Global Business Review

Volume 6, Issue No. 1 (2005)

Marketing Theory and Practice: Evolving

through Turbulent Times
Joffi Thomas
Rajen K. Gupta

The macro -environmental changes brought about by technological advances and globalization in the last
decade had significant influences at all levels: the economy, industries, markets and the consumer. The
article reviews developments in marketing theory and practice over the last two decades against the backdrop
of these macro -influences which led to bord erless, connected knowledge economy, globalizing, converging
and consolidating industries., fragmenting and frictionl ess markets, active, connected, informed and
demanding customers and a complex, distinctly different competitive scenario.
Organizations' attempts to adapt to these changing environmental realities have effected changes in the
focus (value distribution to value creation), emphasis (customer acquisition to customer retention) and
scope (immediate customer to value-chain) of marketing. Changes in marketing practice have brought about
fundamental theoretical shifts in marketing. The shifts are from a goods-centred view to service -cent red
view and co-creating valued customer experience; attention to social processes in consumption/marketing
than the economic processes atone; and from firm perspective to customer perspective in understanding
marketing/consumption phenomena. The dominant marketing mix paradigm was found inadequate in incorp orating these theoretical shifts and this led to the develop ment of the relationship marketing paradigm in
marketing. The research areas, relationship marketing, services marketing, market orientation and marketing
productivity received increased attention from the research community during the last decade.

Contemporary developments in marketing

theory and practice have to be seen against
the backdrop of changes in the macro environment to understand its causes as well

its implications. The last two decades have

witnessed dramatic changes in the marketing environment characterized by unprecedented levels of diversity, knowledge

Joffi Thomas is a Research Scholar at the Management Development Institute, Gurgaon, Haryana. E-mail:
fpm0 1_thomas@mdi.ac .in
Rajen K. Gupta is Professor, 1IR and OB, at the Management Development Institute, Gurgaon, Haryana. E-mail:
rgupta@mdi.ac.in
GLOBAL BUSINESS R EVIEW , 6:1 (2005)
Sage Publications New Delhi/Thousand Oaks/London
DOI: 10.1177/D9721509050O6OO107

96 Joffi Thomas and Rajen K. Gupta

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richness and turbulence, as envisaged by

Achrol (1991). The turbulence in the business
environment created by macro-environmental
changes, namely, technological advances
and globalization, poses challenges that are
to be addressed by marketing practitioners
and these issues then have a role in driving
the practice as well as the theoiy development
in the discipline. The article starts by setting
the context enumerating the major changes
in the environment in the last decade which
has direct implications for marketing. It later
reviews the major areas of research and then
the innovations in practice. Figure 1 gives an
overview of how the macro- environmental
influences and changes at different levels7
the economy, industry, market and customer
are effecting developments in marketing
theory and practice.
Environmental Changes
Technological advances and globalization
can be identified as the two key macro influences that had significant impact at all levels
in the last two decades.
Technology Advances and Globalization

The technological developments, especially

in computers and communications, have
made the traditional economic concepts of
scale, scope and structure irrelevant in the
new economy, removing the time and place
barriers of doing business (Sheth 1992).
The emergence of the Internet as a costeffective faster information channel has
made it feasible for firms to focus on their
core competence and outsource other activities to be performed. Though the information revolution and services revolution

are two sides of the same coin, the technological forces combined with forces of
globalization have resulted in the transformation of the economy, industries, markets and customers, resulting in a connected
knowledge economy, borderless global
economy, globalizing, converging and consolidating industries, fragmenting and
frictionless markets and active, connected,
informed and demanding customers.
Borderless Global Economy

There is increasing globalization of the

domestic economy, primarily through global
sourcing and competition (Sheth 1992).
Marketing practices will have to understand
and adjust to this reality of a borderless economy (Ohmae 1990). Borderless markets
emerge when four flows of products/ser vices, people, money and information (Reich
1991) are driven by market practices and
without government intervention. In a
borderless economy, marketing practices
related to procurement, marketing mix and
customer understanding are bound to
change. The traditiona l beliefs about the role
of the market economy and private enterprises across the world have been changing
over the last decade. This has resulted in
privatization of the public sector, less regulation of most industries and development of
pro-competitive policies to encourage innovation and the efficiency of different sectors
of the economy, across the globe. Also, significantly different market practices across
nations, which were based on governmenttrade and employment policies, are likely to
give way to more market- based practices in
the future. The World Trade Organization and
international financial institutions played a

