabujudgmentswereconfirmed
lationsof contemporary
in the 1920s.The greatestnumreadingmatterundertaken
ber of singlecharacters
evercountedin any of thesesurveyswas 5,500.65Of these,
perhapshalfoccurredwithsignificant
regularity.66
Qian Xuantongin 1920thought
it sensibleto simplifyapproximately
threethousandcharactersin daily use.67Fifteenyearslater,whenhe setaboutdrafting
a tentative
listfortheMinistry
of Educato 2,400 characters.68
tion, Qian scaled back his targetslightly,
Chen Guangyaowas well apprisedof thesedata and citedthemin his writthose one-to-tenstroke
ings.69But he electednot to exemptfromsimplification
whichQian had excludedand Ai Wei'sresearchindicatedwerenotparticcharacters
In doing so, he increasedthe size of the characterinventory
ularlydifficult.70
by one-fourth.71
targetedfor simplification
62) Xu Zemin 1931:43.
63) ShenYouqian 1936: 15-16. Shen proposeda "benefitindex,"based on strokereductionand
of occurrence,
of anycharactercould
frequency
by whichtheadvantageaccruingto the simplification
be calculated.
thispointand stressedthe limitationit places on
64) [Wang]Liaoyi 1940: 57. Wangreiterated
further
in
an
interview
with
this
writer
on June25, 1981,in Beijing.
simplification,
65) Zhou Youguang1960.
66) Barnes 1974: 18.
67) Qian Xuantong1920: 112.
68) Li Jinxi1935e.
69) Chen Guangyao1934a; 1938a: 11.
70) Chen Guangyao1927: 391.
71) This is mycalculation,based on estimatesin Chen Guangyao,"Hanzi bihua de tongji"(n.
56), 1931: 129-130.
147
The effectof thisdecisionwas to qualifyeverycharacterforsimplification,

thosewithjust a fewstrokesas well as those withmany.72The followingexcerpt
froma letterhe wroteto Hu Shi expressedhis goal veryclearly:
a maximally
oneofthecharAttheveryleastI seekto provide
simplegraphforevery
actersin current
5,000of these). . . and in additionto insure
usage(approximately
andprocedefromdemonforms
areeachaesthetically
thatthesesimplified
appealing
strableantecedents.
morethan eighty
He believedthatin practiceit mightnot be possibleto simplify
"those
who
in
use.
he
actual
cent
of
the
characters
wrote,
But,
aspireto the
per
top maysucceedin attainingthemiddle;thosewho [only]aim at themiddle[only]
reachthe bottom.Those who tryforthe bottomget nothing."74
mandateto simplify
This self-imposed
everypossiblecharacterhelpsto explain
why Chen's voluminousaggregationsof simplifiedvariantswere neverfinished.
Theygrewfrom7,000 charactersin 1926-2775 to 30,000 in the followingyears76
to 60,000 in 1938 and weresupposedto total 100,000in theirfinal form.77
4.3. The Matter of Fabricated Characters
Chen Guangyaoelectedto treatall the charactersin the 5,000-6,000 itemcorpus

For each of these
of commonlyused graphsas legitimate
objectsof simplification.
fewerstrokesthan
he pledgedto provide,wherever
feasible,an alternative
comprising
did the original.
How was thispledgeto be redeemed?It was commonknowledgethatthere
werebut threeprimarysourcesfromwhichsimplifiedcharacterscould be derived:
prevalentin
(1) "popular" characters(su zi f ), shorthandformsincreasingly
informalwritingsince the tenthcenturySong period; (2) the sweeping"cursive"
in theconvenwhichcould be rewritten
of thecalligrapher,
characters
(cao zi ^)
tionalangularstyleof type;and (3) the"ancient"characters
(gu zi ~^ ), originally
forms.78
Yet no one had
more
later
complex
supersededby
verysimplegraphs
72) Chen Guangyao,"Jianzitongxunershipian" (n. 26), 1933: 161.

to >4 Collection(of My Writings)
's) Introduction
73) Chen Guangyao,fffiûHJil J?[(Author
on SimplifiedCharacters],1933: 105-109, see p. 109.
74) Chen Guangyao,"Faqi jianzi yundonglinshixuanyan"(n. 20), 1931: 11.
to the Tableof ChineseSimpli75) Chen Guangyao,f^ ^ffg^jgj g ^[(Author's) Introduction
fied Characters],1933: 95-104, see pp. 95, 99.
76) Chen Guangyao1936: 44, 51.
77) Chen Guangyao1938c: 18.
78) Chen Guangyao,"Danghua jiaoyu yu jianzi" (n. 45), 1931:39.
148
DAYLE BARNES
imaginedthatthesesourcesevenin the aggregatecould be made to yield5,000of the originals.

6,000 simplercounterparts
Chen himselfdid not thinkthis possible.79Instead,he conceiveda fourth
sourceto supplywhat historyhad withheld:
in those areas whichcan not be covered
[This source]makesup forthe deficiencies
in thepopular,cursive,and ancientcharactercategories;it is appropriate,
on thebasis
of [principles
the
firstthreecategories,and considering
all theories,to settleupon
in]
[either]a formwhichapproximates
customaryusage [or] upon an authentic-looking
simplifiedcharacterwhichconvincingly
suggestsin its outlinethe originalone.80
The possibilityof fabricating

