A Spatial Version of Octoidal

Gears Via the Generalized

Camus Theorem

Giorgio Figliolini1
Mem. ASME
Professor
Department of Civil and Mechanical Engineering,
University of Cassino and Southern Lazio,
Via G. Di Biasio 43,
Cassino, FR 03043, Italy
e-mail: figliolini@unicas.it

Understanding the geometry of gears with skew axes is a highly demanding task, which
can be eased by invoking Studys Principle of Transference. By means of this principle,
spherical geometry can be readily ported into its spatial counterpart using dual algebra.
This paper is based on Martin Distelis work and on the authors previous results, where
Camus auxiliary curve is extended to the case of skew gears. We focus on the spatial
analog of one particular case of cycloid bevel gears: When the auxiliary curve is specified as a pole tangent, we obtain pathologic spherical involute gears; the profiles are
always interpenetrating at the meshing point because of G2-contact. The spatial analog
of the pole tangent, a skew orthogonal helicoid, leads to G2-contact at a single point combined with an interpenetration of the flanks. However, when instead of a line a plane is
attached to the right helicoid, the envelopes of this plane under the roll-sliding of the auxiliary surface (AS) along the axodes are developable ruled surfaces. These serve as conjugate tooth flanks with a permanent line contact. Our results show that these flanks are
geometrically sound, which should lead to a generalization of octoidal bevel gears, or
even of bevel gears carrying teeth designed with the exact spherical involute, to the
spatial case, i.e., for gears with skew axes. [DOI: 10.1115/1.4031679]

Hellmuth Stachel
Professor Emeritus
Institute of Discrete Mathematics and Geometry,
Vienna University of Technology,
Wiedner Hauptstrasse 8-10/104,
Wien A-1040, Austria
e-mail: stachel@dmg.tuwien.ac.at

Jorge Angeles
Fellow ASME
Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering and CIM,
McGill University,
817 Sherbrooke Street W,
Montreal, QC H3A 03C, Canada
e-mail: angeles@cim.mcgill.ca

Keywords: gears with skew axes, involute gearing, octoidal gears, spatial Camus
theorem, curvature theory

Introduction

Let the motions of two wheels, R2 ; R3 , the pinion and the gear,
respectively, with respect to the machine frame R1 be given, i.e.,
the rotations R2 =R1 ; R3 =R1 about fixed skew axes I 21 and I 31
with angular velocities x21, x31, respectively. Throughout the
paper, dual algebra is used extensively, with a dual quantity,
whether a scalar, a vector, or a matrix is represented with a hat
^ on top, its primal and dual parts with the same unhatted variable, its dual part carrying the subscript 0 [1,2]. In this context,
lines are represented with a dual unit vector (DUV), i.e., a dual
vector whose primal part is of unit magnitude.
We use a Cartesian coordinate frame F O; x1 ; x2 ; x3 with the
x1- and x2-axes represented by the DUV ^e 1 and e^2 . Axis x1 is
defined as the dual bisectrix of lines I 21 and I 31 , namely, the line
that (a) passes through the midpoint of the segment of the common normal to the two lines defined by the two perpendicular feet
and (b) is parallel to the bisectrix of the angle between the two
lines. Moreover, x3 is defined as the common normal to the two
lines, while x2 completes a right-handed coordinate frame with x1
and x3. Using the dual angle ^a a ea0 between the x1-axis and
^ 21 and p^ 31 representing the axes I 21
I 21 (see Fig. 1), the DUVs p
and I 31 are
p^ 21 cos ^a ^e 1  sin ^a ^e 2 ;

^ 31 cos ^a e^1 sin ^a ^e 2

p

^ denote the dual angle between ^e 1 and the

In addition, let u
^ 32 . Then,
instant screw axis (ISA) I 32 , which is represented by p
we obtain
^ e^1 sin u
^ e^2 n
p^ 32 cos u

(3a)

^ 32 p^ 32 x31 p^ 31  x21 p^ 21
x

(3b)

(1)

We limit ourselves to the case of skew axes, while assuming

0 < a < p=2 and

a0 6 0

(2)

though most of the arguments hold also in the spherical case, with
a0 0, and in the planar case with a 0 and parallel axes.

Corresponding author.
Manuscript received March 17, 2015; final manuscript received August 28, 2015;
published online November 24, 2015. Assoc. Editor: David Dooner.

Journal of Mechanisms and Robotics

Fig. 1 Skew axes p^ 21 ; p^ 31 of the gear wheels, the ISA p^ 32 and

the axis p^ 41 of the AS P4  R4 in the particular case b 5 u1p=2.
The Frenet frame ^f 1 ; ^f 2 ; ^f 3 of the axodes remains fixed to the
machine frame R1 .