Marketing Theory and Practice: Evolving through Turbulent Times 97

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Figure 1
Environmental Changes and Developments in Ma rketing Theory and Practice
MacroEnvironmental
Influences

Changes at
Different Levels

Economy
Borderless global
economy
Connected
knowledge
economy
Technological
Advances

Globalization

Industry
Globalizing,
consolidating
and converging
industries

Market
Fragmenting and
homogenizing
market
Sellers -buyers
market

Customer
Active, informed,
connected and
demanding
customer
Increased choice

major role, along with technology advances in

the making of the borderless global economy.
Day and Montgomery (1999) have identified five
environmental trends which influence
marketing: these are the connected knowledge
economy,
consolidating,
converging
industries, fragmenting and friction-less
markets, demanding consumer and adaptive
organizations.

Developments in
Marketing Theory

Fundamental Shifts
Goods to service-centred view
Economic-Social process
Firm to customer perspective
Paradigm Shift
Research Focus Areas
Relationship marketing
Services marketing
Marketing orientation
Marketing productivity
Changing Marketing Practice
Shift in Focus
Value distribution to co-creating
unique consumer value
Mass production to mass
customization
Shift in Emphasis
Customer acquisition to retention
Shift in Scope
Immediate customer to value-chain
Competition to collaboration
Hierarchies to networks
Impact of IT on Marketing
Internet, electronic networks and
marketing practice
Changing Role of Marketing
Tactics to strategy/culture

The Connected Knowledge Economy

Marketing in the old economy operated

under the implicit assumption of diminishing
returns. There the assumption was that firms,
after reaching a particular size, face an upward
facing marginal cost curve. Thus, it was
presumed that the firm has no incentive to
grow beyond a particular size and hence

98 Joffi Thomas and Rajen K. Gupta

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there is room for more players. This was in

fact considered the appropriate model for
'make and sell' firms that employ a lot of
resources in bulk processing. In emerging
increasing returns industries, there is a tendency for bigger firms to become even bigger
(Arthur 1996). Arthur cites three reasons for
the increasing return transformation of the
industries: (i) upfront costs, (ii) network
effects, and (iii) grooving in. Products in
industries like pharmaceuticals, computer
hardware and software, aircraft and missiles,
telecommunication, bioengineered drugs,
are difficult to design and typically have
large R&D costs relative to their production
costs. Given high 'upfront costs', the unit
costs reduce with increasing sales. Many of
the high- tech products (for example, computer hardware and software) need to be
compatible with a network of users (network
effects). With more number of users, it is likely to become the standard. Thus, it brings
economies in marketing the product. Further,
as customers get used to certain products,
they tend to get 'grooved in' with the suppliers, depending on the switching costs
involved.
Globalizing, Converging and
Consolidating Industries

Advances in information technolo gy coupled

with increased reach, power and accessibility
of the media have accelerated the globalization process. There has been a continual
progression from a world of distinct and selfcontained markets to one of linked global
markets. This is being accelerated by the
persistent forces of homogenization of customer needs, gradual liberalization of trade
and the recognition of competitive advantages of a global presence. The distinction

between many of the traditional industrialclasses is also blurring because of the digitalization that has enabled product function
and customer benefits to merge. The question emerges as to whether the personal computer is a consumer product, an educational
product or an entry into the network or business. The custo mer perceived value for the
same product could be distinctly different
for different groups depending on the bene fits sought. This convergence of industries
brings varied sets of competitors for the same
product and they can be very diverse and
unexpected . Isolating mechanisms in the
industry, such as patent protection, import
barriers, regulation, distinct local tastes, etc.,
creates stability in the market structure and
patterns of competition. When these isolating mechanisms are removed, the consumer
has a greater array of choices before him/
her. Industries facing intensified competition
can thus no longer sustain a large number
of competitors comfortably, resulting in
consolidation, convergence and globalization.
Fragmenting and Homogenizing Markets

The impact of the key macro influences of

globalization and technology advances are
forcing changes in how the markets function
and firms relate to consumers. Two potentially conflicting forces, homogenization and
fragmentation, are at work in most markets
leading to a different balance as these conflicting forces are reconciled (Day and
Montgomery 1999). Globalization has
powerful influence on the homogenization
of different markets. As intense communication occurs across the globe, international
brands get built. Further, better education,
wider travel and more leisure lead to the