charactershad been consideredby others,but
the prospectof creatingthemon such a scale had neverbeen entertained.81
To the
Hu Shi at a veryearlystage had definedthe workof simplification
as
contrary,
thatof givingsystemand organization
onlyto characters
alreadysanctionedbypopular usage.82By the 1930sthe prevailing
attitudetowardfabrication
was thatcharactersinvented
wereidioby a singlemind,no matterhow ingeniously
constructed,
and necessarily
lacked
historical
and
syncratic
arbitrary.
They
justification wereforto
the
eign
readingpublic. Gainingacceptanceforthemcould not be easy.83
Chen himselfrecognizedthedisadvantages
in fabrication.84
He in factvalidated thesewhenhe objectedto dubious charactersconstructed
He even
by others.85
withsomeof hisownworkin whichthequestforsimplicity
expresseddissatisfaction
entailedaesthetically
But overall,in his estimation,
the extra
unappealingresults.86
effortto promoteand acquire such characterswas justifiedby a simplerscript.87
Most simplifiers
eschewedfabricationin preference
forextantor historically
attestedsimplified
characters.This preference,
in the expressionshu er bu
reflected
and not to create,"becamethe cardinalprincipleof the
zuo rfn^f"to transmit
79) Chen Guangyao,"Jianziyundongzhi huigu"(n. 11), 1933: 58-59.

80) Chen Guangyao,"Danghua jiaoyu yu jianzi" (n. 45), 1931:40.
but by 1934,as Du
81) Qian Xuantong(1920: 112; 1922: 162) firstadumbratedthispossibility,
Zijin (1936: 67) pointedout, he had completelyrejectedit.
82) Hu Shi 1922:1.
83) Qian Xuantong1935a: 365.
85) Chen Guangyao,"Jianziyu zhangcao de gushi" (n. 32), 1933: 85-86.
86) Chen Guangyao1936: 8, 24.
is to thefirst
87) ChenGuangyao,"JieshaoJianyizi shuo" (n. 22), 1933:121-122.My reference
appearanceof thispublicationas follows:Chen Guangyao,
^Vfirgi
JÎ&J [Introducing
(Hu Huaichen
1928) On SimplifiedCharacters],Jiaoyuyu minzhongIII, 1 (July1931): 113-120, 119.
149
of Education'ssimplification
Ministry
programin 1935.Chen'sapproachmeanwhile
cameto be satirizedbytheformulazi wo zuo gu S feffcl
"doingwhatno one else
ensuredhis exclusionfromthe
has done before."Certainlynothingso conclusively
mainstream
of scriptreformas his steadfastadherenceto fabrication.88
in particularpredictably
alteredthe
in generaland fabrication
Simplification
characThisranafoulof theaxiomthattraditional
faceof manyfamiliarcharacters.
to the readerby virtueof
tersuniquelyand directlyconveysemanticinformation
radicalswhichtheyembodyand the"sixprinciples"of structhemeaning-indicating
werebelievedorganized.To the conservative
tureaccordingto whichthe characters
was
the
traditional
mind,
script
superiorto all othersbecauseit possessedthismanifestlyscientific
property.89
Chen was only one of severalfiguresto insistthatevolutionary
changehad
the "six principles"invisibleto all but a specialistand thatthey
longsincerendered
But he had a flairforbringing
to themodernreader.90
irrelevant
werefunctionally
his workto the attentionof the public in wayscertainto provokeconsternation
innocuoustextas a
Thus, ratherthan choosinga culturally
amongtraditionalists.
he electedinsteadto exhibitthemin his own vershowcaseforhis simplifications,
sionsof suchhallowedtreatisesas thewillof Sun Yatsenand theConfucianclassic,
the GreatLearning(see illustration).This spectacularirreverence
guaranteedhis
worka measureof exposurewhichwould have been otherwiseimpossible,thereby
ensuringthathis wouldbe a namelastinglyengravedon themindsof conservatives
as one of the chiefdesecratorsof China's sacred script.91
Contentalwaysto abandonthe "six principles"in orderto save a stroke,still
he acceptedtheresponsibilChen did not fabricatecapriciously.
Quitethecontrary,
new
he
the
on
coherence
internal
for
system soughtto build,and for
ity
imposing
a kindof consistent
forthenewsimplified
applicationof
orthography
guaranteeing
to display.92
ceased
before
had
characters
that
the
old
structural
long
principles
88) See the commentsof G Hai (1934: 655), Wu Zhihui(1935), Zhou Gan (1935: 137), Xiao
Dichen(1935:43), FangTianyou(1935:407), and WangLiaoyi(1940:54). Also noteLi Jinxi'sremarks
in n. 51 above.
89) Wu Xinheng1935: 117.
of (My) SimplifiedChar90) Chen Guangyao,fB^JIS - MMHMiM [An Exemplification
1931:59-68, see pp. 61-62;
in Simplified
acters- theTestament
Characters],
(of Sun Yatsen)Rewritten
also "Hanzi jinhua zhongde yishuhua"(n. 11), 1931: 177; He Zhongying1922: 126; Bing 1935; Hu
Huaichen 1928; Li Jinxi1935a: 26.
China
91) Franke(1970:145)observedthat"in areasdominatedbytheKMT and laterthroughout
or
Sun Yat-sen'swill and portraitbecame symbols.In all officialceremoniesof party,government,
had to learn it by heart."
school his will was solemnlyread and all school-children
92) Chen Guangyao1938b: 10-11.
DAYLE BARNES
150
Chen Guangyao'sSimplifiedVersionof The GreatLearning9*
g) #
IS * *t fe '
^
' ^ ^ A
B
fli fl A
; ^ ]:&.&
Ic-i fi
T -^ ^
t T
i fe
% *> -k
<.
1^ t i *
' ' H
f6 ff?
; -k -frfr &
x ? + n n-
%rfe ik & & & ; ^ t'
ff) % ; ^ 7 ft ; ^
4? f " ib f- 7T ^ ;
g ; " f to 11 7T ff &
t " rb *V * + 7T -f* * % ir
i &
*> +
it * ?
" JrE "
3K. -4t
T ft '
B ^ 5 "
* IT E *,
fe -fr r^
of this205 charac93) Source:ChenGuangyao1927:389-392. Chencalculatedthathisrewriting
tertextresultedin a savingsof 943 strokes,or a 38 per cent reductionin complexity.
'
7T
ft 7T * * --
ti & ti * ** *
r "
&
|| fi h
il
X
-fc,I^r *7 # nNI
FF5 1^
Tf b
Pf y
&
^
Textin TraditionalCharacters
m 3c s * ti tf f l'i MX
^ ^ B
o m ai ^ ^ B^ w f is
t i I M I * I
g a 551I f?g
A1 E f ^ T W I
m & m ^^^î^ti
?& ^ f $o it
^*ffiiEtl5fe^5t
t I o ft g fcj
151
152
DAYLE BARNES
Often,thisled himto arguehis opinionabout a characteron the basis of its