C 2016 by ASME
Copyright V

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Comparison of coefficients and recalling a pertinent relation2 lead

to
tan u

x31 x21
tan a
x31  x21

u0 R sin 2u

with R

a0
sin 2a

(4a)

(4b)

^ 31 ; x
^ 41 , and x
^ 43 x
^ 41 p
^ 43 p
^ 43 p^ 32
Likewise, for x31 p
^ 41
^
x
x
x
 31 
 43 

^
^  ^a
^
^

sin
u

a
^ b
sin u
sin b
The instant pitch h41 x410 =x41 is defined as
h41

^ 21 and p^ 31
The vector product of both sides of Eq. (3b) with p
results in
^ 32
x
x21
x31

^  ^a sinu
^ ^a sin 2^a
sinu

(5)

which sometimes is called the dual sine-theorem, as applied to the

^ 21 ; x31 p^ 31 and x
^ 32 p^ 32 . This implies
dual triangle x21 p
^ 32
x

x21 sin 2^a

^  ^a
sinu

(6)

x410
Rcos 2a  cos 2b
x41

h32



x320
Rcos 2a  cos 2u 2R cos2 a  cos2 u
x32

(7)

The axodes of the relative motion R3 =R2 are one-sheet hyperboloids P3  R3 and P2  R2 , swept by the relative axis I 32
under the inverse rotations R1 =R2 and R1 =R3 about I 21 and I 31 ,
respectively.
In Sec. 2, we recall Distelis spatial Camus theorem together
with some of the basic formulas. Section 3 offers an account of
the differential geometry of ruled surfaces, and Sec. 4 provides a
deeper insight into G1- and G2-contact along lines between ruled
surfaces. In Sec. 5, we study the differential geometry of tooth
flanks obtained by means of the spatial Camus theorem. Finally,
in Sec. 6, we apply all this to spatial analogs of spherical involute
and octoidal gears.

^ e 1 sin b^
^ e2
^ 41 cos b^
p

(8)

If we specify I 41  W different from I 21 ; I 31 ; I 32 , then u 6 6a; b.

From Eq. (4b), which defines the Plucker conoid, we obtain
b0 R sin 2b

(13)

which equals the primal part of Eq. (5).

The importance of the AS P4  R4 lies in the result below [6]:
THEOREM 1. (Spatial Camus Theorem) For any line G attached
to R4 , the surfaces U2 ; U3 traced by G under the relative motions
R4 =R2 and R4 =R3 , respectively, are conjugate tooth flanks of
R3 =R2 . At any instant, the meshing points for these flanks are
located on a straight line.
With respect to the machine frame R1 , the locus of the meshing
lines, i.e., the meshing surface or surface of action, is traced by G
^ 41 p^ 41 . Consequently,
under R4 =R1 with the fixed twist q^ 41 x
^ 41 . By virtue of Lemma 1
the said surface is helical, with axis p
^ 32 ^f 1 and Eqs. (10) and (11), the twists of
^
p 42 p^ 43 p
R4 =R2 and R4 =R3 are
^ 42 x
^ 41  x21 p^ 21
^ 42 p^ 42 x
^ 41 p
q


^
^
x
sin
a

b
21

 ^f 1
^ 42 ^f 1
x
^
^ b
sin u
^ 43 x
^ 41  x31 p^ 31
^ 43 p^ 43 x
^ 41 p
q


^  ^a
x31 sin b
^

 ^f 1
^ 43 f 1
x
^
^ b
sin u

The Spatial Camus Theorem

The result below is due to Disteli [4].

LEMMA 1. For given wheels R2 ; R3 there exists a frame R4 such
that the screws of R4 =R2 ; R4 =R3 , and R3 =R2 are equal at every
instant if and only if the instant axis I 41 of R4 =R1 is located on the
Pl
ucker conoid3 W, but different from I 32 .
^ be the dual angle between the x1-axis and p
^ 41 , as depicted
Let b
in Fig. 1. Then,

(12)

Let P4 be the ruled helical surface4 traced by the relative axis

I 32 under the helical motion R1 =R4 about I 41 with pitch h41. We
call P4 the AS. Further details are provided by the authors elsewhere [5]. P4 forms together with P2 and P3 , the axodes of the
relative motions of R4 with respect to R2 and R3 , i.e., the motions
R4 =R2 and R4 =R3 are defined by the rolling and sliding of P4
along the hyperboloids P2 and P3 , respectively. The roll-sliding
between the axodes implies the mutual rolling of their spherical
images, and hence
x21 sinu a x31 sinu  a x41 sinu  b

and, consequently, the pitch h32 of the relative motion R3 =R2 is

readily derived [3]

(11)

