:

-c- pS'f cho l-o~3'1

GLOSSARY
The numbers following the entries refer to the chapters of the
text in which each term or concept ís discussed in detall.

absolute threshold-the weakest stímulus that pro- at anothers plight and an understandíng of her or
duces a sensation. [51 his needs. [l71
accommodation-( 1) reflexíve contraction of lens mus- Alzheimer's disease-a debilitating brain disease char-
cles to focus eyes on nearby objects. (2) the modifica- )lcterized by increasingly serious memory disorder
.r
tion of existing schemes to incorporate new knowl- and deterioration of attentíon, judgrnerit, and per- i
, ..
edge that does not fit them. [5. 151 sonalíty: most common among older adults. [31 '['

acetylcholine (ACH)-neurotransmitter used by the amnesia-partial or total loss of memory. [3. 9. 221
motor neurons of the spínal cord. [3J amplitude-intensity of a sound wave, usually ex-
',:,
achievement motíve-s-the capacíty to derive satisfaction pressed in decibels. [51
by attaining so me standard of excellence. [l21 amygdala-a structure in the limbic system. [31
achievement tests-tests constructed to assess the ex- anal stage-the stage in psychosexual development dur-
tent of an indívidual's knowledge about subjects ing whích the child's attention shífts to the anus and
taught in school. [201 the pleasures of holding in and pushing out feces.
acquisition-( 1) the process by whích an organism [17. 181
learns the assocíatíon ínvolved in class ícal condítíon- analogy-a parallel between two systems whose parts
ing. (2) the process by whích. we initially perceíve, are related in a similar way. [l01
regíster. and recordinformation in our memory. [8. analytic psychology-a school of psychoanalysis found-
9J . ed in 1913 by Carl Jung. [181
1 anchoring-a bias ín judgment. resultíng from the effect
act frequency approach-an approach to personality
\. that claims that we tend to add up all of a persori's of the starting point frorn whích the dectsíon was
actíons thatfít a particular category, then assígn a , made. [l01
¡ traít to the person on that basts. [191
active phase-that stage in the course of schízophrenía
androgen insensitivity syndrome-the condition of a
genetically male fetus whose body cells fail to respond
in which psychotíc symptoms predominate. [221 to androgen: the baby wíll be born genetically male
ad hoc categories-spur-of-the-moment categoríes con- but wíth the external anatomy of a female. [13J
structed to han dle particular functions. [l01 androgens-male sex hormones. [131
adaptatíon-i-adjustrnent in sensory capacity.[51·· androgynous-having gender roles that embrace char-"
adaptive behavior-any behavior that makes an animal .. . actertstícs of both sexes. [171
functíon better in íts envíronrnent. [4 l' ". . .anterograde amnesia-a condition in whích people are
adaptíve radíatíon-c-evolutíonary pattern in. which a" unable to lay down new memories. [91
group of organisms wíth a common ancestor díverst- antisocial personality. [221 See sociopath.
Ii fy so. that they can move into a' new erivironmental anvil-s-one of the ossicles. [51
ruche .. [4L an.xiety-in Freudian theory, a state of psychíc paín that
additive. color miring-the combírung of colored Iíghts. alerts the ego to danger: it is akin tofear. [18. 221
[51 anxiety disorder-a coridítíon in which severe and per-
adjacency pairs-conversational conventíon in whích sistent anxíety ínterferes with daily functíoníng. [221
an utterance by one person tells the other which sort aphasia-an inability to speak or to understand spoken
of response ís appropriate; common paírs include language. [31 .
questícn/response. surnrnons/answer, etc ..[161 apparent movement-the perception of motíon when a
adverse impact-results when the proportion of mínorí- rapíd successton of motionless stimuli mírníc the
.r--.. ty applicants hired after takíngan employment test is changes that occur in true movement. '[61
les s than four-fífths of the proportion of majoríty applied scíence-i-the use of baste scíence to accomplish
applicantshired. In such an instance .. the courts practica! goa!s. [11
consíder that the test has an adverse impact on approach-avoidance conilict-a conflíct of two.motrves,
minorities. (281 so that satísfyíng one motive frustrates the. other.
affect-emotional response. [221 [191
affectíve diSorder-disturbance of mood. [22 I aptitud e tests-tests destgned to find out aboutan
afterímage-i-a sensory impression that persists. after índívidual's talent or capacity for particular lines of
removal of the stímuíus. [51 work. [201
aggressfon-c-any act that ís intended to cause paín. archetypes-in .Jungs terms, ancíent ideas or images
damage, or suffering to another. [271 common to all human beíngs in all eras and all
agnosia-an ínabilíty to recogníze sounds. [3J regíons of the world and that form the collective
algorithm-a simple set of rules arranged in a logícal unconscíous. [l81
order that wíll solve all ínstances of a particular set of arousal-a series of phystologícal changes, primarily in
problems. [101 . the autonomic system. that take place when an indi-
altricial-helpless (referring to the young of a species) vidual has an emotion. [11 I
[141 artifical intelligence (AI)-computer programrníng that
altruism-prosocial behavíor showíng unselfish concern solves problems by followíng steps similar to those a
sprtngtng from a cornbínatton of emotional distress human oetng would take. [lO]

727
 728 GLOSSARY

assimilation-the tncorporatíon of new knowledge basic science-fundamental prínctples that explain a

through the use of exístíng schemes. [151 broad range of facts. [1 J ,,
association-a learned connectíon between two events. basilar membrane-a membrane supporting the organ
[SI ofCorti. Movements ofthis membrane stimulate haír ¡
ataxia-a condition characterízed by severe tremors,
drunken movernents, and loss of balance; due to
cells, which in turn trtgger electrical actívíty in the
auditory nerve. [51 I
) j
damage to the cerebellum. [31 behavior-anyt:hing a person does or experiences, in-
attachment-an emotional bond such as one which ts cluding thoughts, feelings, and dreams. (1 J
formed between the infant and her or his prímary behavior genetics-the study of inherited patterns of
care gíver. [171 . »: behavíor. [4J
attitude-an attraction or averston toward an object. in behavior rehearsal-a procedure símílar to partiCipant
whích cognitive, affectíve, motivational, and behav- modeling, but applied to social behavíor. [24J
íoral processes are implicated. [251 behavioral medicine. (11 See health psychology.
attribution theories-theories that propose to explaín behaviorism-the approach to psychology that limits its
how people attríbute personality traíts or intentions study to observable, measurab1e responses to speciñc
to others to explaín theír behavíor. [261 stímulí. iu
audience inhibition-supression due to concern about beliefs-knowledge structures about objects and events,
others' eva1uation of our behavior. (271 .[25J
auditory cortex-the area in the temporal lobe of the binocular disparity-difference in the retinal image re-
braín that p¡;ocesses auditory information. (31 ceived by each eye; source of ínformatton for depth
auditory stream segregation-the auditory effect of two perceptíon. [6J
simultaneous línes of melody, each wíth a dístínctíve biofeedback-the províston of a continuous flow of in-
quality. [61 formatíon regarding some phystologícal function by
authenticity-living by personal values. (231 electrcníc devíces: a person can then learn to attaín
autistic fantasy-a state on the continuum that stretch- voluntary control over the monítored function. [7, 21 J
es from normal waking consciousness to dreamíng: biogenic theory-the víew that mental disorder has a
it lacks any orientatíon toward reality. [71 physical, or organíc, cause. [23J
autogeníc trainíng=-a relaxation procedure that de- bipolar disorder-s-a disorder characterized by extreme
pends on self-suggestion and imagery. [211 moods, begtnníng with a maníc episode of euphoria,
autokinetic movement-an illusion of movernent excitement, and a<¡:tivity,followed by a depressive
caused by random eye movements, whích make a epísode. [22J .
stationary spot appear to .move in the dark. [61 birth order-the chíld's rank in the sequence ofbirths.
[261 .-. . ...
I . autonomic-ilervoussyslerii::"':'the divislonof the PNS
that regulates the internal environment and is gener- blocking-a relíable phenomenon that occurs in al!
I ally involuntary. [31 . " specíes and .in most conditioning s ítuatíons , in
availability-a heuristic in which predíctíons are based which the conditioning normally caused by CS-UCS
on a comparison of the current sttuatíon wíth past paírtngs can be blocked entirely. [SI
examples that readily come to rnínd. (lOI . . . brain stem-a part .of the central core of the braín. [31
aversion therapy-s-therapy in which the clíent's- éxpo- branchíng-c-evoluttonary pattem in whích one evolu-
sure to stírnulí that elícit maladaptíve responses ís tionary line splits off from another. [41
accompanied by aversíve stírnulí. [241 Broca's aphasia-severe dísturbance of speech produc-
aversive leanting-Iearning that relies on such tech- tíon. brought about by damage to the rear of the left
niques as puníshrnent. escape- and-the avoídance of frontal cortex. [31
puníshment. [SI
avoidance leanting-conditioning lnwhich an organ- cardinal trait-a single traít that directs a rnajor portion
ísrn prevents thearrival of an unpleasant stímulus by .: of a persons behavior. [19J
its response to a warning stimulus. [81 case study-a method of collecting data in which re-
axon-a long fiber of a neuron that leads away from the searchers conduct an mtensíve ínvestigatíon of one
cel! body. [31 or a few índívíduals. usually with reference to a single
psychologícal phenomenon. [2J
basal ganglia-a group of braín structures that seem to catecholamine hypothesis-the hypothesis that depres-
control movement and coordínate the motor cortex ston, results from low levels of noreptnephríne (a
and thalamus .. [31 catecholamine)and manía results from hígh levels of
basic anx:iety-inHorney's terrns, anxiety arísíng out of norepinephrine in the braín. [23J
a chíld's sense of helplessness and ísolatíon, (lSI categorícal perceptíon-c-the- inbom tendency to hear
basic hostdlíty-c-tn Horney's terms, hostility artsíng speech sourids in dístínct categoríes. (16J
. from resentment over parental índífference, inconsis- celibacy -co mpie te abs tinence from sexual actíví ty. [131
tency, and interference. (1SI cell body-the part of a neuron containing the nucleus.
basic level-that leve1 in a hierarchy that seems the (3J
most economical for cogmtíve znanípulatíon: the level centers=-clumps of neurons in the central nervous sys-
that provídes the most information. [10J tem that function as uníts: also called nuclei. [31
basic needs-fundamental phystologícal needs and in- centrai core-the area of the brain that carries out
termedíate psychologtcal needs (such as safety and functíons necessary for survíval. [31
self-esteem). [121 central nervous system (CNS)-the rnajor control center
 GLOSSARY 729