or patternsinternalto thescript.Chen's fealtyto orgato characteristics
conformity
that
he
recognizedin the scriptwas notedby manymen. Li Jinxi's
nizingprecepts
"to sei
firstreactionto readingChen's workwas to advise himagainstattempting
a
flawless
Elsewhere,
consistent]
system[of simplifiedcharacters]."94
[internally
up
he was remindedthatthe sacrificeof an organizingprinciplein returnfora simplified characterthat people would use was good scriptreform,even if messy.95
in purgingthe scriptof its impuriThis advicewas not taken.His persistence
tiesand demandingtherestoration
of logic and symmetry
led himto takepositions
to
at variancewiththoseof a practicallyorientedmodernsimplifier.
He preferred
rewrite
widelyrecognizedsimplifiedformsso thattheybore moreaccuratewitness
to theirhistoricalantecedents.96
The significanceof these exertionswould have
been lost on an ordinaryreaderand could onlyhavebeen appreciated,said Ai Wei,
by a specialistin the earlyscript.97
4.4. The Treatmentof Cursive Characters
The inventory
of simplified
characters
thatChen soughtto compileincludedpopuand
fabricated
forms.
Cursiveforms,in particular,playeda
lar, cursive,ancient,
and hisallegianceto themwas unfalmajorrolein thecompositionof thatinventory
the
of
his
on
behalf
of simplification.98
This comteringthroughout years
activity
mitment
was reflected
in his works.Cursivecharacters
accountedforthirty
per cent
of the severalthousandsimplifiedgraphshe had collectedin the earliestdraftof
his neverfinishedmagnumopus, the Table of ChineseSimplifiedCharacters."A
similarfractionof theninehundredcharactersamplebased on the Table,and publishedin Lin Yutang'sLun yu columndevotedto simplifiedcharacters,
werecursives.100
when
Chen's
Table
in
Used
Characters
By 1936,
of Frequently
Simplified
of cursivecharacters
to all otherkindshad risen
Stylewas published,theproportion
to fortyfiveper cent.101
94) Chen Guangyao,"Jianziyundongshiji" (n. 13), 1931:21-22.

95) Chao [Qun] 1928: 40.
96) Chen Guangyao1936: 21, forju B 'to raise' and Chen Guangyao1938c:21, fortingH
'to hear'.
Chen ("JieshaoJianyi zi shuo" [n. 22], 1933: 116-117)earlier
97) Ai Wei 1965:147. Ironically,
foundfaultwithHu Huaichen'sJianyizi shuo (1928) forits attemptto reconstitute
moderncharacters
so as to conformbetterstructurally
withtheirancestors.
98) Chen Guangyao1930b:7; "Faqi jianzi yundonglinshixuanyan"(n. 20), 1931:8; 1938c:17.
99) ChenGuangyao,"Zhonghuajianzibiao zixu" (n. 75), 1933:99. The estimateis Chen'sown.
100) Chen Guangyao1934b:513-514. Again, the calculationis Chen's.
101) Chen Guangyao1936: 15. Ditto above.
153
The special significanceChen attachedto the use of cursivecharactersis

manifestin his reviewof Hu Huaichen's (1886-1938) Jianyizi shuo (1928), the
earliestmodernmonographon simplification.
Chen criticizedHu's refusalto draw
cursives
as
a
his
a decisionChen chargedthatwas
source
for
upon
simplifications,
in Hu's book to fewer
forrestricting
thenumberof characters
primarily
responsible
than fivehundred.102
Cursives,Chen said in this review,
are indeedan extremely
and themosteffective
meanstowardachievingsimimportant
of
the
character.
To
talk
about
but shrinkfromconChinese
plification
simplifying
siderableuse of cursivesis simplyto cut one's self off fromsimplification.103
Chen was not alone in recognizing

the importanceof cursiveformsin script
in
the
writer
who endorsedsimplification
was
without
Rare, fact,
simplification.
cursives.104
to theneedto incorporate
alludingfavorably
Qian Xuantong,forexama
dozen
earlierworkson curendorsed
them
and
culled
consistently105
ple,
through
sives in compilingthe Ministryof Education's list of simplifiedcharactersin
1935.106
Wheretheopinionsof Chen and mostof his contemporaries
divergedwas not
overacceptanceor rejectionof cursiveshapesbut on thequestionof howto present
them.Oughttheyto appear,in printand in classrooms,in the formtheywould
in orderto conform
Or shouldtheybe refashioned
assumein handwriting?
normally
to the shape of traditionalcharactersin print?
betweenthe two styleswas patent:not only werethe strokes
The difference
curvedratherthanlinear,buttheycharacteristically
of cursivegraphspredominantly
to uncheckedmovements
flowedinto one anotherwithoutinterruption,
testifying
of traditionalcharactersin print,
of the Chinesewritingbrush.The configuration
towardhoriinclinedtowardsquarishness,
bycontrast,
owingto thestrongtendency
zontaland verticalorientation
of theircomponents,and theirstrokesweremarked
and a propensity
towardangularity.
by discreteness
Could the swirling,aestheticallyelegantcursivestrokesof the calligraphic
to meetthe requirements
and suitablystandardized
mastersbe tamedto uniformity
in readingand writing?
in theaffirmative,
One group,answering
of massinstruction
102) Chen Guangyao,"JieshaoJianyi zi shuo" (n. 22), 1933: 121.