(14)

while, on the other hand, the relative motion R3 =R2 of the gears
undergoes the twist
^ 32 x
^ 32 p^ 32 x31 p^ 31  x21 p^ 21 x
^ 32 ^f 1
q
x21 sin 2^a ^
x31 sin 2^a ^
f1
f1

^  ^a
^ ^a
sinu
sinu
^ 42 ; q
^ 43 ,
We can confirm that, according to Lemma 1, the twists q
and q^ 32 differ by real factors only. This leads, by virtue of
Eqs. (5) and (7), to

(9)

x21 sinb a
1 e h32
sinu  b
x31 sinb  a
1 e h32

sinu  b
x21 sin 2a
^ 42  x
^ 43
1 e h32 x

sinu  a

^ 42
x
^ 41 ,
^ 41 p
The dual sine-theorem, as applied to the triangle x21 p^ 21 ; x
^ 42 x
^ 42 p^ 32 , yields
^ 42 p
and x
^ 41
^
x
x
x
 21 
 42 

^
^
^
^

sin
u

a
^ b
sin u
sin ^a b

Equation (7) in Ref. [3].

Sometimes referred to as the cylindroid.

021015-2 / Vol. 8, APRIL 2016

(10)

^ 43
x
^ 32
x

(15)

4
In this paper, the term ruled surface stands for a twice continuously
differentiable one-parameter set of oriented lines.

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(b) Conversely, when the dual-vector functions g^t; n^ t;

^t t; t 2 J, represent a moving orthonormal frame satisfying the Frenet equations (16), this frame defines a ruled sur^ t and
face with generators g^t, with central normals n
central tangents ^t t. Here, for k 0 also cylindric generators are included. By the same token, also the directed lines
^t t define a ruled surface with the same given moving
frame and the same Disteli axis; only g^ and ^t change their
^.
roles as well as the coefficients ^k and l
The Frenet equations (16) contain two dual coefficients,
^k k ek0 and l
^ l el0 . Various formulas expressing invariants of the ruled surface in terms of k, k0, l, and l0 are available
in Ref. [8].7 Here, we adopt a different approach.
The dual representation g^t gt e g0 t; t 2 J, of the ruled
surface gives rise to a real parametrization, namely,
xt; u gt  g0 t u gt;

Fig. 2 Frenet frame ^

g ; n^ ; ^t and striction curve of a ruled
surface

^ 43 : x
^ 32
^ 42 : x
x

d
dt
d2
dt2

sinu  asinb a : sinu asinb  a : sin 2a sinu  b

At every instant, the three axodes P2 ; P3 , and P4 are in contact
at all points of the common generator I 32 . Therefore, they
share the striction point S, i.e., the point whose tangent plane is
orthogonal to the asymptotic plane, the limit of the tangent
plane when the contact points tend to infinity. The striction point
S 0; 0; u0 is the point of intersection between the ISA I 32 and
the common normal of I 21 and I 31 , as seen in Fig. 1.

Along each nontorsal generator G of a ruled surface, a Frenet

frame, also known as a Sannia frame [7], can be defined, consisting of: G itself; the central normal N , which is the surface normal
at the striction point; and the central tangent T [1,8]. This triplet
of mutually orthogonal axes meets at the striction point S of G,
defined on the striction curve, as per Fig. 2. The central tangent is
orthogonal to the asymptotic plane and tangent to the surface at
the striction point. The motion of the Frenet frame along the ruled
surface is called Frenet motion.
Let, in dual-vector notation,5 the ruled surface be given by the
twice-differentiable dual-vector function g^t for t in the open
interval J  R. Then, the derivatives of the DUVs of the Frenet
frame, g^; n^ , and ^t , satisfy the Frenet equationsEq. (9.11) of
Ref. [1]namely,
g^_ ^k n^ q^  g^
^_ ^k g^ l
n
^ ^t q^  n^
_^t ^
^q
^  ^t
ln
^l
^ g^ ;
^ g^ ^k ^t x
q

(16)

(a) Even when the generators of the ruled surface are oriented,
the central normal can be oriented in two different ways.
One could obtain uniqueness by demanding k > 0.
We identify an oriented line G with its DUV g^ in a given coordinate frame. In
this sense, we speak of the line g^ .
6
By virtue of the last condition, we exclude stationary ( singular) generators.