of behavíor. It consists of the braín and the spinal cognitive therapy-a method of cognitive restructuring
cord. [31 that aírns to show clients that what they think deter-
central traits-charaeteristic ways of dealing wíth the mines how they fee!. [241
world that can be captured by a traít name (honest, cohort-a group of people of the same age. [151
loving. gregartousj and that have marked effects on collective unconscious-in .Jung's terms, a level of the .¡
the way other. related traíts are perceived. (19, 26] unconscious; a storehouse of memories and behavior
cerebellum-the area of the braín that coordinates vol- patterns inherited frorn humaníty's remote ancestral ·'·i:'
untary movernent and maíntaíns physical balance. pasto [18]
[31 color cancellation-the phenomenon occurring when
cerebral cortex-the gray matter that covers the cerebral .eornplementary colors are cornbined and perceived as
herníspheres. [31 colorless. [5]
cerebral hemispheres-the most prominent layer of the common ground-the shared knowledge of speaker and
braín: involved in information processing. [31 listener. [16]
cerebrum-portion of the brain that allows us to plan, common trait-a baste mode of adjustment that ts
learn, and reason: includes the cerebral cortex and approximately the same for all índívíduals. [191
the tissue beneath it. [31 community psychology-a branch of clinieal psyeholo-
chunks-c1usters of information that form familiar se- gy wíth the primary aim of preventing mental dísor-
quences or patterns of elements; used to encode ders. [11
:1,:
material in short-term memory. [91 complementary colors-pairs of eolors Iying opposite
" ti
clang association-in schizophrenia. the throwing to-
gether of concepts, ideas, and symbols merely be-
each other on the color wheel.[5]
complexive thinking-ih cognítíve devélopment, a
o'A
cause they rhyme. [221 chíld's tendency to jump from one idea to another
classical conditioning-a process whereby a neutral wíthout coordinating them. [151- .
I1 stírnulus. when repeatedly presented wíth another compulsion-an actíon that a person uncontrollably
I, ;.
, I stimulus that normal!y evokes a reflexíve response, performs again and again, although she or he has no
~I comes to elícit that response when presented by conscious desire to do so. [221
1, !
! itself. [81 computerized tomography (CT) scan-technique that
I I client-centered therapy-a humanistic therapy in uses multiple X-ray pictures to reconstruct single
¡ ;
¡I whích the client learns to reíntegrate self and organ- cross-section píctures of the braín. [31
ísrn. to accept al! experienees as genuíne. and to concrete-operational period-the period of cognitive
establish an unconditional positive regard. [241 development eharaeterized by logícal thought=-out

1I clínical psychologist-a mental-health professio'nal.

who has earned a doctórate '(PhD"or-PsyD) in cítnfcaf'"
psychology and has completed a one-year clínícal .
only in regard to concrete objects, [15]
concurrentvalídíty-c-the correlatíon of a test's scores
wíth other existing measures and standards. [20]

I
internship. [241 " conditional positive regard-the withholdingof love
clínícal psychology-the approach to psychology con- and praíse when a child does not conform to paren tal
cerned with the study, diagnosis, and treatment of or social standards. [19]
abnormal behavíor ..[1] . conditioned reinforcer-a stimulus that sígnaís that a
, closed gene tic' programs-s- ínnate genetic programe for primary reínforcer wíll soon appear. [81
1 behavíor: the animal ís born wíth them and they can ccndítícned' response (CR)-a response to a CS. [81
! bechanged only slíghtly by experience. [4] conditioned stimulus (CS)-a' new stimulus that
I cochIea-theportion of the inner ear contaíntng recep-
tors for convertíng acoustie energy into sound. [51
elícíts behavior after repeated association with the
UC-S. [8]

¡ cognition-the process of knowíng. the hígher mental

proeesses that human beíngs engage in, including
conditions oí worth-extraneous standards whose at-
taínrnenr ensures posítíve regard. [191
A problem solving.· knowing,·· thinking, decision mak- cones-receptor cel!s in the eye operatíng in brtght light.
íng, reasoning; judgíng, ímagíníng. [la 1 Cenes are responsible for detaíled vision and color
-¡, cognitive balance theory-s-the theory proposíng that perception. [5]
ínformatíon about people's inconsistent relatíon- conformity-the tendency to shíft one's víews or behav-
I
ships with each other leads to a conflíct that the íor closer to the norms that are expressed by other
I
;
índívídual seeks to resolve. [121 people. [271
cognitive cnntrol-c-the guidanee and maintenance of congruence-genuineness; the therapíst's ability to
behavior through self-reínforcernent ..[191 share her or his own feelings wíth the client in. an
cognitive dissonance theory-the theory proposmg open and spontaneous manner. [24]
that contradietory thoughts cause a.state of psycho- conjunction-c1assification rule in whích two attributes.
logícal distress known as dissonanee; the indiVidual determine membership in a group. [la]
then attempts to reestablish internal harmony. [121 conjunctíon fallacy-the fallacy of believing that an
cognitive map-an ínternal representatíon of the way example wíth both a common and a dístínctíve
objects and landmarks are arranged in theír envíron- feature ís more representative than an example with
ments. [81 only the dístínctíve feature. [101
cognitive restructuring-a process that foeuses on the consciousness-an awareness of the thoughts, ímages.
clíent's ways of perceívíng the world and regards sensatícns. and emotions that flowthrough the mind
self-defeating behavíor as a result of the clíent's false at any gíven moment. [7]
assumptíons. [241 conservation-the prtncíple that irrelevant changes in
730 GLOSSARY

the external appearance of objects have no effect on result íf an ínfiníte number of cases were represent_
the objects' quantity. [15] ed. [21
constituent-a major subdivision of a sentence. such as
a noun phrase or a prepositional phrase. [16] decay-erosion of mernory traces with the passage of
construct validity-a test's measurement of the traít or time. [91
theoretícal construct it c1aims to measure. [201 decibel (dB)-a unít of measurement used to express
consumer psychology-a branch of industrial psycholo- perceíved sound intensity. [51
gy concerned with preferences, buyíng habits, and deductive scale. [201 See rational scale.
responses to advertising of consumers. [1] defense mechanism-an intrapsychic techruque to con-
content validity-a test's coverage of a representatíve-' ceal the source of anxíety frorn the self and from the
sample of the measured attribute. [201 world. [181
context-the setting in which stimuli appear; a retrieval deferred imitation-the ab ílity to rnímíc on one ceca-
cue for memory. [6] sion actions observed at an earlier time. [151
continuity-a principie of grouping. [6] deficiency needs. [ 191 See basic needs.
continuous reinforcement schedule-a schedule of re- delusions-irrational beliefs that are maíntarned de-
inforcement in which the subject ís rewarded for spíte overwhelming evidence that they have no basts
every response. [8] in reality. [221
control condition-in an experimento the condition that demand characteristics-a methodologícal problem in
remains unchanged, the condition to which .the ex- whích a subjects response ís strongly determined by
perimental condition is compared. [21 the research setting. [21
conventional level-i-Kohlberg's stage of moral develop- . dendrites-short ñbers that branch out from the cel!
ment in whích the child or adulL decides moral íssues body. [31 .
in terms of maíntamíng the social order and meeting denial-defense rnechanísrn in whích a person refuses
the expectations of others. [171 to recognize a threatening source of anxíety. [181
conversion disorder-disorder in whích an individual dependent variable-the event that ís being studied and
develops sorne physical dysfunction-such as blind- that ís expected to change when the independent
ness, deafness, paralys ís, or íoss of sensatíon in so me variable ts altered. [21
part of the body-that has no organíc basís and depressant-a drug that retards the action of the central
apparently express es sorne. psychological conflict. nervous system so that neurons fire more slowly. [71
[221 developmental psychology-the approach to psycholo-
cooperative principle-the fundamental assumptíon gy that ís concerned wíth al! aspects of behavíoral
that speakers and listeners will cooperate in using development over the entire life span. [11
language. [16]-"-- díathesis-stress model-the view thatgenes establish a
coping-the process of managíng external and internal . díathests, orpredisposition, to schízophrenía, out
pressures that rníght otherwíse lead to stress ..[21] that the disorder will not develop unless the predis-
cornea-the transparent ccveríng in front of the eye. [5] position ís combined wíth certaín stressful envíron-
corpus callosum-a thick band of neural fibers that mental factors. [231
carríes rnessages between the left and rtght sídes of dicho tic listening-a process in which a person wearing
the brain. [31 aset of earphones hears two different messages
correlational coefficient-the descrtptíve statístíc indi- played simultaneously, one in each ear. [71
catíng the degree of linear relatedness. A perfect dichromats-people who have difficulty díscrtrnínatíng
positive correlatíon ís indicated by the coeffícíent wavelengths in certain regíons of the spectrum. (51
+ 1; a perfect negative correlatíon is índícated by - 1. dífference threshold-the smal!est change in astímu-
[21 lus that produces a change in sensatíon. [51
correlational research-s tudies that ínvestígate the sys- diffusion of responsibility-spreading the responsibili-
tematic relatíonshíps between two (or more) charac- ty for intervening over al! the bystanders. [271
teristics of individuals. [21 discreteness-a major characteristic of human lan-
counterbalancing-c-a, procedure for makíng sure that guage: the distinctness of the units that compose it.
variables that are of no theoretical interest to the [161
expertmenter are evenly distributed across the varía- discretionary stímulí-c-stgnals that groups send to an
bles of interest. [21 individual member to either change or reínforcethat
covert sensítízatíon-c-a technique in which clientsare members behavior. [281
asked to vísuahze the behavíor they are tryíng to discrimination-(l) differentíauon among similar stím-
eliminate and then to conjure up the- image of ano ulí. wíth response to one and no response to others.
extremely paínful or revoltíng stírnulus. [241 (2) the behavioral express ion of prejudice. [8, 261
creativity-the combination of prevíously unconnected disjunction-classification rule in which eitiier of two
elements in a new and useful way. [101 features determines category membership. [l01
cued recall-retrieval process in which an assocíated dísplacement=-I 1) process in whích new items entering
piece of information guides the memory search, [91 short-term memory seem to crowd out earlier iterns.
culture-fair test-a test whose items or methods of (2) a major characteristic of Ianguage: transrnísston
administration do not depend on familiarity with of informatíonabout distant objects or events. (3) in
the cultural backaround. [201 Freud's terms, transference of psychíc energy from
curve of normal distribution-a smooth, symmetrical the original object to a varíety of substitute objects.
bell-shaped curve: the theoretícal curve that would [9, 16, 181