Marketing Theory and Practice: Evolving through Turbulent Times 99

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convergence of lifestyles. At the same time,

mass customization and sense and respond
strategies (Haeckel 1999) adopted by organizations can lead to the fragmentation of
markets over time. The increase in number
of offers/competitors makes it imperative
for a firm to continuously modify its market
offerings. Also, with a wide variety of comparable competitive offerings, there is an
increase in customer switching due to varietyseeking or value- seeking customers.
Active, Connected, Informed and
Demanding Customers

Globalization and technology forces have

together significantly increased customer
choice and have given them total access by
drastically removing time and place barriers.
This has permanently altered the competitive landscape of business across the globe.
The saturation of markets in developed
countries, combined with the growth potential in developing countries, has made leading global companies compete with each
other in most of their markets as well as with
regional players in those markets. This has
resulted in intense competition in many
areas and has therefore spurted innovative
developments in marketing theory to enable
organizations to understand customers and
markets. The technology has helped in informing, empowering and enabling the
consumers 'total access', as McKenna (2001)
propounds. The Internet has enabled information sharing among co-consumers and
has facilitated the formation of consumer
communities. With easier access to information, consumers can better discriminate
while making choices, and as Lhey embolden
each other to act and speak out (Prahalad
and kamaswamy 2004). These developments

have changed the consumer from a passive

member in the value-chain to an active participant in value-creation activities by interacting with firms and judiciously making
choices. Thus, the role of the consumer has
changed from isolated to connected, from
unaware to informed and from passive to
active (Prahalad et al. 2004).

Theoretical Developments in
Marketing Discipline

The last decade has been one of market ing (Brownlie et al. 1999). With globalization
imperatives gaining a stronghold, markets
were being offered as a solution to the challenges of whole societies. Traditional marketing paradigms and concepts appeared less
relevant in the demanding environment.
There has been rethinking on the scope of
marketing as well the methodological issues
in knowledge creation, starting from its
philosophical foundations of realism and
relativism. The proponents of postmodern
thinking in marketing have driven home the
importance of methodological pluralism, the
need for rethinking on the dominant marketing paradigm and the development of a general theory of marketing. These developments brought about fundamental shifts in
marketing, effecting a paradigm shift, and
made the discipline focus on research areas
demanding an understanding of both theoretical concepts and practical issues.
Fundamental Shifts in Marketing Discipline

Marketing discipline has undergone fundamental shifts in the last two dacades to remain up-to- date with changes in different
levels of the economy. Fundamental shifts

100 Joffi Thomas and Rajen K. Gupta

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have occurred in (/) the approach (goodsservices and co-creating valued customer
experience); (//) domain (increased attention to
social processes than economic processes in
consumption); and (Hi) perspective (firm to
consumer) of marketing .
Goods to Services and Co-creating
Customer Experience

The information revolution which brought with

it a revolutionary new capability to leverage
knowledge and information in firms led to
the emergence of the connected knowledge
economy. There has been shift from the
traditional product-centred view of marketing
to a service-centred view (Vargo and Lusch
2004) to co-creating customer experiences
providing unique customer value (Prahaiad
and Ramaswamy 2004). In the service-centred
view of marketing, the basic fundamental units of
exchange are specialized skills and knowledge
and not just the product or service and the
focus shifts to the whole process of creating
value. In this view, tangible goods are
considered only as distribut ion vehicles for
service provision and co-creating valued
consumer experiences. At the same time, the
view
encompasses
the
traditional
differentiation between tangible goods and
intangible services, or the traditional externaloriented view of marketing, and the crossfunctional organizational process, or the
internal- oriented view of marketing. 1
Attention to the Social Processes of
Consumption/Marketing

The service-oriented view of marketing,

with the objective of co-creating satisfied
customer experience, requires a holistic view

of the consumption/marketing process from the

customers' perspective. This includes the social
processes of consumption along with economic
processes. As all economic exchanges are
embedded in social exchanges (Granovetter
1985), marketing disciplines have started paying
attention to the social processes of consumption,
employing grounded theories and interpretative
research methods. Interpretative research on
different aspects of consumption in the nineties
is a step in this direction.
Firm Perspective to Customer Perspective

In the firm perspective, customers are considered passive and treated as operand
resources (resources to be acted on). That is
why marketers 'segment', 'penetrate' and
'promote' goods in the hope of attracting
customers (Vargo and Lusch 2004). When
firms take a customer perspective, they
recognize that customers are active partners in
the marketing/consumption process and view
them as operant resources (resources
employed to act on operand resources);
hence, they work together to co-create value.
From Marketing Mix to Relationship
Marketing Paradigm