103) Ibid., 118-119.
1922:130;Hu Xingzhi1935:51-52; Xu Zemin1934:963; Zhou Qipeng1922:
104)He Zhongying
143. Also see text.
105) Qian Xuantong1920: 112-113; 1922: 162; 1935a; CBWYH 1934: 255.
106) Qian Xuantong1935b:398.
154
DAYLE BARNES
authorityto fixthe
arguedthatthe solutionlay in the applicationof government
Afterthat,institutionalization
of the writingprogram
shape of cursivestrokes.107
fromkindergarten
the
would
through
elementary
grades
guaranteea disciplined
Chen Guangyaowas of thispersuamasteryoverthe apparentlyunrulyforms.108
and
he
sion,
publishedmanyexperimental
piecesin whichangularand cursivecomponentsare routinely
juxtaposed.109
But Qian Xuantong,Lin Yutang,and otherstook the viewthatcharactersof
cursiveoriginshouldbe angularizedforprinting.110
Convincedthatonlyin thisway
could graphsof cursiveoriginacquireshapesof sufficient
definition
and individualitybothto ensurepedagogicalsuccessand to comportwiththe technicaldemands
of engraving,
Qian earlytook the attitudethat
in thestandardized
form[ofthesecursive
shouldbe made
components],
everyeffort
in everystroke,
to achievediscreteness
to theextentthatwithout
strokes
exception
in originarerefashioned
whicharecursive
in accordwiththeangularstylefoundin
print.111
4.5. The Scope of the Reform
So precociouswas Chentheman and so atypicalwerehis ideas thathis mostradical
seemsto have been only
departurefromthe acceptedwisdomabout simplification
The
record
shows
that
he
was
a consistent
and uncomimperfectly
perceived.
clearly
of the entireactivecharacterinventory.
promisingexponentof totalsimplification
The unavoidablecorollaryof this stanceis thatthe changesin the Chinesescript
would affectall of its users,accomplishedones as well as beginners.Neitherthe
illiterate
and commandingly
would
literateminority
majoritynor the comfortably
be exemptfromthesechanges.
107) Bian Gaotian 1935: 12-13; Hu Xingzhi1935: 52; Wen Tisheng1935: 4; Xu Zemin 1934:
963; Zui Zhu 1935: 8.
Bian proposeda grammatical
basis fordetermin108) Bian Gaotian 1935: 11. Less convincingly,
occurredin print:contentwordsin traditional
relaters
form;intensifiers,
ingthestylein whichcharacters
and connectors,
and grammatically
termsin cursive(1935: 11-12).
exclamations,
significant
109) Chen Guangyao 1927: 389-390; "Jianzili shuo - jianxie zongli yizhu" (n. 90), 1931:
of (My) SimplifiedCharacters,
no. 2. 65-66; ffi^S^!l:Zl - fB rggfr_l[An Exemplification
in Simplified
The Strainsof thePipa Rewritten
1931:
see
ffi^S^feH
75-81,
78-81;
Characters],
pp.
of (My) Simplified
no. 3. - The ThousandCharacter
-ffiSPF ? 5tJ[An Exemplification
Characters,
- fB
in SimplifiedCharacters],1931: 82-89, see pp. 86-89; M^B$iPB
Classic Rewritten
of (My) SimplifiedCharacters,no. 4.
The PingminDictionary
r^fi^ JIJ[An Exemplification
in SimplifiedCharacters],1931:90-96, see pp. 93-96. See also Chen Guangyao1953: 6,
Rewritten
forhis explicitendorsement
of thisposition.
110)Qian Xuantong1935a: 365; [Lin] Yutang1933:217; Zhou Gan 1935: 137; TongZhonggeng
1934: 3.
Ill) Qian Xuantong1930: 74.
155
A moment'sreflection
shouldconfirmthateverycomponentin Chen's vision
and no doubtadversely,
affect
of a simplified
would
disproportionately,
orthography
literates.
Thus, forexample,commonsensesuggeststhat,whilechangingthe shape
in commonuse could notbut helptheman aimingat rudimenof all thecharacters
taryliteracyand controloverthe some hundredsof charactersthatthis required,
stillit wouldhave entailedmajor adjustmentsin the readingbehaviorof educated
of existing
was predicatedon automaticrecognition
Chinesewhosehard-wonliteracy
thatChen proposedto alter.In thisregard,notethat
formsof themanycharacters
mostoften
not eventhemostfrequently
occurringcharacters- theverycharacters
with
eventhosewritten
seenbymaturereaders wouldbe immunefromalteration,
fewstrokes.And foreverystrokesaved throughfabricationit would be
relatively
literates
who paid theprice,becausetheneed to fabricateimpliedtheunavailability
charvariantalreadyin commonuse: a suresignthatthetraditional
of a simplified
acterwas the special propertyof the cognoscenti.112
intoclearfocus.To be sure,they
neverdrewtheseinferences
Chen's detractors
oftenderidedhim forwritingsimplifiedcharactersthatliteratescould not read.113
But theywerecontentto faulthimfora perverseobduracyor to dismisstheoffending partsof his workas freakish.His iconoclasmwas perceivedwithoutpresentimentas quaint,zany. Its effectwas to amuse ratherthan to alarm.
Perhapsthe reasonhe was lampoonedbut not pilloriedwas because he did
in martialterms.But a moreplausible
not phrasehis ambitionsforsimplification
reasonforthe leniencyaccordedhimby his criticsmaybe foundin the underlying
about languagereformin generalthat influencedtheirparticular
presuppositions
answeredtheneed foran expedientaroundwhich
reactionsto Chen. Simplification
in thecouncould rallyin orderto alleviateilliteracy
coreof progressives
a sufficient
were
Its benefitsto illiterates
trysideand among the uneducatedurban masses.114
wereon the whole
modest,but thenthe coststo the literatecommunity
admittedly
too.
quite negligible,
Viewedthroughthis prism,Chen's worksimplyappearedoff the mark,his
viewsthose of a man on a binge.Men missedthe point of what he was saying
because Chen, for all his bizarrenotions about simplification,
upheld a script
112) See his examplesin Chen Guangyao,"Danghua jiaoyu yu jianzi" (n. 45), 1931:42-44.
113) By Hu Shi (Chen Guangyao,"Jianziyundongshiji" [n. 13], 1931:23-24); G Hai 1934:
655; Gao Zhi 1934: 425; Zhou Gan 1935: 136; Shen Youqian 1937: 96.
drivesupported
114)My readingindicatesthat,by the 1930s,the leadersof the simplification
in all publishing
domains.The size of theinventory
characters
theeventualuse of simplified
uniformly
half that of Chen Guangyao's.
was approximately
however,
theyplannedto simplify,
156
DAYLE BARNES
based on characters.Unlikethe phoneticizers,