J
 GLOSSARY
dispositional cause-cause of behavíorthat is attribut-
ed to a specífíc person and to that persori's disposi-
tion. [261
dissociative disorder-the dissociation, or splíttíng off,
of certain aspects of mernory and identity. [221
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)-twisted strings of cherní-
·cal building blocks that transmit the gene tic codeo [41
doctrine of specific nerve energies-sensory quality
depends on the neural pathways actívated by stímuli.
not on the physical propertíes of the stímulí. [51
dominant responses-the responses most likely to be
made by an organísrn in a given sítuatíon. (271
dopa:mine-a neurotransmitter thought .to regulate
ernotíonal response and complex movements. (31
dopamine hypothesis-the víew that schízophrenía ís
asscciated wíth excesstve actívíty in those parts of
the brain that use dopamine to transmít neural
impulses. (231
double-bind hypothesis-the theory that rnutually con-
tradictory messages from parent to child are a strong
causatíve agent in schizophrenia. (231
double-blind procedure-a method of avoídíng experi-
menter bias in whích neither researcher nor subjects
know which group is the experimental group and
which the control group. [21
drive-an internal motivational factor. [121
drug-any ínorgaruc substance that can interact wíth a
bíological systern. [71
duplication hypothesis-a theory proposíng that people
are happiest when they re-create their bírth-order
position in their marítaí relatíonshíp. (26] . ..
. dyslexía-e-dtsorder in whlch.childrenwtth.riormal íntel-;
lígence and adequate environmental cpportunítíes
have extreme difficulty learning to read. (16]
eardrum-membrane in the ear that vtbrates in re-
sponse to sound ..[51
educatíonal psychotogy-c-the iapproach topsychology
that ínvestígates al] the psychological aspects of the
leamíng process. [1]
efficacy expectatíons-i-peopte's belíefs that they can
successfully execute whatever behavíor ís requíred to
produce a desired outcome. (24]'" . . perceived ínequttíes. [281
ego-according to Freud, a psychic component servíng
as mediator between the id and reality. (18] . taín an erectíon. (131
ego identity-in Eríksons terms, an mtegrated, autono-
mous, uníque "self." (18]
ego psychologist-a psychoanalytic ínvestígator who
considers herself or himself a Freudian but who.
elaborates on Freud's theory, emphasizing ego func-:
tions. [181
egocentrism-in cognitive development, a child's belief
that others literally see thíngs as the child does. (15]
ejaculatii:m-the discharge of fluid duríng orgasmo (13]
elaborative rehearsaí-s-a forro of rehearsal that trans-
fers information into .long-term mernoryso that it
may later be retrieved. (91
electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)-"shock treatment":
administering a series of br ief electrical shocks of
approximately 70 to 130 volts, spaced over a period of
several weeks. The shock induces a convulsíon simi-
lar to an epíleptíc seízure. (24] ,
731
electroencephalography (EEG)-technique used to re-
cord the braíns electrical activíty as measured by
electrodes placed on a person's scalp. (3]
electromyographic recording (EMG)-measurements of
electrical activity from muscles. (111
embryo-the developing organísm in the womb from the
fourth to the eíghth week. (141
empathic understanding-the therapíst's ability to see
~e world through the eyes of the clíent. (24]
empirical approach-an approach to scíentífic ínvestí-
gatíon that employs expertmentatíon and dírect ob-
servatíon. [2]
encoding. (91See acquisítion.
encoding specificity-phenomenon in whích retrieval
wilJ be poor if the retrieval situation differs greatly
from the sítuatíon at the time of encodíng. [91
endocrine glands:""glands that produce hormones. [31
endocrine system-a set of glands whích secretes hor-
mones carried in the bloodstream. They ínfluence
neural and muscular tissue in other parts of the
body. [31
endorphins-a varíety of neurotransrnítter 'similar in
structuré to opíates: implicated in paín and pleasure,
[31
environmental niche-the particular environmental sít-
uatíon, including food supply, shelter. climate, and
pressure from predators, to whích a species ís suíted,
(41
environmental psychology-the approach. to psycholo-
gy that studies the relationship between people and
theír physical settíngs. [11
epidemiology-the study of- the range of occurrenee.·
distribution, and control of illness in a populatíon.
. [221·
epinephrine-neurotransmitter that plays a vital role in
arousal of the sympathetic nervous system and the
reticular actívatíng systems of the braín. [31
equílíbratíon-e-tn .cognttwe development, a continua!
search for a balance between asstmilatíon and ac-
cornmodatíon. [151
equity theory-c-cognttíve theory of work motívatíon stat-
. ing that employees are rnotívated to remove any
.
erectíle failure-a mari's inability to achíeve ormaín-
ERG theory-e-thecry of work motívatíon based on the
workers existente needs, relatedness needs, and
growth needs. [281
erogenous .zone-an area of the body that is partícularly
sensitive to touch; a focus of pleasure. [13, 171
escape Iearning-s-the learning of a specífic response that
termínates some unpleasant stimulus, enabling the
organism to escape from an unpleasantsituation. [8L
ethologists-scientists who try to explaín animal behav-
íor in evolutíonary terms. [41
event-related potential (ERP)-changes in the braín's
electrical actívíty in response to stimulation pre-
sented by a researcher. [31
evolution-the theory that each specíes developed from
earlier forms of lífe. [41
excitatory connection-a message that causes a receív-
ing neuron to ñre. [31 .
excitement phase-the first phase of sexual response.
[ 131
 732 GLOSSARY

exhibitionism-sexual gratification obtaíned through fetishism-sexual gratification that is dependent on

exhibiting the genitals to an ínvoluntary bystander. inanimate object or some part of the body other than
[22] the genítals. [22] an
existential frustration-a -major source of abnormal fetus-the developing organísm in the wornb frorn the
behavior arising frorn an inability to find meaníng in eíghth week to bírth. [14]
'r' life. [231 field experiments-studies in which researchers Can
expectancy theory-cognitive theory of work rnotívatíon introduce the independent variable but cannot con-
stating that we are rnotívated not only by our goals trol other variables and often cannot assign Subjects
but by how attainable we think they are. [2SI to the expenmental group. [21
experience (of an emotion)-the subjective feeling that "" , figure-in a scene, the regíon that represents an object.
accompanies an emotion. [11] [61
experiment-a method of collecting data in which re- figure-ground reversal-type of visual ambiguity that
'searchers actively control the presence, absence, or aríses when figure and ground altemate so that
intensity of factors that may affect the behavíor under perceptíon of the image shifts from one interpreta_
study. [21 tion to another. [61
experimental condition-in an experiment, the condí- fixation-( 1) an automatic apphcatíon of an inappropri_
tion in which the factor under study is manipulated ate strategy and a rigid clinging to the obViously
to test its effect. [21 meffectíve approach. (2) a halt in psychosexual devel-
experimental psychology-the approach to psychology opment caused by failure to resolve the conflict be-
that ínvestigates baste behavíoral processes that are tween impulse and control. [101 .
shared by severa! specíes. [11 fixed interval schedule-s-a partíal reinforcement sched-
experimenter effects-biases that the experi.menter un- ule in which reínforcerrient comes for the first re-
wttttngly introduces ínto the study. [2] sponse after a specífied periodo (SI
exposure effect-positive attitude produced by repeated fixed ratio schedule-a partíal reinforcernent schedule
neutral encounters with an object. [25] in whích the subject ís rewarded each time it makes a
expression (of <in emotion)-behavioral acts that are speciñc number of responses. [81
uniquely elicited by an emotion. [11] fíxed-action patterns-genetic programa of behavíor
extinction-the slow decline and eventual dísappear- that take the form of relatively sterotyped and often-
ance of a conditioned response. [S] repeated patterns of movement. [41
extrasensory perception [ESP)-the reception of knowl- . flooding-an intensive extinction therapy. (241
edge about the environment that does not arrive forensic psychology-the approach to psychology that ,
through a known sensory channel. [1] . applíes psychologícal prtncíples to the problerns oL-'
'~--- eitri1Ísic'nio'fivation- the 'i:iÍ'océss hywlilCli- external'· '--lawenforéement' and thecourts. [1] -, . --,~=
rewards lead anIndívidual to undertake el behavíor. forrnal-operatíonal period-the culmination of cognt-
D2] tíve development, characterized by abstract reason-
extroversion-in Jung's terms, a rnajor personalíty orí- ing and the ability to assume artificial prerníses that ,
entation in whích theperson ís overly interested in are known. to be false. (151
the external world and thus i~i outgoing, sociable, fovea-the retinal area that líes almost directly opposite.
and excítement-seekíng. [18] _ the pupil of the eye.. It contains only cone receptors '
and isthe area of the híghest visual acuity. (51
frame-the way a problern ís phrased. (101
face validity-a test'sappearance of validity to the peo- fraternal twins-twins who have developed from two
pie taking ít. [201, ... eggs, each fertilized by a dífferent sperm. [41
facial-feedback hypothesís=s the hypothesís that our free association-an indirect therapeutic techníque ern-
subjective experíence 'of emotíon comes from an ployed to study unconscíous processes. The patient
awareness of.our fac íalexpresstons. [11] wíll say anything that comes to mind, makíng no. .
factor analysts-c-astatístícal method that analyzes re- attempt to produce logícal statements, and the psy-
sponses to a host of possible scale ítems and reduces choanalyst will attempt to ínterpret the associati0TI?'
them to a few underlyi.ng factors. [20] . (1, 1S] .
false alarms-c-errors in which asubject detects a stgnal free (unaided) recall-retrieval process in which a rnem-
when none has been gíven, [5] ory search ís undertaken with only a weak cue or an
family resemblance-the more closely an instance (for entíre set of ítems. (9]
example, apple) resembles many other category mem- free-floating aruriety-an ínabtlíty to specífy the source
bers (other fruíts). themore typical it ísjudged to be. of the fear. (221
[101 frequency-the number of waves passing a given poínt
fear of success-the motive to avoid success. [12] in a gíven periodo [5]
feature analysis-the process by which sensory ínfor- frequency distribution-a representatíon that shows
mation ís identified according to its distinctive char- the relationship between responses and the observed '.
acteristics or features. [6] . frequency of those responses. [2]
feedback-reinforcement in the form of ínformatíon frequency theory-pitch ts deterrníned by the frequency
about past performance that is used to alter future per second of neural impulses sent to the braín. [5]
behavior. [8] frontal lobe-the area of the brain generally involved m
fetal alcohol syndrome-birth defect characterized by be havíor. (31
mental retardation and retarded growth in babíes frustration-interference wíth any form of goal-directed
born to alcoholic mothers. [14] behavíor. (271
 GLOSSARY 733

frustration-aggression hypothesis-the idea that "ag- hair cells-the receptors in the organ of Cortí, [51
gressíon is always a consequence of frustratíon" and, hallucinations-spontaneous sensory perceptions-
conversely, "frustratíon always leads to some form of usually of sounds-that are unrelated to external
aggressíon" (Dollard, 1939). (271 stírnulí. [221
fugue-a dissociative disorder in whích indívíduals flee hallucinogen-a drug wíth the ability to produce hallu-
from the home as well as from theself. (221 cinations. [71
fully functionirig-psychologically adjusted, open to ex- hammer-s-one of the ossicles in the middIe ear. [51
perience, undefensive, accurately aware, uncondí- health belief model-a model that se es attítudes, val-
tionally posttíve in self-regard. harmonious in rela- ues, and knowledge as paramount in maintaining
tions wíth other people. [191 /health. [211
functional fixedness-the inability to use a familiar health psychology-area of psychology that aírns at
object in an unfamiliar way. (101 understanding the relationship between the mind
fundamental attribution error-the tendency of observ- and the individual's physical condition. [l. 211
ers to attribute other peoples behavior to disposition- heritability-the extent to which the observed vartatíon
al factors. (261 of a trait can be attributed to gene tic dífferences
among a specífic group of índívtduals in a specíñc
environment. [20]
galvaníc skin response (GSR)-a decrease in the resíst-
. , heuristic-a rule of thumb that provides a general direc-
ance of the skin to electrical conduction. (111
tíon for solving probIems. [l01
ganglia-collections of neuron cell bodies found prínci-
hindsight-a bias in judgrnent resulting from looking
··1·
¡. pally along thesptnal column. [3]
back on events after they have already occurred. lIOI
gender identity-the chíld's understandíng that she or
hippocampus-a structure In the limbic systern. [31
he is female or male and will always rernaín so. [l71
homeostasis-a process of self-regulatíon to maíntaín a
gender roles-attitudes and patterns of behavíor that
balanced internal environment; a state of equilibri-
soctety consíders acceptable for each gender. [171
um. [31
gender schema-conceptual pattern for organizing new
homosexual-a person whose prírnary source of sexual
ínformatíon on the basis 01'gender roles. [17]
gratification is members of the same sexo [131
generalization gradient-rate of decrease in an organ-
hormones-chemical substances used by the endocrine
ísm's tendency to respond as the resemblance be-
system to transmit messages. [31
tween a new stimulus and a conditioned stimulus
hostile aggression-aggression that aims at hurting
becomes faínter. [81
another persono [17]
generalized anxiety disorder-anxiety disorder charac-
human-factors ps~c~l0!ll:-=~_lJranch()fi~d~st!'~<l.J psy:,
-tertzed-by díffuse and -generalized anxíety that ís- ,.C ..
chology that considers the purpose of a particular
impossible to manage by avoiding specíñc situations.
machine or envíronment, the capabílttíes ofthe prob-
[221
able user, and the most effícíent desígn that matches
genes-basic units óf ínformatton on the DNA string
the two. (1]
that pass along spectfíc heredítary traits. [4]
humanistic-existential perspective-a psychogenic ap- .
. genital stage-the final stage of psychosexual develop-
proach to psychological disorder that Includes both
ment, In which the focus is on the pleasures of sexual
Intercourse. [17, 181 . humanístíc and existential theoríes, [231
hypnagogíc state.-the state lying between waking and
gestalt-a meaníngful pattern or figure Into which