The dominant marketing mix paradigm

introduced in the sixties was inadequate to
incorporate the fundamental shifts in the
marketing discipline. The four Ps of marketing
mix, namely, product, price, place and
promotion were particularly designed to
address the typical situations that involved
consumer packaged goods marketing in a
North American environment with huge
mass markets, highly competitive distribution
systems and a very commercial mass media

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(Gronroos 1997). Gronroos (1997) showed

that the 4P model of the marketing mix
paradigm does not include an explicit integrative dimension. This model constitutes a
production-oriented definition of marketing
and not a customer- or market-oriented one.
This paradigm also isolates marketing from
other departments design, production de'iveries, technical service, complaints handling, invoicin g, and other activities of the
firm. Further, the paradigm sees marketing
as an economic process and not as a social
process.
In relationship marketing, the focus of
marketing shifts from transactional exchanges' to relational exchanges. In the relations hip marketing paradigm, possible
marketing approaches or strategies can be
seen as a continuum. 'Transactional and relational exchanges can be seen as two ends of
the continuum. Gronroos (1997) argues that
relationship marketing has the necessary
ingredients for the development of a general
theory of marketing. In such a theory, the
managerial approach includes the notion of
the marketing mix and other concepts and
models.
Relationship marketing, unlike the marketing mix paradigm, explicitly takes into
consideration the various interfaces the firm
has with the customer. Hence, the paradigm
can incorporate, manage and explain both
the components of customer perceived
quality, namely, the technical as well the
functional quality. In relationship marketing,
the functional quality dimension becomes
more important as how the interaction
process is perceived grows in importance over time. The concept of relational
exchanges with different entities (cus tomers, employees, suppliers, competitors,

government department, etc.) brings the

integrative dimension of marketing in focus,
and consequently, the strategic importance
of marketing to the organization. The nineties
thus saw the development of the relationship
marketing paradigm, as different researchers
brought out the inadequacy of the marketing
mix framework. Gronroos (1997) reports that
the paradigm shift is already under way in
services marketing in Europe and Australia
and to some extent in North America, and
in industrial marketing in Europe.
Areas of Research
The decade saw theory building and development, particularly in the areas of relationship marketing, service quality, marketing
orientation and marketing productivity.
Relationship Marketing Relationship marketing
has attracted unprecedented attention of
researchers in the last decade. Theoretical
developments in relationship marketing in
the eighties and nineties were more of a rediscovery of an approach that has long
proved to be the cornerstone of many businesses (Payne 2000). Sheth and Parvatiyar
(1995a, 1995b) point out that there has been
a decline in relationship orientation in the industrial era from the pre- industrial era, with
the addition of middlemen in the marketing
chain. As strong customer relationships can
contribute simultaneously to improved
topline (increased customer share) and bottomline (decreasing marketing and servicing
costs) growth, the process of relationship
development, understanding antecedents
and consequences of relationships and measurement of relationships became topics of
research interest in relationship marketing.

102 Joffi Thomas and Rajen K. Gupta

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There are narrow as well as broad definitions

of relationship marketing. Hunt and Morgan
(1994) define relationships as 'all marketing
activities directed towards establishing developing and maintaining successful relationships'. Sheth and Parvatiyar (1995) have
later made a call to delimit the domain of
marketing to include only those relationships that are focused on serving the needs of
the customer. Pour prominent academic communities the IMP- Interaction group, the
Nordic school, the Anglo- Australian group
and the North American group have made
significant contributions to developing the
theoretical bases and empirical evidences of
relationship marketing thought. The IMP
group has contributed the interaction
approach and network approach to understanding and developing relationships,
particularly in the business to business
context (Hakansson and Snehota 2000). The
Nordic community has focused on services
marketing in Scandinavia and Finland and
this approach in services marketing later got
international acceptance (Gronroos 2000).
Gronroos identified two key characteristics
of service that later got acceptance in other
business contexts as well. First, consumption
of a service is process consumption rather
than outcome consumption, and hence management of all customer interfaces becomes
significant for marketing. Second, customers
take a holistic view of the offering that only
evaluates the product or services offered.
The Nordic school has identified three processes of interaction, dialogue and value that
contribute to relationship development. The
Anglo -Australian approach takes broader
approach to relationship and addresses six
markets: internal, referral, influence recruitment and supplier alliance markets, in