he was not a loony who soughtto
overturn
theeliteand theirculture.Nevertheless,
it cannotbe deniedthatas a script
reformer
his viewsplace him among the most egalitarianof his day.
5. The Continuityof Constraintson CharacterSimplification
The severalpositionsChen took in the 1930swithrespectto charactersimplification
wereat variancewiththose of most men sympathetic
to simplification.
The most
influential
of thesemen belongedto the government's
languagecommissionwhich
advisedthe Ministryof Education.Whenthe Ministryof Educationformulated
a
in 1935,theirviewsnaturallybecamethepolicyof
plan forcharactersimplification
the government.
An examinationof the principalfeaturesof thatplan underscores
the extentChen was out of step withhis contemporaries.
5.1. The Policy of the Ministryof Education,1935
The Ministryof Educationrejectedthe propositionthateach and everycharacter,
evencharacters
withrelatively
fewstrokes,shouldbe consideredeligibleforsimplification. It took the positionthatexistingcharacterswhichwerealreadysufficiently
simpleneed not be further
This, of course,was a rejectionof Chen's
simplified.115
convictionthatno characters
shouldbe exemptedif anothercharacterhavingfewer
strokescould be foundto replaceit. Since a characteralreadysimplemightnot for
thatreasonhave a simplifiedvariant,the attemptto supplyone forit mightwell
involverecourseto fabrication.
ruledout, and in so doingunderThis,theMinistry
lined its intentionto concentrateonly on troublesomecharacters,includingboth
characterswithtoo manystrokesas well as those considereddifficultbecause of
theirparticularmix or balance of components.
Neitherwas the total inventory
markedfor simplification
to includeall the
charactersin modernuse, minusonlythe verysimpleones. The Ministryadopted
theattitudethatsimplification
was worthwhile
onlyif thecharacterin questionwas
bothdifficult
to writeand frequently
used.116By subscribing
to thecriterion
of use,
the Ministryindicatedthat its primaryconcernwas with that charactercorpus
deemedessentialfora groupwhose readingneeds and readingfacilitywereboth
modest.Qian Xuantong'stargeton behalfof theMinistry
of Education's1935plan
was 2,400characters,
to be releasedin severallistsovertime.This was approximately
the same numberof characterssupposedlytaughtin the elementary
school system,
115) MOE 1935: 3.

116) Wang Shijie 1935.
157
wouldbe thosewhoseeducaof simplification

thatthechiefbeneficiaries
implying
tionsterminated
with,or did not exceed,six yearsof schooling.117
Simplification
was not to extendbeyondthatto includeall of the 5,000-6,000 charactersserving
the maturereaderwithan advancededucation.
principally
educatedsegment
onlyforthe minimally
Havingdecidedupon simplification
of the population,and confidentthatthe 2,400 simplifiedcharactersforthispurdid not need to look elsethegovernment
pose werealreadyavailableindigenously,
wherefor additionalsourcesof simplercharacters.It specificallyrenouncedany
intention
of usingfabrications,
explainingthattheirlack of a basis in the history
It was,
of thescriptdeprivedthemof thelegitimacy
necessaryfortheiracceptance.118
of course,the acceptanceof limitedsimplification
by those alreadyliteratewhich
men of Chen's
Thus did the progressive
wouldhavebeen imperiledby fabrication.
timeexpresstheirown aversionto graphicconcoctionsalien to theireliteculture.
cursiveswithtradiLastly,the Ministryof Educationelectednot to intermix
tional angularstylecharacters.Qian Xuantong,compilerof the originallist, exa bias in favorof those
reflected
plainedthathis choice of characterconstituents
whichwould be easy for "children,[uneducated]adults, and those withoutany
talent"to acquire.Guidedby thisprinciple,Qian was willingto
specialcalligraphic
accepta certainnumberof cursiveelementsprovidedthatthe "dots and lineswere
and thatthe linkagesbetweenelementswereboth leveland
clearlydistinguishable
His draftof 2,440 characterswas submittedto the Ministrywithits
straight."119
of printedmaterial,120
in the traditionalangularstylecharacteristic
graphswritten
the same stylein whichall but a handfulof the 324 charactersin the Ministry's
FirstList of SimplifiedCharacterswereissued.121
5.2. The Policyof the People's Republicof China
of the People's
becamethe policyof thegovernment
Whencharactersimplification
in
most
taken
in
the
of
China
1956,
by
simplifiers 1935,and by
positions
Republic
117)Gu Liangjie 1935:404. The /JÛHRffl?* [ProvisionalList of CharactersforElemenSee Ai Wei 1965:

of Educationin 1935contained2,711characters.
tarySchool]compiledbytheMinistry
57-58.
118) WangShijie 1935.
119) Qian Xuantong1935a: 365.
120) Li Jinxi1935e.
121)MOE 1935:18-19; Anon. 1935:74. Owingto thesubsequentcancellationof theMinistry's
was everpublished.The bulkof thecharacters
displaying
onlytheFirstList of 324 characters
program,
at the requestof the Shanghaipublishingcommunity
of cursiveoriginhad been deferred
components
in subsequentlistsand did not therefore
forpromulgation
appear. Li Jinxi1935b.
158
DAYLE BARNES
theChineseNationalistGovernment's
of Educationand its languageadviMinistry
were
ratified
in 1956 of positionstaken
anew.
The
reaffirmation
commission,
sory
in the 1930srevealeda continuity
of thinking
withrespectto simplification
thatwas
in timeand circumstances.
not alteredby obviousdifferences
The culturalsignificance of thatcontinuity
is underscored
by the factthatin 1956none of thetwentytwo membersof the government's
commissionon scriptreform(Zhongguowenzi
gaigeweiyuanhui
43l3t?Sfc^3l#) was involvedin simplification
priorto 1935,
Li Jinxi,and none was a memberof the government's
excepting
languagecommission in the 1930s,withthe exceptionof Li Jianxiand Wei Jiangonglio.122
Fourteenof thetwenty-two
held appointments
in the ChineseAcademyof Sciences
in 1955.123
fortheirtraAmongthe2,238characters
officially
designatedas replacements
ditionalformsin thePeople's Republicof China,theaveragenumberof strokesper
characteris approximately
ten, reducedfroman averageof sixteenper character
This resultwas achievedbya morethanfifty
priorto simplification.
percentreduction in the numberof charactersoriginallywrittenwithelevenand more strokes,
themas characterswithten or fewerstrokes.This levelof simplification
rewriting
increasedby ninefold(from141 to 1,267) the numberof charactersin the group
whichrequiredtenor fewerstrokesto write,nonetheless
stoppingwellshortof Chen
ambition
to
reduce
the
number
of
strokesin the entireactive
Guangyao's
average
to six or seven.124
inventory
In 1956,the government,
speakingthroughthe chairmanof its scriptreform
commission,acceptedthe earlierresearchindicatingthatthe numberof characters
in actual use numberbetween6,000-7,000 and further
statedthat approximately
halfof themshouldbe consideredcandidatesforsimplification.125
The decisionto
that
number
of
characters
reflected
the
of
the
of Education,
simplify
policy
Ministry
whichas earlyas 1950adoptedthe strategy
of simplifying
onlythatportionof the
used
which
the
incidence
of use.126
actually
inventory
displayed
highest
Fabricationwas rejectedas a meansof simplification.
in
Languageauthorities
the early1950sexplicitly
characterized
theirapproachto scriptreformin termsof
of the Preparatory
Commissionforthe Unificationof the NationalLan122) For membership
guage,see CBWYHMD (1929: 29-31), and forthatof the Committeeforthe Reformof the Chinese
WrittenLanguage,see WangXuewen1967: 15.
123) HKDGB, June6, 1955.
124)WangXuewen(1967:295-298), citingLiu BohuangSlHS, ffift^ ^Wffi [TheMerits
of theComprehensive
List of SimplifiedCharacters],
%$ftB$g [Guangming
newspaper],
July21, 1965.
125) Wu Yuzhang1956.
126) Yi Xiwu 1952: 32.
159
theprincipleof shu er bu zuo "to transmit

and not to create."Departuresfromthis
in
were
instances
whereno simpleformwas availablein
practice
permissible
only
popularusage to replacea demonstrably
importantcomplexcharacter.127
No specialattemptwouldbe made duringthe processof reformto bringthe
withthe"six principles"of structural
formsintoconformity
simplified
organization
in theformative
manifested
periodof thescript.Accordingto government
language
in
its
evolution
ceased
to
the
had
centuries
earlier
authorities, script
already
express
sucha puresystem,
and it was thoughtthat,apartfrombeinga hopelesstask,trying
lineswould simplyincreasethe number
to remodeltoday'sscriptalong yesterday's
China's scriptwas like
of charactersthatliteratepeople would have to relearn.128
a charmingold house: posts no longerplumb,lintelsno moretrue,porchaslant,
windowsaskew,roofawry,it could not be put straight,
but,forall that,it was still
serviceableand those familiarwithits quirkscould live in it compatibly.
endorsedthe printing
styleas the normativeshape of
Finally,thegovernment
to simplify
restedon theconvictionthat
The motivation
its simplified
characters.129
and
be
easier
for
learners
the abbreviated
formswould
first,to acquireinitially,
afterthat to write.The common intuitionjudged that, for learners,the plane
of theprintedformwas morepracticalthanthegracefulbutunpredictable
geometry
whorlsof the cursive.130
6. Chen Guangyaoin the 1950s
in theearly1950swithhis earlierwork
A comparisonof Chen Guangyao'swritings
revealsthat the salientaspects of his thinkingsurvivedthe war yearsessentially
intact,althoughnot entirelywithoutmodification.131
127) Anon. 1954: 91. Later,the formulashu er bu zuo was changedto yue ding su cheng
$3fOc"acceptancebased on commonpractice."
128) Wu Yuzhang1978: 95-96. See also Ye Gongchuo1957: 26-27.
129) Anon. 1954:91. Despitethis,Chen Guangyaoas late as 1953continuedto arguethe case
forcursiveelementsin print(1953: 6).
130) Ye Gongchuo1957: 34.
on Chen Guangyao'slifeand activitieson behalf
131)I havebeenunableto obtaininformation
the
end of thewarhe was makinga livingbyoperat1939-1949.
the
of simplification
By
during period
in the NationalistParty,Zheng Linxi secureda
Chen's
In
of
a
past membership
ing drugstore. spite
staffpositionforhimin theCommitteeforthe Reformof theChineseWritten
Language,whereChen
remaineduntilhis deathin 1973/74,in Beijing.Chen's influencecontinuedto be limitedby his lack
associationwiththeNationalistParty,as wellas byhis dedicaof a university
degreeand byhispre-war
than othersregardedas eithernecessary
tionto a farmorecomprehensive
programof simplification
or acceptable(Zheng Linxi 1988).
160
DAYLE BARNES
His attackson characters