11
human beings group perceptual ínformatíon. [61 sleep. [7]
hypochondriasis-the preoccupation with bodily symp-
gestalt therapy-a blend of Freudian concepts with
LOIl1S as possible sígns of seríous illness. [221
humanistic phílosophy and. radícally dífferent thera-
hypotha1amus-a small structure in the braín that
peutic techniques. [24]
monitors changes in ínternal environment and sends
given-new strategy-a decoding techníque, essential to
. cornprehendíng speech, In which the lístener takes stgnals to maíntain equilibrium. [3]
the new Information In the utterance and íntegrates
hypothesis-proposition or belíef to be tested. (21 n
J~
it wíth old information. [161 l

glands-organs that secrete hormones. [31 1

id-according to Freud, the bíologtcal dríves with which

I
glia-structural units of the nervous system: they pro- the infant is born. [181
vide nutríents and structural support to neurons and identícal twlns-twins who are the product of a single
bar certaín substances from the bIoodstream. [3] fertilized egg that dívíded early In the course of
goal-setting theory-cognitive theory of work motiva- prenatal development. (41
tion that víews workers as motívated. by' conscíous
t intentions to attaín a specífíc goaL [281
identity-an índívídual's sense of personal sameness
and continuity. [171
grammar-the structure of language. [16] identity crisis-an internal conflíct that requires the
ground-In a scene, the regíon that represents spaces adolescent to develop a new seIf-concept. [17, 18]
between objects. [61 ill-defined problem-e-a problem that has no agreed- ."

grouping-the organizing of sensory data. [61 upon steps or rules that will produce a product
growth needs. [191See metaneeds. i
gene rally accepted as a soIution. [10]
illusion-a perception that does not correspond to a real 1;
habituation-decrease in the strength of a response; object or event; it ts produced by phystcal or psycho- I

I occurs after a novel stimulus has been presented over Iogícal distortion. [61 F
a long time. (81 illusory aftereffects oí motion-an Illusion of reverse

I
I
~------------------------------------------------------I
 734 GLOSSARY

movement that occurs after gazing at some move- .Interneurous-c-neurcns that connect only sensory and
ment for a long time, then shíftíng the gaze to a motor neurons, [31
stationary object. [6] interposition-a rnonocular depth cue in whích one
impression management-displaying behavíor that will object partíally blocks the víew of another object. [6]
lead others to make favorable attributions of our intrinsic motivation-the process by which long-term , ,
intentions, abihtíes, and feelings. [261 . goals or preferences lead an individual to undertake a
impression management theory-the theory that maín-
tains that a persori's attitudes remain írnpervíous to
behavíor. [12]
introversion-in .Jung's terms, a rnajor personality orí-
··:0r
the eEfects of dissonance and that the insufficient entation in whích the person w íthdraws interest I
reward affects only the express ion of attitudes to >" frorn the external world and consequently is quíet,
others. [l2] reserved, and cautíous. [181
imprinting-the process by whích some species of birds iris-the pígmented portion of the eye that surrounds
and mammals form early social attachments. [41 the pupil of the eye. [5]
incentive-an
incest-sexual
[13,221
external motívatíonal stimulus. [12]
activíty between closely related persons. James-Lange theory oí emotion-the víew that emotion
results from the perception of bodily changes. [111
',1
I
inclusive fitness-the concept that the fitness of an just noticeable difíerence (JND). [5] See difference
individual to survíve is a combinatíon of his or her threshold.
own personal fitness .and the fitness of hís or her
relatives based on theír shared genes. [41 key-word system-mnemonic system used in foreign-
independent variable-any factor whose change is ex- language learníng: an English word similar to the
pected to affect the event beíng studíed, [2] foreígn word to be learned ís used to cue the foreígn
individual psychology-the school of psychology found- word. [9]
ed by Alfred Adler in 1911. [181 kinesthesis-the sense ofbody movement and position.
individual trait-a untque way of organtzing the world [5]
that cannot be applied to all people. [191
individuation-in .Jung's terms, a process of developing latency period or stage-the period in psychosexual
all parts of the personality. [181 developrnent in which libidinal dynamics are more or
induced movement-an ílluston in whích a stationary less stabilized; chtldren busy themselves explonng
object appears to move because íts relatíonshíp toa the world and learning new thíngs. [17, 181
surrounding background changes. [6] latent content oí dreams-according to Freud, the un-
industrial/organizational (IIO) psychology-c-field of psy- conscíous wtshes, primarily derived from unresolved
. - - .chology conceri:ú!cfwíthhúrnari beIlavíor-in the worlC; - early emotíorial conflicts, velfé-a by symboÜclm,i,ges-
place. [1, 28] . in dreams. [7, 181
iníeriority complex-in Adlers terms. the feelíngs and .Jateral geniculate nucleus (LGN)-a grouping of cell
actíons that characteríze a person with an inability bodies in the thalamus. [5]
to overcome a childhood senseof incompleteness. lateralization-the establishment of functions in one
[ 181 hemisphere or the other. [3]'
inhibited eJaculation-a condition in which men are learned helplessness-the acquired beliefthat one can-
unable to ejaculate during sexual actívíty. [13] not exert any control over the envíronment. [21]
inhibitory connection-a message that prevents a re- learníng-c-a change in behavíoral disposition that ís
ceiving neuron from ñríng. [3] caused by experience and not explained on the basis
inoculation-process

insight-the
ofprovídíng a person wíth defens-
es agaínst the effects of persuasion. [25]
sudden perception of a new relationship
that leads to an innovative solutíon. [lO]
ofreflexes. maturatíon, OI ternporarystates. [8]
lens-a transparent structtíre béhind the pupíl of the
eye. [5]
límbíc system- the layer of the braín ínvolved in.motiva-
,,1
instrumental aggression-aggression that aims at ae- tional and emotíonal processes. [3]
quírtng or retrieving objects, terrítory, or prtvíleges. linear- functícn. [21 See linear relationship.
[17] linear perspective- the apparent convergence of parallel
instrumental conditioning. [8] See operant condition- lines in the distance. [6]
ing. linear relationship-a relattonshíp between variables
intelligence quotient (IQ)-the ratío of mental age to that can be represented graphically as a straíght líne.
chronologícal age. [201 [21
intensity-the strength of a stimulus such as the amplí- linguistics-the study of languages structure. [16]
tude of the air-pressure wave·. [5] Iocalization of functíon-i-the idea that different parts of
interference-process in whích other material in memo- the braín appear to be involved in different types of
ry blocks out material that is being sought. [9] behavior. [31
interjudge reliability-the extent to whích the scoring locus oí control-degree to which persons believe that
or interpretation of a test by dífferent judges will they are personally responsible for what happens to
produce the same results. [20] them. [201
internal consistency reliability-the extent to which long-term memory-the type of memory storage capable
different parts of a test produce the same results. [20] of storing a limitless amount of ínformatíon in-
internalization-the child's tncorporatíon of socíety's defínrtely. [91
values to such an extent that víolatíon of these lucid dreams-dreams in which a person is aware that
standards produces a sense of guilt. [17] he or she ís dreaming. [7]
. - .~..:
. :..~
_~
.. ..