addition to the customer markets (Payne

2000). Although Berry (1983) conceptualized
the term relationship marketing for the first
time, North American contribution to the
concept came in the nineties. Analytical
models incorporating the antecedents and
consequences of relationship in different
contextsbusiness- to-business: channels
(Morgan and Hunt 1994; Ganesan 1994);
goods (Doney and Canon 1997); consumer
services (Sirdeshmukh et al. 2002); and recently in consumer goods (Chowdhury and
Holbrook 2001) were developed by North
American scholars during this period. Trust
and commitment have been established as
the key mediating variables in customer
relationships. Trust in different facets of the
firm, product/brand and customer interface
personnel has been researched by various
scholars, linking it to customer intentions, relationship satisfaction and loyalty. Relationship marketing is still in a nascent stage of
development (Shcth and Parvatiyar 1995a,
1995b) as the consensus in definition of key
constructs such as trust is evolving. The challenges for researchers are to develop the key
constructs, adopt a holistic approach and
make the research more relevant to marketing practice.
Services Marketing and Service Quality The early

literature in service marketing which started

before the eighties witnessed explosive
growth in the number of publications and
increasing theoretical and empirical rigour
in the content through the nineties. In the
last decade, service marketing became an
established f i e ld w i t h i n t h e marketing
discipline. Many of the primary topics in the
field conceptually matured during this
period. Brown et al. (1994) have divided the
development of service literature into three

Marketing Theory and Practice: Evolving through Turbulent Times 103

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stages: crawling out (pre- 1980), scurrying

about (1980-85) and walking erect (1986present). The specific topics that were addressed during this period were service
quality, service encounters/experiences,
service design, customer retentio n, relationship marketing and internal marketing.
The single- most researched area in service is
service quality. The interest in service quality
parallels the focus on quality, total quality
management and customer satisfaction.
Most of the recent work on service quality in
marketing can be credited to the pioneering
and continuing contributions of Parasuraman
and his colleagues (see Parasuraman et al.
1985). The ongoing research, supported by
the Marketing Science Institute, has produced a well-received conceptual framework
(the Gaps model) and a measurement instrument, SERVQUAL, for assessing service
quality. Other researchers have contributed
empirical studies on service satisfaction, a
closely related topic that is sometimes difficult to distinguish from service quality (Bitner
1990; Bitner et al. 1990; Crosby et al. 1990;
Oliva et al. 1992). While service satisfaction
and service quality are clearly related, researchers do not share common definitions
of the terms, nor is there clear understanding
expressed in the literature as to how the two
relate. Exploration and discussion of these
issues will certainly continue in the near
future (see Rust and Oliver 1993). The development of services marketing has contrib uted to the emergence of service-oriented
dominant logic of marketing proposed by
Vargo and Lusch (2004).
Market Orientation Market orientation was
originally defined as an organization- level
culture (DeshpaiuU 1 and Webster 1989)a
set of shared values und beliefs about putting

the customer first in business planning.

Recently, market orientation has been redefined and measured as a set of activities
or behaviours relating to the gathering of
marketing intelligence, cross- functional
dissemination of marketing intelligence
within a firm and the response based on this
intelligence. The decade witnessed increased
research activity in market orientation, its
antecedents and consequences (Jaworski and
Kohli 1987), effect of market orientation on
business profitability (Narver and Slater
1990), deve loping scales for measuring market orientation, etc. It was found that a market orientation leads to higher (n) customer
satisfaction and repeat business; (b) esprit de
corps, job satisfaction and employee commitment; and (c) business performance (ibid.).
A market orientation is likely to be more
strongly related to performance under conditions of high market turbulence, technological
stability, market competition and weak
economic conditions. Market orientation has
been shown to be an important determinant
of business performance in marketing research. Marketing Science Institute (MSI) has
contributed in a significant way to the development of this concept. In 1987, it organized
its first conference in Cambridge on 'Developing a Marketing Orientatio n'. The then
MSI Executive Director noted that the three
themes that represented most of the work
done till then were: (a) need for measurement
of the level of market orientation; (b) need
for understanding whether there is an optimal level of market orientation; and (c) need
for determining market orientation as a basis
rather than as a substitute for innovation in
a company. The most significant and historical development came, with the identification of market orientation as a high priority
research area in 1994-96.