withtoo manystrokesmighteasilyhavebeenxeroxed
1952 list of 2,000 traditionalcharacters,
fromearlierarticles.In the government's
an irreducibleminimumfor literacy,Chen calculatedthat nearlythree-quarters
requirednine or more strokesto write.132
Among the simplifiedvariantsChen
offeredto replacethem,ninety-nine
cent
per
comprisedno morethaneightstrokes,
and none requiredmore than ten.133Borrowingan argumentfromhis critics,he
suggestedagain that characterswithfewerthan ten strokes- such as shi 'to
be', he fP 'and', and de H/ fi 'markerof attribution'- be simplifiedprovided
that theymet the criterionof frequentuse.134
thatsimplification
wouldbe confinedto the
Resignednow to the inevitability
of
and
reasonable
existingbody
simplergraphs,components,
extrapolationsof
to an
these,Chen tacitlyacquiescedin assigningthegreaterpartof his fabrications
limbo.
This
decision
that
characters
would
orthographic
implied
only2,000-3,000
everundergosimplification,
but thatconcessioncould be justifiedby reference
to
the government's
contentionthat simplification
was but a transitory
on
the
stage
More, it acknowledgedthatthe interests
path leadingto eventualphoneticization.
in thestability
of theliterates
of thecharacterinventory
wouldbe respected.135
And
it followedas a corollarythattherecould be littlejustificationfor reestablishing
internalcongruencein a scriptwithonly a transientrole to play in the future.136
Chenjettisonedhis insistancethatcursiveformsbe taughtto beginnersat the
outset,agreeingwiththe majoritythatgeometricshapes wereeasier to teach and
learnthancurvilinear
ones.137That, however,
lefthim freeto championevenmore
stronglythe advantagesin speed and economyof executionto be derivedfrom
generalizeduse of suitablystandardizedcursivecharactersby more accomplished
writers.138
This pictureof Chen's viewsin his fortieslacks the tidinesshe displayedin
his twenties.Did he reallymean to propoundtwo typesof cursives,one forabecedariansand one formaturewriters?
And was his apparentsurrender
of fabrications
in places
compatiblewiththe studiedwayin whichhe cached some of his favorites
132) Chen Guangyao1955b: 11, 17.
133) Ibid., 35.
a limitednumberof such oftenused termsin
134) Ibid.y 16. He was evenpreparedto rewrite
theseamongcharacters
zhuyinfuhaofff(the ChineseNationalPhoneticAlphabet),interspersing
in the text.
135) Chen Guangyao1955c: 18.
136) Id. 1955b:37; 1955c: 18.
137) Id. 1955b: 19, 34; 1955c: 18.
138) Id. 1955b: 15, 17.
161
was unwhereothersmightlaterfindand care forthem?139

Or, if thatsurrender
the
conditions
under
which
the
conditional,whydid he so carefully
governspecify
These ambiguitieswereto go
mentdid have a mandateto inventcharacters?140
unresolved.Even as he wrestledwiththem,the realityof charactersimplification
in Chinacaughtup withhimand swepton by,makingtheanswersto all thesequestionsboth speculativeand no longerpertinent.
mustbe appraisedin termsof the choices
Chen's careeras a scriptreformer
availableto him fromhis cultureand the selectionshe made fromthattradition.
thatthetraditionalscriptwas too cumbrousand difficult
He beganby complaining
His solutionwas a technically
to
learn.
forordinary
simplerscriptrequiring,
people
alienatednot
moreof those alreadyliterate.His redesignedorthography
however,
to
of
conservatives
the
hard-core
implacablyopposed any changewhatsoever.
only
It also failedto attractthe much largergroup of moderatesreceptiveto modest
depended.Chen's designofferedthem
changeupon whose supportsimplification
an orthographic
utopia maximallyparsimoniousof line and purgedof extraneous
and occasionaljumbleof nevertheless
in exchangefortheasymmetry
ornamentation
familiarand readilymanipulableshapes.
fordrawingthe
Chenassumedtheroleof an engineer,
acceptingresponsibility
the properdegreeof arc. Slighted
the correctangle,inscribing
rightline,drafting
was theorganicquality
and technicalwizardry
in thistourde forceof ratiocination
and theircapacityto commandloyaltyfromtheirusers.His work
of thecharacters
of a mechanisticsolutionto scriptchangewhich
offersa strikingdemonstration
to efficiency.
culturalaffinity
subordinates
A rivercan be dredged,itsbanksshored,its flowchanneledin newdirections;
husbanded,harnessedto newtasks,raisedor lowered,purifiedor polluted.But one
cannotchangethe water,forthatis whata riveris. A scriptis whatit meansand
what it signifiesin the mindsand in the hands of those who use it. That is the
messageembodiedin WangLiaoyi's wordsthatbegan thisarticle.Not hearingit,
wereunableto recognizeas ChiChenGuangyaocreateda scripthis contemporaries
withintheircommon
and
within
themselves
from
voices
nese.Guidedby
ultimately
culture,theymade choicesmoreat ease withboth.
9-11, also 1955b:35, wherefabrica139)For example,see Chen Guangyao1955c:29, footnotes