/
~
,- GLOSSARY 735

I
maintenance rehearsal-a form of rehearsal to maín- mild retardation-mental retardation in which the
tain tnforrnatícn in short-term memory. [91 (Stanford-Bínet) IQ is between 52 and 67; mild retar-
major depression-one or more major depresstve epí- dates can hold undemanding jobs. rnarry, and have
sodes wíth no mtervernng episodes of euphoria. [221 children. (201
manifest content oí dreams-according to Freud, that Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
level of content in dreams that ís a weaving of daily -an empirically constructed peraonaltty-inventory,
events, sensations during sleep, and memories; the valuable for diagnosing certain mental illnesses. (201
surface meaning. [7, 181 . mnemonic systems-systems that organíze material so
marital schism-a baste farníly pattern, thought to pro- -""hat it can be remembered. [91
duce. schizophrenía. in whích the parents of the mode-a measure of central tendency: the score that
schtzophreníc are bítterly dívíded.Tz Sl most frequently appears in a distribution. (2)
marital skew-a basic family pattern.vthought to pro- modeling-the process by which a person learns some
duce schizophrenia,' in whích one parent of the new behavíor by watching another person perform it.
schizophrenic totally dominates the other. [231 (24'1
masochism-sexual gratification obtained through hav- models-persons from whom a pattern of behavíor is
ing paín ínflícted on oneself. [221 learned by observation. (81
match=-to asstgn subjects to groups on the basís of a moderate retardation-mental retardation in which the
,¡'
characteristic, so that the subjects in each condition (Stanford-Binet) IQ ís between 36 and 51; although :,!
":1
have the same amount of the charactertstíc, -f21 moderate retardates can take care of thernselves. they
mean-the arithmetic average of a dístributíon of must líve in sheltered workshops. (201 ·A
scores. [2) monochromats-people who are totally color-blínd.
meaningfulness-a characteristic of human cornmuní- Monochromats see the world in shades of gray. (51
cation in which the relatíonshíp between a word and monocular cues-information that does not requíre the
an object ís arbítrary, depending solely on agreernent cooperation ofboth eyes. (61
among a group of people as to meaníng, [161 moral anxiety-( 1) in Freud's terms, anxiety over danger
means-end analysis-a problem-solvtng strategy in that comes frorn the superego. (2) gene rally, anxíety
which the person trtes to reduce the distance be- caused by the superegos demands for moral behav-
tween the current posítíon and the goal, [101 ior. (18, 231
measure of central tendency-a descríptíve statístíc morphemes-the smallest uníts of meaning wtthín a
that represents .the middle of a dístríbutíon of word. (161
responses-the mode, mean. or median: [21 motherese-the specíal ways in which adults speak to
.medían-c-the score .that falls-ín -the-exact-rníddle of a ..- -- .. small-children. [161
dístríbutíon, when all scores are arranged from hígh- ·motion parallax-dift'erences that occur in the relatíve
est to lowest. [21 movement of retínal images when the observer moves
medícal model-a model of abnormal behavíor that or changes posítion. (61
víews psychologícal problems in the same way as it . ·motivation- the process corresponding to the property
views physícal problema-e-as díseases. [221 . of behavíor called "rnotíve.." (121
medítation-i-a retrammg of attention that induces ID . ·motíve-i-the dynamíc property of behavíor that grves ít
.altered state of consciousness. [7] organízatíon over time and that defines íts end states .
medUlla-the part ofthe braín stem involved in breath- [121
ing, círculatíon, chewíng, salívatíon, andfactai move-. motor cortex-the area of the frontal lobes ínvolved in
ments, [31 . . .. .. .... ¡ ..._ regulation of voluntary movement. [31
memory trace-a physíologicalchange theoretícally -.motor neurons-neurons that carry messages from the
formed in the braín torecord inforrnatíon: as time '.' spínal cord to muscles or glands. [31
passes. the trace decays. [9] . _ '. . multíple orgasms-a series of orgasms that women may
mental retardation-"significantly subaverage 'general · experíence wíthout going through the resolutíon
intellectual functioning existing concurrently wíth phase after each orgasmo (131
deficíts in adaptíve behavíor, and manifested during multiple personality-a dívistcn into two or more com-
the developmental períod" (American. Association on plete behavíor organízatíons. each well-defíned and
Mental Deficiency. 1977). [2Ól híghíy distinct from the others: a rare díssocíatíve
mental set-a tendency to keep repeatíng solutions that díscrder. (221
worked in other situations. [10 1 myelin sheath-e-a fatty, whítísh substance that wraps
metacognition-an understanding of the cognitive proc- around some axons and that serves as ínsulatíon. (31
esses. [15) .
metamemory-knowledge about how one's own memory natural category-a category made up of some class of
system works. [91 objects in the world. (10 1
metaneeds-the híghest motives. havíng to do wíth natural selection-the tndívídual's reproductíve suc-
creatívíty and self-actualization. (12. 19) cess. whích is made possible by íts genetic dífferen-
metapathologies-crises (such as alienation and apa- ces from other members of its populatíon. (41
thy) that result when metaneeds are not fulfilled. (19) naturalistic observations-a rnethod of collecting data
method oí loci-mnemonic system that uses a series of in whích researchers carefully observe and record
places along a familiar route to organíze and cue behavíor in natural settings. (21
retrieval of ínformatíon to be remembered. (9) negative correlation-a relationship between two varia-
midbrain-the part of the braín stem that contaíns bles in whích a rugh rank on one measure ts accorn-
centers for visual and auditory reflexes. (31 panted by a low rank on the other. (21

1;'
~.
736 GLOSSARY

negative reinforcement-the strengthening of a re- chíld's psycnologícal development, in whích children

sponse by the removal or termination of a stimulus. perceive themselves as rívals of theír same-sex par-
[81See also escape Iearníng. ents for the affectíon of the parent of the opposite sexo
neodissociation theory-a theory of hypnosís based on [171
the notion that conscíousness depends on multiple olfaction-the sense of smell. [51
systems that are coordinated through híerarchíes of olfactory epithelium-the sense organ for olfaction. [51
control, and that during hypnosis the controls shíft. open gene tic program-a gene tic program that can be
[71 modified by experience. thus permitting an animal to
nerves-bundles of neuron fibers. [31 »: store more information than can be transmitted in a
nervous networks-a system of communication chan- closed gene tic programo [4]
nels that spreads into every part ofthe body. [31 operant conditioning-conditioning in whích learnincr
neurons-the specíahzed cells in the central nervous is explained by the way the consequences ofbehavio~
system that transmit tnformatíon by means of electro- affect the organísmss behavíor in the future, [8]
chernícal impulses. [31 oppouent-process theory-( 1) the theory of color víston
neuropsychology. [11See physiological psychology. proposing the exístence of three antagonisticalIy or-
neuroscience-area of psychology that investigates the ganized systerns. wíth two of the systems composed
workings of the sensory systems; the effects of varí- of paírs of opposíte colors. (2) the theory explaining
ous brain chernícals on psychologícal phenomena acquired motívatíons as the result of two opposing
such as memory, paín. and motívatíon: and the processes. [5, 121
effects of braín damage on behavíor. [1] optic chiasm-the junctíon where the nerves meet and
neurosis-any· ccndítíon in which a person develops are rerouted. [51
some maladaptive behavior as a protectíon against optic disc-the "blínd spot" in the eye; the area on the
unconscíous anxíety. [221 retina through whích the optíc nerve passes. [5]
neurotic anxiety-in Freud's terrns. anxiety over danger optic nerve-the nerve that relays visual information to
that comes from the id. [18, 231 the braín. [51
neurotransmitter-a chernícal stored in sacs at the tip optimal-level theories-theories proposing that áctívt.
of the axon, that transmits rnessages across the ties seerníngly unrelated to specífic primary needs are
synapse. [31 based on a built-in tendency to maíntaín a certaín
nondirective counseling. [241See client-centered ther- level of st ímulatíon. [121
apy. oral stage-that stage in psychosexual development that
non-REM (NREM) sleep-the stages of sleep other than occupíes the first year of !ife and durmg whích the
REM-sle'ep:t71--'-'· ... - - __o'-- __ ...__. 'O. •

baby's mouth ts the.prtrnary source of sensual.pleas; _

norepinephrine-neurotransmitter that may be in- ure, [17, 181
volved in arousal, pleasure, dreamíng, and mood. organic brain syndromes-disorders directly traceable
[31 . to the destruction of braín tíssue or to biochemical
norm-a normative distribution that shows the frequen- imbalance in the braín. [221
cy wíth, whích particular scores on a test are made. organísm-i-the total range of a persori's possíble experí-
[141 . ences. [191
normal.curve of distribution-a: bell-shaped, symmetrí- organizational psychology. [11 see industrial/organ-
cal dístríbutíon, in whích. mean, median, and mode izational (I10) psychology.-
.are the same. [21 orgasrn-c-the clímactíc phase of sexual response. [131
nox;ms-( 1) averages derived frorn observtng many indí- orienting reñex-c-phystologícal reactíori to a novel stím-
viduals',-(2} a socíety's rules that prescribe "ríght" ulus. [81
and "wrong" behavíor. [20, 22,. 271 ossicles-a series of bones in the middle ear. [5]
.nuclear.-magnetic resonance: (NMR)-technique that oval window-the flexible membrane that divides the
- uses radiowaves on a body enclosed in a magnetic middle ear from the tnner ear. [5]
field to produce images oftíssue, bíochemícalactíví- overextension-a chíld's tendency to extend the mean-
ty,. and metabolismo [31 íngs of words to cover objects or actíons for which
they have no words. [161
overinclusion-a Iooseníng of assocíatíons. so that each
obedience-any behavíor that complies wíth the explicit sentence is generated from some mental stimulus in
cornmands of a person in authority. [27] the preceding sentence. [221
object concept-an understanding that objects have an overregulation.-extension of a grammatical rule to
existence of theír own ..[15] cases where ít does not apply. [161
object permanence-the awareness that objects contin- ovulation-retease of a mature egg from the ovary. (131
ue to exíst when out of síght. [151
obsession-an involuntary, irrational thought that oc-
curs repeatedly. [221 pain thresholds-points at which pains are first per-
obsessive-compulsive disorders-disorders character- ce íved. [51
ized by rituals of orderliness or cleanliness, such as pair recognition-test of memory retrieval in which the
continual hand washing. [23] subject is asked to confirm whether a paired test item
occipital lobe-the area in the braín for reception and matches a prevtously leamed paír. [91
analysís of visual information. [3] Pandemonium model-model of feature analysis pro-
Oedipal conflict-the most important conflíct in the posíng that the brain identifies unknown letter stírn-
 GLOSSARY 737

uli by weíghíng the various stimuli features that maladaptive personality traíts that írnpaír functíon-
match the letter stored in memory, then summing ing. (22]
those weíghted matches over all features available in personality psychology-the approach to psychology in
the pattem. (61 which individual differences in behavíor are studied.
panic attacks-episodes in which an already heíghtened (11
state of tension mounts to an acute and overwhelm- personnel psychology-a branch of industrial psycholo-
ing leve!. (22] gy. Personnel psychologísts screen job applicants,
panic disorder-panic attacks preceded by no specific evaluate job performance, and recommend employees
stimulus. (221 for prornotton. (11
paradoxical cold-the phenomenon of feeling a cold pef'suasive communication-a direct, overt attempt to
sensatíon when a cold spot on the skín is stimulated change attitudes. (25]
with a hot stimulus. (5] phallic stage-s-the third stage of psychosexual develop-
parapsychology-the study of ESP; the psychology of rnent, during which the chíld's attentíon ís focused
events that go beyond what is probable. (11 on the genitals and the pleasures of fondling them.
parasympathetic nervous system-the dívíston of the [17, 18]
autonomic nervous system that demínates in relaxed phenomenological approach-an approach in the
situations. (3] humantstic-extstentíal perspective that stresses the
parietal lobe-the area of the braín behind the central índtvidual's own perception of events as opposed to a 1
físsure. [31 . .. therapists interpretation of hidden causes. [231 . d
Parkinson"s disease-i-a chronic and often 'progresstve pheromones-chemicals that trtgger a behavíoral reac-:
'i. .:.-.......
condition characterized by ínvoluntary shakíng of tíon in other anírnals of the same species. [51
the Iímbs and head. [31 phi phenomenon-an example of apparent motion in
partial reinforcement schedule-a schedule of reín- which the íllusíon is created by rapidly flashing still
forcement in which the subject is rewarded after only pictures. [61
some of íts responses. [81 phobia-an anxíety irrationally centered on a particular
participant modeling-a therapeutíc technique in objeet or situatlon. [22]
which the therapíst models the feared actívíty and phonemes-the smallest sound units in the language.
then helps the client to confront and master a gradu- (161 ¡l
ated series of threatening actívittes. [241 photopigment-a light-sensitive molecule. [51
. I
i¡
pathway-"cable" made up of long, parallel axons that phyletic evolution-a straíght-Iíne pattem of evolutíon.
.. transmit sígnals in the central nervous system.(3] [41
patt~rp.~ogp.itj.on-pmc-.e.ss_ through whích.we. ic;lepti:.__..~~physiological_psychology~the.appmach_to psychology ----,--_
.._. -'--1-'
I
fya shape or sound as similarto something we have that attempts to untangle the connections between . 1:

seen before. [3] the endocrine and nervous systems and behavíor. 111 ".L
. pedophilia-sexual gratíñcatíon obtained through sexu- physiological zero-the temperature at which there is !
al contacts wíth children. (22] no sensatíon. [51
peg-word system-mnemonic system based on _ten or pitch-the attribute of tones in terrns of whích they may
more simple words that act as rnernory pegs or hooks. be described as hígh or low. This attribute ís closely
[91 related to frequency of the sound waves. [5]
percentile system-a system of scoríng tests in whích pituitary gland-the "master gland" of the endocrine
the group of seores is divided ínto one hundred equal system. [31
parts. [201 place theory-the theory statíng that the stte of maxí- .
perception-an organísm's awarenesS of objects and -mum displacement on the bastlar membrane índí-.. ·
events in the envíronment. brought about by stímu- cates to the brain, the spectfíc.frequency ofsound. [5]
latíon of the organísrns sense organs. (6] placebo-a substanee that has no direet phystologícal .. ,:.~
... :"
.perceptual constancy-the tendency to percetve objects effeet. [3, 51 - . .
as havíng eertain constant or stable properties. [61 placebo effect-phenomenon in whích subjects' expec-
perceptuaI set-the' readíness to perceíve stímulí in a tatíons of the effect of a substance result in their
specíñc way, ignortng some types of st írnulatíon and experiencing the effect, even though they are aetually
becorníng sensttíve to others. [61 gíven an inert substance. [21
peripheral nervous system (PNS)-the relay system con- plastic-the characteristíc of hurnan behavíor that
nectíng the CNS and all parts of the body. [31 makes it capable of being molded by envíronmental
perseveratícn=-t 1) a verbal slip in whích a produeed influenees. [41
sound is erroneously repeated later in the utteranee. plateau phase-the second phase of sexual response ..
[2) a tendeney to dwell on the prírnary associatíon to [131
a gtven stimulus. [16. 221 pons-the part of the braín stem that conneets the two
personal disposition. [191See individual trait. halves of the cerebellum and that aets as a relay
personal unconscious-in .Jung's terrns. a leve! of the station. [31
unconseious similar to the unconscíous as depicted population-a group of interest identified by some par-
by Freud. [18] tieular characteristie or group of charaeteristies. [2]
personality-the dífferences among people plus the sta- position emission tomography (PET) scan-teehnique
bility of any índívídual's behavíor over long períods. that provides color eontour maps of brain actívíty
[17, 18] through use of injeeted radíoactíve glucose. [3]
personality disorder-disorder ínvolvíng inflexible and positive correlation-a relationship between two varia-
738 GLOSSARY

bles in which a hígh rank on one measure is accom- by encouragíng peapie to develop a healthy lifestyle.
panied by a hígh rank on the other. [21 [21]
positive reinforcer-reward that increases an organ- primary reinforcer-a stímulus that fulfills some basic
ísrn's tendency to repeat a response that leads to it. need. [81
[81 priming-presenting an ítem or an assoctatíon to an
postconventional Ievel=-Kohíberg's stage of moral de- -ttem several seconds or mínutes before memory for
velopment at which an individual judges moral ís- the ítem is tested, thus preparíng it for subsequent
sues in terms ofself-chosen príncíples and standards re trieval. [91
based on universal ethical principies and on the proactive interference-interference in whích earlier
ideals of recíprocity and hurnan equality. [17J learníng blocks out subsequent learning. (9]
post-decision dissonance-state in whích an awareness problem reduction-problem-solving strategy in whích
of the posttíve features of the rejected alternatíve and a large problem ís broken into a number of smaller,
the negatíve features of the chosen alternatíve creates easíer-to-solve problems. [101
cognttíve inconsistency. [251 problem space-a persori's conceptíon of the posstbj-
Pg4R method-mnemonic system used to improve moves to be examined in solvíng a problem. [10]
memory for test material; consists of six steps. pre- prodromal phase-a phase of detertoratíon, in whích a
víew, questíon. read, reflect, recite, and revíew. [91 person beca mes increasingly withdrawn, eccentric in '
pragmatics-the study of língutstic functíon. [l6] behavíor. and unable to carry out daily functions:,j
precocial-competent (referring to the young of a spe- before schízophrenía becomes active. [22] o;:
cíes). [l4] productivity-a majar characteristic of human lan-"
preconventionallevel-Kohlberg's stage of moral devel- guage: the capacíty to allow individual uníts to bé:
opment in whích children judge moral issues in combined ínto an unlírníted number of messages-.:
terms of paín or pleasure or of the physícal power of (16] z.
authority. [17] profound retardation-mental retardatíon in whích the.
predictive validity-a test's abíhty to produce scores (Stanford-Bínet) IQ is below 20; profoundly retarded .
'that show a relationship to future performance en a persons usually rernaín in institutions but can som~>
job. [20] times carry out a few tasks under close supervísíon."
prefrontal lobotomy-a surgícal procedure in which a some cannot speak, although they may understand:
surgícal ínstrurnent ís inserted ínto the braín and simple communícatíon. [201
rotated to sever nervefíbers connectíng the frontal program evaluation-evaluation by psychologists of tne
lobe (thought center) and the thalamus (emotional cost and effectíveness of applied programs. [11
. .center). [2~L __ progressive relaxation-a relaxatíon techníque i
pregenital stage-a coll~~tivete¡ni-ror FreUdOS-flrs"E diree whíchthe mdlvíüüaftenses and 'thenreleases díffer-
psychosexual stages. (l8J ent muscle groups in sequence. (211.,.
prejudice-negatively toned attitudesand opinions projection-the unknowing attribution of ones owrr
about an entíre group, such as a racial minority or impulses or fears onto others. [181
women, developed in the absence of sufficient knowl- __ projective tests-tests whose overall assessment de~'
edge. [26] . .pends upon clínícal interpretation. [20] . __
premature ejacufation-c-a conditionin which men ejac- proposítíon-i-the form in which a thought occurs in OUI}
ulate rapidly, before they or theír partners would like. .conscíousness: it consísts of a subject (topic) wttha.
[13] predicate (comment about the topic). [161 - :
preoperational period-the period of cognítíve develop- prosocial behavior-action intended to benefit another .:-
ment characterized by the development of language, .person, taken wtthout expectation of external re,
elaborate symbolícplay, and the absence of logícr the ward. and generally ínvolvtng sorne cost to the indi-··
preschool years. [15] vídual, [171
primacy effect-c-a process in which the personality prototype-a hypothetical best--or most ryptcal=.
traits that are detected first influence subsequent example of a category. [101
information about the persono [26] - proXimity-a principie of grouping; how close together-
primary appraiSal-a persori's ínítíal appraisal of new or people live and work. [6, 26]'
changing circumstances to determine what they psychiatric nurse-a regístered nurse who has specíal-,
mean to hírn or her. [211 ízed in psychiatric nurstng. [241 _.
primary colors-in additive color míxíng, the three psychiatric social worker-a professional. who has.
basic colors (blue, red, and green) that can be corn- earned a master's degree in social work ando has-..
bined to produce any other color. [5] specíalízed in psychiatric social work. [24] .
primary drives-internal motívatíonal factors that seek psychiatrist-a phystcían (lVID) who specíalízes in the.
fulfillment of basic needs. [12] diagnosis and treatment of mental illness. [241
primary erectile failure-the condition of a man who psychoactive drug-a drug that interacts with the cen-.
has never been able to achieve or maintain an erec- tral nervous system to alter mood, perception, and
tíon sufficíent for intercourse. [13] behavíor. [7] .
primary orgasmíc dysfunction-the sttuatíon ofwomen psychoanalysis-the process by which Freud atternpted-
who have never experienced orgasm through any to bring unconscious material ínto the patíent's.
means. [13] awareness, where ít could be examined ratíonally..-;
primary prevention-a method of maintaining health [ 18]
H
~~
H
~~ GLOSSARY 739
¡I
¡,¡I
¡,
.
psychoanalyst-a person wíth special traíning in the
technique of psychoanalysis and who has been psy-
prevíously unexamined beliefs and then are aided in
establishing a more realistic cognitive frarnework: a
11 choanalyzed as part of the traíníng. [241 method of cognitive restructuríng. [241

I¡
psychodynamics-the interplay of ccnflictíng forces rationalization-defense mechanism in which a person
within the personality. [18J devíses a plausible explanation for doing [or not . j
psychogeníc theory-the view that mental disturbances doingl something that in fact he or she ís doing for
1 ¡
1 result prtrnaríly from psychologtcal factors. [231 dilferent reasons. [181
\
¡ psychohistory-the applícatíonof psychoanalytíc prin- reaction formation-the replacement of an 'anxtety-
cipIes to the study of hístortcal figures. [181 ....-producing impulse by its opposite. [181
psycholinguistics-the study of Ianguages functíon: reaction range=-the uníque range of responses to the
how language ís used. [16 J environment possible for the gene tic make-up of each

II psychological test-an objectíve and standardízed mea-

sure of a sample of behavíor that provides a systemat-
íc basis for making inferences about people. [201
persono [201
realistic fantasy-a state on the contínuum that stretch-
es from normal waking conscíousness to dreamíng:
psychology-the study of behavíor. [11 it is most like normal consciousness. [71
psychopharmacology-the study of the relatíonshíp be- realistic job preview [RJP)-an honest pícture of the

II . tween drugs and behavíor. [1 J

psychosis-a condition in whích the person's percep-
tions of reality are' híghly distorted. [22J
psychosocíal-caused by both.psychologícal and social
~ factors. [18J
psychotherapy-a systernatíé series of interactions be-
tween a therapíst trained to aid in soívmg psychologí-
cal problems and a person who ís troubled or who ís
troubling others. [241
psychotic disorder-a disorder characterized by a gen-
eralized failure of functioníng in all areas of a per-
sori's life. [221
P300 wave-feature of the event-related potential that
aríses when a persori's expectatíons are upset. [31
,1 puberty-the períod of sexual maturation that trans-
._forms.a child into .a physícal.adult.Ll.Zl. __..,-
punishment-a consequence that leads tó the suppres-
síon of or to a decrease in the.frequency of a behavíor.
potential job, including its disadvantages. [28]
reality anxíety-i-tn Freud's terrns. anxíety over danger
that comes frorn the outside world. [18,231
receptive field-the restricted regíon of the retina with-
in whích a neural response may be generated by
Iíght. [5 J
receptor neurons-the specialized cells that receive sen-
sory information frorn the environment. [31
recíprocal altruism-theory proposíng that when a per-
son performs an altruísttc act, he or she increases
the chanees that the person being helped will recípro-
cate and may one day help either the helper or the
helpers kin. [4, 271
reconditioning-relearning of a conditioned response
that has been extinguished by again pairing the es
- -andUS. [81- - ,---- - - -.
referential-use of symbols to refer to objects. [161
reflex arc-the baste functíonal unít of the nervous
system: a connectíon between sensory and motor