104 Joffi Thomas and Rajen K. Gupta

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Marketing Productivity With the growing recog-

nition of the need for market orientation at

the enterprise level, organizations realized
that it requires the coordination of different
functions; it needs to be viewed as a continuous process. The responsibility for developing customer focus therefore started shifting
from the marketing function. This has in a
way contributed to the decline of the importance of marketing function within the
organization, as it has not been able to lead
this organizational transformation. The
decline in sales growth in saturated markets
of developed countries, combined with that
in the pricing power of firms, made it difficult to calculate returns on marketing
investment to the top management. Lack of
a good practical model to trade off marketing
strategies has made top managements view
marketing expenditure as short- term rather
than long- term costs, and as financially unaccountable (Rust et al. 2004). The increasing
need in marketing practice to link marketing
metrics to financial metrics has made MSI
assign the highest research priority for 20022004 for 'Assessing marketing productivity
and marketing metrics'. Techniques for
evaluating financial return from particular
marketing expenditure got developed
during the last decade (see Berger et al. 2002).
The concepts of customer equity and
customer lifetime value (CLV) have been
used in recent years to measure the returns
on marketing (Berger and Nasr 1998;
Blattbergand Deighton 1996; Blattbergetal.
2001; Mulhern 1999; Reinartz and Kumar 2000;
Rust et al. 2000). Recent improvements in
customer equity measurement consider the
firm as having a portfolio of customers in
different relationship stages and propose

customer portfolio lifetime value (CPLV)

(Johnson and Seines 2004).

Innovations in Marketing Practice

Adapting Organizations

The decade has seen firms adapting to changes

in their customers, competitors, markets,
industry and the economy and becoming
market driven/market driving. A five - year
study of 30 companies around the world conducted by Kim and Mauborgne (1997), analysed the correlation between high growth
and a variety of other factors. High- growth
companies paid little heed to matching or
beating competition. Instead, they sought to
make the competition irrelevant by offering
a quantum leap in value. The strategy of mass
customization, in a way, avoids the need to
predict change, as the changes at the individual customer level are monitored and the
responses to these changes are built into the
organization's operations through flexible
processes and empowered employees.
Haeckel (1999) labels the strategy of certain
organizations as 'sense and respond', which
focuses on modular customization, allowing
it to economically produce what its consumers
demand. Such companies realize economies
of scale by reusing modular assets to reduce
the cost of customization. The strategy of make
and sell stresses efficiency and predictability;
that of sense and respond prioritizes, flexibility and responsiveness. Marketing practice has experienced a shift in its focus (value
distribution to 'co-creating unique customer
value', emphasis (customer acquisition to
customer retention) and scope (attention

Marketing Theory and Practice: Evolving through Turbulent Times 105

________________________________ ________________________________ ___________________________

from immediate customer to the value chain) in the last decade.

Shift in Emphasis: Customer Acquisition to

Customer Retention

Shift in Focus of Marketing: Value Distribution

to 'Co-creating Customer Value'

The decade has seen the focus of organ izations shifting from customer acquisition
to customer retention. Re -engineering of
business processes and implementation of
quality management systems in organ izations have resulted in quality improve ment and cost reduction across industries,
increasing comparable customer offers and
intensifying competition. Also, with the
saturation of markets and declining sales
growth, customer retention assumed greater
importance than customer acquisition. Firms
have started to view customer interactions
as relational exchanges, rather than as transactional exchanges. Concerted efforts towards
employing customer loyalty programmes,
and integration of marketing efforts and
initiatives to develop a customer-oriented
culture have started taking shape in organizations. The concepts of CLV and customer
equity got attention with the shift from transactional to relational orientation. There has
also been a shift in the traditional sales orientation in marketing to customer orientation
and towards creating market-driven/marketdriving organizations.

Shifts in the role of the consumer in marketing/consumption to a more 'active, informed

and connected consumer' (Prahalad and
Ramaswamy 2004) made the traditional
system of value creation inadequate in addressing changing customer needs in an
increasingly competitive market scenario.
The 1 traditional value -creation model was
firm centred, considered products/services
as the sole basis of value, and treated the consumer/market as operand resource. In the
new frame of value creation propounded by
Prahalad and Ramaswamy (2004), value is
co-created by the consumer and th e firm
(and not by the firm alone), the total cus tomer experience in consumer firm interaction (than products/services) and the
customer/market is treated as an operant
resource.
Organizations are now employing more
interactive strategies than broadcast strategies. The mass-market broadcast model of
marketing targets certain markets on the
basis of descriptive information about the
customer. In the interactive model, the firm
develops the ability to interact with indi vidual customers and customize offerings
according to requirements, employing
information technology and networks. This
has made the customer an active participant
in the value -creation process and has
resulted in the shift from mass production
to mass customization.