rubrics.
underunobjectionable
tionsare simplyreclassified
140) Chen Guangyao1953; 1955a: 12; 1955b:29-30.
162
DAYLE BARNES
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A CONTINUITY OF CONSTRAINTS ON ORTHOGRAPHIC CHANGE: CHEN GUANGYAO AND

Mon. Ser. 38 (1988-89)

A CONTINUITY OF CONSTRAINTS ON ORTHOGRAPHIC

CHEN GUANGYAO AND CHARACTER SIMPLIFICATION*

1. Scriptand Societyin Chen Guangyao'sTime

1) This briefsketchis condensedfromSheridan1977: 18.

CHEN GUANGYAO AND CHARACTER SIMPLIFICATION

bywhichis meanttheacceptanceof thesimplervariantof an extantcomplexgraph

Chen Guangyao(1906-1973/74)was not a seminalintellectual

about languagewas his principalpassion.16Languagewas also thebasis of

CHEN GUANGYAO AND CHARACTER SIMPLIFICATION

24) Chen Guangyao,"Jianziyundongshiji" (n. 13), 1931:20; Li Jinxi1934.

the LiteracyAssociationin Beijing,urgingit to adopt simplifiedcharactersin its

CHEN GUANGYAO AND CHARACTER SIMPLIFICATION

Qian had just spentthepreviousyearengagedin thecreationof a Latinletter

37) Li Jinxi1935a: 164.

42) Chen Guangyao1930a,passim, also "JieshaoJianyizi shuo" (n. 22), 1933,passim.

withWangYunwuof theCom44) [Lin] Yutang1933:217. Chen'sMay 2, 1928,correspondence

CHEN GUANGYAO AND CHARACTER SIMPLIFICATION

jianzibiao Sfflffi^il. A good exposi(6) [ChenGuangyao1936]Changyong

insistencethatthe entiretraditionalcharactercorpushad to be retainedinviolate,

48) Chen Guangyao1938b: 10.

CHEN GUANGYAO AND CHARACTER SIMPLIFICATION

is pronouncedpin and signifies

fifteenor fewerstrokes,and sixtyper cent of themhad ten or fewer.62

It was widelybelievedthat,althoughthe cumulativehistoricaltotal of characters

CHEN GUANGYAO AND CHARACTER SIMPLIFICATION

The effectof thisdecisionwas to qualifyeverycharacterforsimplification,

Chen Guangyaoelectedto treatall the charactersin the 5,000-6,000 itemcorpus

72) Chen Guangyao,"Jianzitongxunershipian" (n. 26), 1933: 161.

imaginedthatthesesourcesevenin the aggregatecould be made to yield5,000of the originals.

The possibilityof fabricating

79) Chen Guangyao,"Jianziyundongzhi huigu"(n. 11), 1933: 58-59.

CHEN GUANGYAO AND CHARACTER SIMPLIFICATION

Chen Guangyao'sSimplifiedVersionof The GreatLearning9*

%rfe ik & & & ; ^ t'

CHEN GUANGYAO AND CHARACTER SIMPLIFICATION

Often,thisled himto arguehis opinionabout a characteron the basis of its

94) Chen Guangyao,"Jianziyundongshiji" (n. 13), 1931:21-22.

CHEN GUANGYAO AND CHARACTER SIMPLIFICATION

The special significanceChen attachedto the use of cursivecharactersis

Chen was not alone in recognizing

102) Chen Guangyao,"JieshaoJianyi zi shuo" (n. 22), 1933: 121.

CHEN GUANGYAO AND CHARACTER SIMPLIFICATION

based on characters.Unlikethe phoneticizers,

115) MOE 1935: 3.

CHEN GUANGYAO AND CHARACTER SIMPLIFICATION

wouldbe thosewhoseeducaof simplification

117)Gu Liangjie 1935:404. The /J^UHRffl?* [ProvisionalList of CharactersforElemenSee Ai Wei 1965:

CHEN GUANGYAO AND CHARACTER SIMPLIFICATION

theprincipleof shu er bu zuo "to transmit

His attackson characters

CHEN GUANGYAO AND CHARACTER SIMPLIFICATION

was unwhereothersmightlaterfindand care forthem?139

9-11, also 1955b:35, wherefabrica139)For example,see Chen Guangyao1955c:29, footnotes

Ai Wei XW. 1965. gt? ?& [The Problemof ChineseCharacters].Taibei:Guoli bianyiguan.

CBWYH mmSn-. 1934.SB-+H^-^-fcBIHIStt-lliS#-+*1$#

CHEN GUANGYAO AND CHARACTER SIMPLIFICATION

. 1938b. ?4*tWSffl [ScientificEducation and SimplifiedCharacters],Jinlun heng

yuwen 32 (Feb.): 11, 12-13.

in ModernChina: ChangChieny1853-1926. New York:CoChu, SamuelC. 1965.Reformer

Liao Weifan. 1965.ffifraHf?T:S