1
[81
pupil-the openíng in th~ cent::r of the eye. [51 signals. [31
._... reflexes-nervous system responses that pro vide ímme-
¡, qualitative change-c-change.Jn cognítíve developrnent.
diate ínvoluntary reactions or responses to stírnulí.
[31
,1 considered as tnvolvinga radícalrestructuríng of the
refraetory period=-I 1) a short period after a cell has
mínd, [15J .
fired, during whích it cannot transmít an impulse.
l qualíty-c-thekínd of sensatíon a stimulus produces. [5J
quantítative caange-c-change.tn cognitive deveiopment,
(2) a per íod 01' time that must pass after a mari's
orgasm before he can become sexualIy aroused again.
;
consídered as resulting;from'-theaccumulation of
[3, 131
I knowledge. [151
i regression-defense mechanism in whích a person re-
r quantítatíve psychology-s-the approach to psychology
that specíalízes in measurernent and statistics. (1 J
turns to an earlier stage of development in response
to some perceíved threat. [18 J
rehearsal-mental repetition of material we wish to
racísm-c-specífíc attítudes and behavíor based on. pea- retain in mernory. [91
ple's beliefs that theír ówn race ís superior. (26J reinforcement control-a way of regulatíng and rnaín-
randomly assign-to assígn subjects lo a treatment taining behavíor by rewarding an individual after he
condition in such a way that each subject has an or she has behaved in a particular way. [191
equal chanee of being plaeed in either condition. [21 reinforcement theory-theory of work motívatíon that
range-the dilference between the smallest and the largO' applies the techniques ofoperant conditioning to the
est scores in a statístícal dístríbutíon. [21 workplace. [281
rape-nonconsenting sexual intercourse with another relative size-the relationship between the size of the
person as the result of force, threat, or intimidation. retínal image produced by an object and the apparent
[13, 221 distance of that object from an observer. [6J
rational scale-personality test developed by deñníng reliable-a test, measuring something consistently. [20J
the varíous constructs to be measured, then writing REM (rapid eye-movement) sleep-a stage of sleep asso-
items that appear to fit the definitions. [20J cíated wíth dreams, in whích the eyes move rapidly
ratíonal-ernotíve therapy-a therapy in which clients , baek and forth under closed eyelíds, (7J
are first led to, recogníze the irrational nature of representational thought-thinking in which one men-
740 GLOSSARY

tally represents objects not directly in front of one. schedule of reinforcement-the basís on which a sub-
[15] ject is rewarded for a behavíor. [8]
representativeness-a heuristíc in whích predictions schema-organized cluster of general lmowledge that we
are based on resemblances between the predícted possess about any general topic. [9, 101
event and a typícal example. [101 schemes-i-actton patterns that consist ofwhatever in an
repressíon=.the fundamental defense mechanísm, one "actíon can be repeated and generalized to other
that keeps threatening thoughts and memories from situations. [15]
consciousness and pushes thern back into the un- schizophrenia-a group of disorders characterized by
conscious. [18] ".- thought disturbance that may be accompanied by
residual phase-a period following the active phase of delusions, hallucinations, attention defictts. and bt-
schizophrenia in which behavior resembles that of zarre motor activity. [22]
the prodromal phase. [22] Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT)-':a test desígned to mea-
resistance-a client's attempts to block the therapíst's sure "aptítude for college studíes" rather than school
treatment. [24] achievement or general íntellígence. [20J
resolution phase-the final phase of sexual response. sehool psyehology-the approach to psychology con-
[ 13] cerned with assessment of children with leaming or
resting rate-the rate at whích small spontaneous im- emotional problems. The school psychologist wíll
pulses are sent down the axon during a neurori's then work out ways for parents and teachers to help
resting phase. [3] these chíldren. [1] .
retention-the rnaíntenance of information in storage. scientific management-a system for the redestgn of
[9] work methods to make them more efficient. [28]
retieular formation-the part of theibraín stem that script-the schema of routíne events that typically occur
. aro uses higher braín areas to íncomíng information in a particular sítuatíon. [161
and maíntaíns the sleep-wakíng cycle. [3] search tree- the set of all poss íble moves that willlead to .
retina-the surface at the back of the eye cornposed of soIution of a problem. [lO] .
receptors and neurons. [5] secondary appraisal-a persori's assessment of whether..
retrieval-the ability to get encoded informatíon out of he or she has the resources and ability to cope wíth a:
storage and back into awareness. [9] situation. [21] .'.:
retrieval cue-a piece of information that helps us. to secondary erectile failure-a condítíon in whích meri.
retrieve information from long-term memory.[9] who have experienced no erectile failure with apart-v
retroactive interference-interference in which subse- -ner in the past are unable to achíeve or maintain an.
quent.learníng. blocks outearlíer.Ieamtng.Fal .__. .erectton.in.sorne or.all.sexual.situatíons.J L3.]. :.
retrograde amnesia-a condition in whích people are secondary (situational) orgasmic dysfunction-the siU~
unable to remember events precedíng some kind of uation of women who experience orgasms sorne-.
brain insulto [9] times, but not wíth theír pnrnary sexual partneror:
reverie-a state on the contínuum that stretches from not during sexual intercourse. [13]
normal waking conscíousness to dreamíng: ít con- secondary reinforcer. [8] See conditioned reínforcer:
sísts of unrelated images, scenes, or memories. [7] secondary trait-a charactertstíc mode of behavíor that. .
reversal-verbal slips in which sounds are- exchanged .. ís less prominent than a central trait and is seen mi:;;
[16] fewer sítuatíons. [191 2

rhodopsin-a highly sensttíve photopígment found in second-order conditioníng-c-a phenomenon in which a::
- rods. [51 ' second neutral stimulus, when it repeatedly followsa"
rods-receptor cells in the eye.responsfble for vísion in conditioned stimUlus,becomes capable of'elícifíng":
dim líght. Rodsstgnaltnformation about bríghtness. the condítíoned response by itself. -[8] .
[51 selective attentíoa-i-the process of controlling the selec-v,
role enaetment theory-the theory that hypnosís ís tíon of material from sensory memory. [9] . -. ,.
simply a special case of role playing. [7] self--the parts of the total range of a persori's possible'.
role taking-being able- to imagine oneself in another's experíences that the individual recognízes and ac-".
place. [17] cepts. [19] .
Rorschach Inkblot Test_a test in which a person is self-actualization-fulfillment of an índivtdual's capa- o

handed a series of symmetrícal inkblots. one at a bilities. [191 .

time, and ís asked to report what she cr he' sees, self-fulñllíng prophecies-expectations about behavíor
using free association. [201 that evoke a sttuatíon in whích the expectations are'
round window-a membranous spor on the cochlea. [5] confírmed; [26]
self-instructíonal training-a method of cognítíve re'
structuring that gíves clients new ways of thínkíng
sadism-sexual gratíñcation obtaíned through ínflíctíng and talking about theír problems. [241 .
paín on another persono [221 self-monitoring-controlling our words, actions, and
sample-a representative selectíon of mernbers of a de- nonverbal dísplays of emotion so as to create a favor-
fined populatíon, [2] able impression. [25, 26]
scatter plot-graph on whích a large number of data are self-schemas-cIusters of generalizations about the self
plotted; used to show the range of possíble relatíon- based on past experiences that organize, summaríze.
ships. [2] and explaín OUT behavior. [261
 GLOSSARY
semen- the fluids díscharged by males in ejaculatíon.
[131
semicircular canals-the three fluíd-filled canals in the
inner ear that make up the vestíbular-organ. [51
sensorimotor period-the períod of cognitive develop-
ment in which the ínfant relies on action schemes;
the fust two years of Me. [151
sensory deprivation-alteration of consciousness by
sharp reductíon of al! sensory stimu1ation. [71
sensory memory-the momentary persistence of senso-
ry information after stímulatton has ceased. [91
sensory neurons-neurons that carry messages frorn
the sense organs to the spinal cord. [3J
separation distress-an infant's protesting when parted
from the mother and expressmg joy when the mother
returns. [171
septal area-a structure in the lírnbíc system. [31
serotonin-neurotransmltter believed to affect body
temperature, sensory perceptíon, and the onset of·
sleep. [31 .'
severe retardation-mental retardatíon in whích the
(Stanford-Binet)IQ ís. between 20 and 35; severe
retardates can learn to care for some of their physical
needs. [201
sexism-attitudes and behavíor based on the belíef that
one's own sex is superior. [261
sex-typed behavíor-s-behavtor that is regarded as appro-
príate for only one sexo [171
sexual dysfunction-any recurring .problern that pre-
vents an individual from engagíng ín sexual relations
or from reaching orgasm during sexo[131
_s~!ip~g.::-it fQrrl1o( 9pe!..anJ.c()~d.i~iot1!Pg_~seaQn..!l"!~._
reinforcernent of ever-closer approxírnattons of a de-
sired behavíor. [8J . socialization-the
t short-term memory(STM)- the type ofrnernory storage
I
. capable of retaining information for about fifteen
seconds. [9J
sign stimulus-a particular stímulus thattríggers the
¡ appearance of fíxed-actíon patterns as well as some
I, more complex behavíor. [41
signal detectíon theory-the theory proposíng that
there ís no single absolute threshold for a stímulus,
f [51
similarity-a principie of groupíng. ¡6J
simplicity-the concept mtegratíng al! the principies of
grouptng. [61
simplification-problem-solVing strategy in whích a so-
lutíon to a similar but relatívely simple problem is
worked out in order to generalize .the solutíon meth-
od to a more cornplex problem. Llar
single feature-s-the classiñcatíon rule that depende on
just a single attríbute (for example, doctor). [101 .
single-item recognition-test of mernory retríeval in
which subject ís asked to confírrn whether an ítern
was on a prevíously Iearned; líst., [9J·
síngle-unít recording-placement of an electrode to
allow researchers to record the electrícal actívíty of a
single neuron. [3J
situational cause-cause of behavíor that is attributed
to condítíons in the environment. [261
size constancy-the tendency to perceíve the size of an
object as constant regardless of its 'dístance and,
hence, the síze of its retinal image. [61
741
slow potential-change in voltage of a recervíng neuron.
[31
social behavior-any behavíor that involves the ínterac-
tíon of two or more índívíduals. [41
social cognition-the child's understanding of the so- .
cial world and the process by which the child comes
to understand why people behave as they do in social
sttuatíons. [171
social facilitation-enhanéed performance in L.'1epres-
./ ence of others. [271
social impact theory-the theory that when social for-
ces affect a situation. the larger the group, the less
pressure on any one mernber because the impact of
the forces ís spread over the entire group. [271
social influence-waiting for others to define the sítua-
tíon as an ernergeney. [21+
social interest-in Adlers terms, the inborn desire to
strive for the public good. [181
sociallearning theory-the theory proposing that learn-
ing is not sírnply a matter of reactíng to stímulí:
rather. people apply cognitive processes to the stírnu-
li they encounter, selecüng.rorganíaíng, and trans-
forming them. [81
social psychology-the approach to psychology con-
cerned with the study of the behavior of people in
groups. In social psychology, special attentíon is paid
to the influence of other people on índtvíduals. [11
social trap-a sítuatíon in whích as a result of personal
dectstons, people, organizattons. or socíetíes start
moving in some direction or initiate some relatíon-
ship whose 'consequencesbecome collectivelyharm-
fui or lethal but that seems virtually impossible to
. -- - stop:¡27] --- ._o.oo __ o._ -.-----
process of absorbing socíety's attí-
tudes, values, and customs. [171
sociobiology-the study of the genetícbasts of social
behavíor andorganízatlon. [4J
sociopath-one who is indifferent to the ríghts of others.
[221 ' ..
solo situation-phenomenori in whích a single outsider
enters a group of otherwíse homogeneous índívídu-
als. [261
o somatic nervous system-s-the dívíston, of the PNS relat-
ed to the external world andgerieraüy.under volun-
tary control. [31
somatoform dísorder-c-dísorder- whose dístínguíshíng
feature is the persístence of symptoms that have a
somatic or physical form, but in which there is no
phystologícal malfunctíon. [221
somatosensory cortex-s-the areaof the parietal lobe
tnvoíved in reception and interpretation of touch and
posttíonal information. (31
source credíbility-i-the extent to which the prestíge of
the source affects a messages belíevabílíty. [25J
source trait-an underlying root or cause of a surface
traít, [191
species-a group of índívtduals who can mate wíth each
other and produce offspring under natural ccndí-
tíons. [4J .
species-specific behavior-behavior typical of a partícu-
lar species whose members share a common genetic
background and a common environment that pro-
vides similar influences and experiences. [41
 742 GLOSSARY