Broadening Scope of Marketing: Immediate

Customer to Customer Value Chain, Hierarchies
to Networks and Competition to Collaboration

Even as the competition is getting intense,

there is more collaboration among competitors as well. The purely competitive orientation of the firms is now being replaced with
collaboration in the form of strategic alli ances and partnerships. In many markets, a

106 Joffi Thomas and Rajen K. Gupta

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firm happened to be a customer, supplier

and a rival at the same time. As the distinctions among these roles are gradually getting
blurred, particularly in the emerging industries, the collaborative approach in addressing the market is getting more importance.
For example, Sony and Philips are working
together to develop optical media standards
and supplying components to each other.
The decade has also seen the formation of
networks around a new technology or a new
product initiative and competition across
different networks rather than within the
firms. These developments have also seen a
change in organizational forms from centrally
coordinated multi- level hierarchies towards
more flexible network structures that consist
of large numbers of functionally specialized
firms tied together in cooperative exchange
relationships. For example, Nike or Galoob
Toys does practically no manufacturing on
its own, but focuses all its energy on marketing. They work closely with the de dicated
partners on the supply side as well as on the
distribution side, expecting them to play
proactive roles in designing winning technologies, services and marketing strategies.
Thus, the effort to deliver better value has
made these firms broaden their attention to
other members in the value chain than just
to its immediate customers.
Decision Making in an 'Information
intensive Environment'
There has been a significant increase in the
use of information technology tools to
capture, process and use information in decision making, resulting in an increase in the
speed and amount of information being
transmitted within and across the organization. This increase in the quantity of

information has helped organizations identify patterns in them, resulting in qualitative

transformation of how the information is
used in the organization (Glazer 1991). The
majority of the larger firms have employed
enterprise computerization, using ERP and
CRM packages. Firms have also started to
use data mining tools such as SAS, etc., to
track and analyse information on customers,
markets and competition. Market research
to capture data directly from the field was
increasingly employed. As in theory, there
has been a shift in emphasis to use more ana lytical and modelling tools and techniques
to facilitate decision making in the highly
competitive environment. This has also led
to the increase in interaction between the
marketing academicians and the practitioners.
Impact of Information Technology on Marketing

Advances in information technology in the

last few decades have had tremendous impact on businesses and have transformed the
marketing function.
Internet, Electronic Networks and Marketing
Practice Rapid and universal acceptance
of the Internet as a medium of
informat ion and communication has had
remarkable impact on business/marketing
in less than two decades of commercial
use. Marketing professionals have been
quick to recognize the opportunities offered
by the Internet. As trade barriers fall and
global markets emerge, companies are
adopting electronic commerce practices in
order to remain competitive or to increase
their market share. The Internet/ electronic
network is used by business/ marketing in
four ways: as an information source;
communication
channel;
transaction
facilitator; and distribution tool.

Marketing Theory and Practice: Evolving through Turbulent Times 107

________________________________ ________________________________ ___________________________

internet as Information Source and Interactive

Media The Internet with its different search
engines works as an information source for
consumers and business customers. It has
increased the power of the informed, connected customer by reducing information
asymmetry between the firm and the cus tomer. As the consumer became more informed, the options for differentiating the
firm's offer (based on brand image alone) was
reduced and this had a role in the reduction
of brand loyalty. At the same time, the electronic network provided new options to the
firm to improve its total offering by providing additional services. The Internet
offers an interactive communication channel
and a new media which provides the option
to customize/personalize information and
services. The media has been innovatively
employed by different firms to provide
enhanced/new service. Digital Equipment
Corporation (DEC, now part of Compaq)
used the Internet to publish press releases,
product announcements, new services, sales
promotions and other information, since the
early eighties. DEC has also innovatively
used the net to test ALPHA, its new client
server, by allowing potential customers to
load software and test it on their own.
Internet as a Transaction Facilitator and
Distribution Vehicle The Internet has created a
new
electronic
marketspace
which
eliminates much of the paperwork,
decreasing the high costs of creating,
processing,
distributing,
storing and
retrieving paper- based information. This
reduces processing time and allows
increased automation, thereby lowering
overhead and inventory costs. Consequently,
it permits jusl- in- time production and
payments. 1'iirthermore, companies of every
size can now participate in a truly global

market and reach customers in remote

locations. Online auctions and use of online
catalogues for direct marketing are two areas
in which the electronic network has per formed a role as transaction facilitator. One
of the early examples of the use of online
auctions is the used car auction in Japan in
1985. Hello Direct Inc., a telecommunications
products mail-order company in California,
has used the Internet to provide customized
information and online sales. Use of the
Internet in this case gives the online catalogue service providers valuable information
about customer preferences and facilitates
two-way interaction with the customer.
Electronic marketplaces constitute not just
a medium for marketing communication,
but also offer a means of distribution, especially for digital product categories (Hoffman
and Novak 1996). Many software, education
and entertainment service providers use the
Internet to offer their products in directly
downloadable form.
Role of Marketing in the Organization