speech act-an utterance. (16] superstítíous beliavior-the increase of a response

spermatogenesis-the process of sperm production. (131 owing to a coíncídental relationship between the
spinal cord-column of neurons that bring information behavíor and a reinforcer. (81
from the skin and muscles to the braín and send surface traits-clusters of behavíor that tend to go
motor commands back to muscles. (3] together. (191
spontaneous recovery-temporary reappearance of an survey-method of collecting data in whích researchers
extinguished response when an organísrn is reíntro- obtain tnformatíon about people's characteristics
duced to the experimental situation. (81 attítudes, optníons. or behavíor by asking them ques,
stages-c-cogrntrve períods of development in which a tioris. (21
childs thinking patterns are radícally dífferent frorn> sympathetic nervous system-the dívistcn of the auto-
those of an earlier periodo (151 nomic nervous system that dominates in emergen-
standard deviation (S.D.)-the preferred measure of cies or stressful situations. [31
vartab ílíty. If shows how much figures in a gíven set synapse-a small gap between neurons. [31
of data vary from the mean. [2] synergistic-a combined actíon of drugs. For examDle
standard seore system-a system of scoring tests in the effect of two depressants taken together is gre~te~
whích standard scores represent points on a bell- than the sum of the two drugs' effects. (71
shaped curve that reflects the normal pattern of syntax-the rules for combining words to form senten-
distribution of scores on almost any test. [201 ceso [161
standardlz.atiorrgroup-i--a large andwell-defined. group systematic desensitization-a procedure aiming at the
ofpeople to which a test is gíven to establish the test's gradual extínctíon of anxíety, in which the relaxed
norms. (20] client 'is gradually exposed to anxiety-producing
. Stanford-Binet Test-a revision of Binet's test of intelli- stimuli. (241
gence; devísed at Stanford Uníverstty, (201 systematic relationship-correlatíon between two sets
state-dependent memory-memory more easily recalled of phenomena that happen together that ís stgniñ.
when a person is in the same phystologícal state as cantly hígher than chanceo (21
when she or he acquired the ínformatíon. (91
stereopsis-perception of depth based on binocular dís- tardive dyskinesia-a muscle disorder in whích patients
parity. (61 grimace and smack theír lips uncontrollably. (241
stereotype-to rigidly asstgn to a person al! the stand- taste buds-the structures in the mouth and tongue
ardízed attributes that we ordinarily assígn to the that contain receptor célls for taste stimuli. (51
group, makíng no allowances for Indívídualíty. [261 telegraphic speech-a chtld's utterances in the
stimulant-a drug that íncreases heart rate, blood pres- language-acquísttton stage, characterízed by two-
- -- - '-sure~atfd "müsclé Tension' by stünuranrtg the'e-entral 'wordsentences. [161.-"- --, ... ,--
nervous svstern. [71 temperament-":the mdívídual's pattern of actívtty, sus-
sttmulus-e-any form of energy tbat can evoke a response -Ó. ceptibility to emotional stimulation, response to
(51 stimuli, and general mood. (171
stimulus control-a particular .behavíor taking place template matching-theory of pattern recognition pro-
only when a particular stírnulus ín the' envíronment posing tbat tbe braín recognizes pattems such as
evokes it at the appropriatetíme.q l O¡ letters by comparing fue stímulí to standard patterns
stimulus genúáJ.ization-the tendency for a response ít has sto red in mernory. -(61
learned in one sttuatíon to occur in response to otber . temporallobe-the area in the braín involved in audíto-
similar strrnulí or sítuatíons. (81' . ry reception and processíng of visual information. (31
-stirrup-oneof the ossicles. ,[5] ,,--,". . " test-retest reliability-the extent to whích repeated ad-
Stockholm syndrome-s-the attachmentvthat develops ministration of a test to the same group of people
between a hostage and his or her captor. [251 produces the same results. (201'
stress~a, term . wíthout .precise ,¡n.e¡uüng;· sometimes texture gradient-the graduated dífferences in texture
defined asany stírnulus that placesa. .straín on a that occur as distance increases. (61
persori's physical or psychologícal capacity to adjust: thalamus-a paír of structures in the braín that pro-
sometímes defíned as an ínternal response to some
dísruptíve or dísquietmg si tuation. (211
vides a link between the cerebral hemispheres and
the sense organs. [3i . ' I
subjective contours-s-Itnes or shapes that appear to be the tragedy oi the commons-an
trapo (27] See social. trap.
example of a social I¡
part of a figure but are actually not physícally pres-
1
ent. (6] Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)-a test consisting of
subjects-human beíngs orother animals that are the a series of cards depicting ambíguous scenes ínvoiv-
source ofresponses in an experimento [21 tng one. two, or threepeople. The subject ís asked, to
sublimation-the dívers íon of emotional energy from íts tell a story about eachpícture. (201 ¡
original source to a socially constructive 'use. (181 theory-a system of rules or assumptíons about natural
subliminal perception-the regístration of sensory in- .phenornena that can be used to predíct future events
or to explaín how these phenomena work. [21
formation that influences behavíor wtthout produc-
ingany conscious experience of the stimulus. (61 theory oí multiple intelligences-a theory in which 1I
superego-according to Freud, that part of the personal- equal weíght is gíven to seven different kinds of
íty that represents the moral standards of the socíety intelligence. (201 ' i
as conveyed to the child by the parents, [181 theory of psychosexual :development-Freud's theory I

I
I

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 GLOSSARY 743

that from earlíest infancy people are motivated by vaginismus-a condition in which involuntary muscle
powerful bíologícal ínstíncts to seek pleasure and spasms cause the vagina to shut tíghtly so that
that at different ages, dífferent parts of the body are penetratíon by the penis ís extremely painful or
the focus of this pleasure. [171 . impossible. [131
típ-of-the-tongue phenomenon-the condition ofknow- valid-of a test. measuring what it purports to measure.
ing that the tnforrnatíon ís known, while retríe- [201 . _
val cues fail to produce the ínformatíon. [91 variability-the degree to which a group of responses
token economy-a therapeutíc techníque, used primar- spreads out from the mean or median. [21
ily in institutions. in whích a wide range of appropri- v~ble interval schedule-a partial reinforcement
ate behavíor ís rewarded with tangible conditioned schedule in whích reinforcement comes at unpredíct-
reínforcers. or "tokens." [241 able times. [SI
trait-"any relatively enduring way in which one individ- variable ratío schedule-a partíal reinforcement sched-
ual díffers from another" (Guilford. 1959). [l91 ule in which .reínforcement comes after an unpredict-
transference-a client's transfer to the analyst of child- able number of responses. '[81
hood feelings toward important people in his or her verbal encoding-naming or verbal!y descríbíng materi-
Iífe, particularly the parents. [241 al to be stored into short-term rnemory. [91
transference neurosis-the stage of therapy in which vestibular sense-the sense of balance. [51 I
the client reenacts wíth the analyst childhood con- . visual cortex-area of braín most involved in recetvíng I
flícts wíth the parents, [241 and analyztng visual information; located in occipital
¡
" !
.,~
transsexualism-gender ídentíñcatíon withthe opposite lobe. [31
ir-- sexo [13. 221 visual depth perception-the ability to tel! how far away
transvestism-sexual gratification obtained thrciugh . an object 1S'. [6 I
i 1I
dressing in clothing of the opposíte sexo [22 I voyeurism-sexual gratification obtaíned through se- i
traumatic-psychological!y damagíng. us I cret observations of another persori's sexual actíví- 1I
trichromatic theory-the theory proposing that color tres or genitals. [221 "[1
vtsíon is based on three types of cones thought to be
mmgled in a mosaíc pattem throughout the central wariness of strangers-a baby's responding to strangers íl
retina. [51 wíth. for example, fear or wíthdrawal. [171
trimester-one-third of the períod of pregnancy, [141 wavelenth-s-a unit of scale of the electromagnetic spec- !!
Turner's syndrome-the condition of a fetus that has trum. [51 .'
recerved only a single X chromosome and nó Y chro- Weber's law-the law stating that the amount of stimu- 11

mosome. [131 _,_..tu:=¡

l}ee<;ls;,.dJº--p.mduce
a,just.I1Q.ticeab.le.differenceis.a...
. funi:takIñg-conveñiions="sigilalS tháiiñdicatéw"hci'wÜl
be next to speak in a conversation. [161
constant fractíon of the Intensíty of the stírnulus. [51
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAlS)-a test for
I
two-factor theory of emotion-the theory that the expe- adults that measures both performance and verbal
ríence of an emotíon ís basecl.on a' physíologícal ability. [201
change plus a cognitive interpretation
change. [111_ .. .
of that
'.
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC)-a
': test of children thatmeasures both verbal and perfor-
I
Type A behavior-a personality pattem;: people who ñt mance ability. [201 •
this pattem are híghly cornpetítíve, hostile when
thwarted, and their behavior shows the urgency of
working against the pressures of time: [21 I
Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale oflntelligence
[WPPSI)-a test. that measures both verbal and per-
formance ability of children from four to six and a
l
. . half years old. [201 11
ultimate attribution error-c-the tendencyto fina díspo- 'weÜ:defined problem-aproblem with a clearstructure;
sttíonal causes for the misdeeds of an outgroup ando one in whích there is always a clear standard for
sttuatíonal causes for the mísdeeds of aningrdup. . '>cieciding whetherthe problem has been solved. [101
[261 Wernicke's aphaaía-e-Ioss of ability to cornprehend lan-
unconditionaf positive regard-i-contínued support of a guage, brought about by damage to the left temporal
person (by the self or others) regardless of what the cortex. [31
person says 01' does. [19. 241 ' 'working backward-a specíal form of means-end analy-
unconditioned response. (UCR)-an unleamed re- sts consisting oí devísíng a plan by working back-
sponse to a stímulus .. [81 ward fram the goal state. [101 1,
unconditioned: silinulus (UCS)-a stímulus that evokes
a response wíthour havíng been leamed. [81 Young-Helrnholtz hypothesis-color víston relíes on
unconscious-an aspect of personality unknown to the only three baste kinds oí color cenes, sensitíve to the
mind of the subject. [181 three primary colors of red. blue, and green. [5 I
uniformity-cornmon features or behavíor shared by
almost al! rnembers of a grven group. [271

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