Adaptation of firms to changing environmental forces through changes in marketing

approach, organizational form and strategies
for competing has been affecting the role of
marketing in the organiza tion as well.
Marketing operates at three distinct levels
of strategy; corporate, business or SBU
(strategic business unit) and functional
levels. At the same time, there are three
distinct dimensions of marketing: marketing
as culture, strategy, and tactics (Webster
1992). Though each marketing dimension is
found at each level of strategy, the emphasis
accorded varies with the level of strategy
within the hierarchy of the organization.
Marketing as culture, a basic set of values

108 * Joffi Thomas and Rajen K. Gupta

__________________________________________________________________________________________

and beliefs about the central importance of

customer that guides the organization, is
primarily the responsibility of the corporate
and SBU- level managers. Marketing as
strategy is the emphasis at the SBU level
where the focus is on market segmentation,
targeting and positioning, in defining how
the firm is to compete in the chosen business(es). At the operating level, marketing
managers focus on marketing tacticsthe
four Ps of product, price, place and promotion. Each level of strategy and dimension
of strategy must be developed in the context
of the preceding level. As we move down
the levels of strategy we move from strategy
formulation to implementation. Marketing,
conceptualized and treated as an economic
proc ess and particularly as a profit maximization problem in the early decades (fifties
and sixties), emerged as a managerial approach. Hence, marketing operated mainly
at the functional and tactical levels. The marketing mix framework was also responsible
for a focus on the tactical dimension, at the
expense of a broader, integrated organizationwide perspective. In fact, it very well served
the purpose of mass marketed consumer
packaged goods in the US context. The limitations of this approach to marketing became
apparent in the eighties, as new forms of organization came into existence. The range of
marketing relationships can be seen to be
in a continuum of transactions repeated
transactions- long-term relationships
buyer-seller partnershipsstrategic alliance
network organizations vertical integration. As marketing relationships moved
along this continuum through the eighties
and nineties, the role of marketing in organizations was also in transition. Marketing
practice became more multifunctional a nd

the organizational role of marketing evolved

from a set of specialized, functional responsibilities for team-based processes. Day and
Montgomery (1994) have identified the skills
a marketer needs, such as 'market sensing',
the ability to understand customers closely,
market relating skills, and the ability to
maintain and enhance customer relationships. In the changing context, in addition
to the conventional market sensing skills,
there is a need to forecast technological
changes, consumer needs and market structure. Similarly, while the market relating
skills in brand and image building, marketing communications, customer services and
loyalty programmes will be needed, in a
network economy the skills in negotiation,
inter-organizational collaboration and conflict management have become much more
important than before. Thus, the decade has
seen marketing gradually shredding its
overly functional orientation to a customeroriented culture in the organization. Greyser
(1997) observes that there has been 'a simultaneous upgrading of the orientation and
downsizing of the formal function'. Increasing importance of the marketing orientation
has raised concerns about the death of
the marketing function in recent times. At
the same time, the marketing func tion in the
organization is called on to perform a key
role in connecting the customer to the firm's
market offering and become more accountable for the resources employed. The role of
marketing in the organization is currently in
a state of transition. Therefore, Kumar
(2004a) calls for a 'change in the role of
marketing from promotions focussed
tacticians to customer focused leaders of
transformational initiatives that are strategic
functional and cross functional oriented.'

Marketing Theory and Practice: Evolving through Turbulent Times 109

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Conclusion

researchers will have to employ suitable

approaches, tools and techniques to help
organizations take proactive decisions in
turbulent times. These attemp ts in the
nineties have led to changes in marketing
theory and practice and the knowledge
about these past developments can help in
anticipating and analysing future developments in marketing, as well as help organizations prepare for the future.

A rich understanding of the forces operating

at different levels in the external environment,
economy, industry, market and the consumer
can help design 'sense and respond' organizations (Haeckel 1999) with better 'market
sensing and market relating capabilities'
(Day and Montgomery 1994). Marketing

NOTE
1. In the t r a d i t i o n a l external-oriented view,
marketing's function is to cater to customer needs
by interacting with customers, while the internaloriented view recognizes tlu - need for internal

marketing, market orientation, etc., and the shared

responsibility of marketing to deliver products/
services.

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