Journal of Mechanisms and Robotics

2
_^ ^ ^
^t
g^ g^ g eg0 ^k g^ ^k n
kl

(18)

which determine the partial derivatives of the parametrization

xt; u
@x
_
g_  g0 g  g_ 0 ug;
@t

@x
g
@u

and
@2x
g  g0 2g_  g_ 0 g  g0 ug
@t2
@2x
@2x
g_ kn;
0
@t @u
@u2
We study the derivatives at the points of a single generator, say, at
^ 0; ^t 0 as the new
t 0. To this end, we use the triplet g^0; n
coordinate frame; now the striction point s0 of g^0 is the origin
of the frame in question. We can then set
2 3
2 3
2 3
1
0
0
6 7
6 7
6 7
g0 4 0 5; n0 4 1 5; t0 4 0 5
0
0
1
g0 0 n0 0 t0 0 0

g^  g^ 1

2
^ 2 ^k l
^ 2 . Such as the Darboux vector of a smooth
Hence, x
spatial curve represents a vector proportional to the angular velocity vector of the curve Frenet frame [9], the dual Darboux vector
^ g^ represents the twist of the dual Frenet motion. The
q^ x
DUV g^ is the instant Disteli axis [10] or axis of curvature [1] of
the ruled surface, provided ^k 6 0.6
Remarks

g^ g^_ g_ eg_ 0 ^k n^ kn ek0 n kn0

_ klt e2kk0 g  k2 g
k2 g kn
0
_ 0 k0 lt kl t klt0
k_ 0 n kn

The Disteli Axes of a Ruled Surface

with

(17)

Here, we recall that g  g0 is the position vector of the point of g^

closest to the origin of the underlying coordinate frame. The
derivatives of g^ are readily obtained:

Therefore,

t; u 2 J  R

which yields
2 3
2 3
0
0
6 7
7
_g 0 6
^
4 k 5 e4 k0 5
0
0
2
3
2
3
2
2kk0
k
6
7
6
7
_ 7
g^0 6
k_ 0
5
4 k 5 e4
k0 l kl0
kl
7
For example, the dual part q0 of the twist q^ equals the velocity vector of the
origin s. Consequently, for the striction point S of Fig. 3, we obtain tan r k=l,
where angle r between g^ and the striction curve is called the striction angle or,
simply, the striction.

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Two Ruled Surfaces With Line Contact

For our study on cycloid gearing, we need some results concerning the Disteli axes g^ of a ruled surface. According to
^ g^ is the twist and therefore g^ the instant screw
Eq. (16), q^ x
axis of the moving Frenet frame. From Eqs. (16) and (18), the following relation is obtained:
2
2
_
^ g^
^ ^t ^k x
g^_  g^ ^k n^  ^k g^ ^k n^ ^k l

(23)

The dual angle ^c c ec0 between the generator g^ and the

corresponding Disteli axis g^ satisfies
cot ^c

Fig. 3 The tangent plane Tx at the point x of the generator g^ is

defined by the distribution parameter d via tan w 5 2u=d

and

2 3
1
@x
0; u 4 0 5
@u
0

k2 u

(20)

The vector product b @x=@t  @x=@u is a normal vector of

the ruled surface, provided the surface point is regular, which
means b 6 0. The coordinates
2
3
0
(21)
b0; u 4 k0 5
ku
reveal that at generators with kk0 6 0, the angle w between the
central normal vector b0; 0 kn and the normal vector b0; u,
depicted in Fig. 3, satisfies the equation
tan w

ku
u

k0
d

with d

k0
k

(22)

The ratio d is called the distribution parameter. This is a geometric invariant, i.e., indifferent to surface parametrization.
Moreover,
 Generators with k0 0 and hence d 0 are torsal. Here, all
points with u 6 0 have the same tangent plane, which is
orthogonal to T . The striction point (u 0) is singular
because b0; 0 0.
 Cylindrical generators are characterized by g_ 0 or k 0.
Here, all points are possible striction points. These generators
occur when d ! 1.
When a parametrization of the Frenet frame is given, the origin
is automatically a striction pointalso in the case of cylindrical
generators. In the case of an isolated cylindrical generator, i.e., a
local zero of the function kt, the origin is the limit of the striction point when neighboring generators g^t tend to g^0.
021015-4 / Vol. 8, APRIL 2016

c0

kl0  k0 l
k2 l2

(24)

a consequence of the two standard products

g^  g^ cos ^c

^
l
^
x

^
and g^  g^ sin ^c n

k^
^
n
^
x

cot^c cotc ec0 1 cot2 c

(19)

7
6
@2x
6
_ 7
0; u 6 k0 l  kl0 ku
7
2
5
4
@t
k_ 0 klu
2 3
2 3
0
0
2
2
6 7 @ x
6 7
@ x
7
6 7
0; u 6
4 k 5; @u2 0; u 4 0 5
@t @u
0
0

and

and of the dual extension of an analytic real function f(t), namely,

f ^t f t et0 f t et0 f_t, which yields

Therefore,
2 3
0
@x
0; u 4 ku 5;
@t
k0

^
l
l
) cot c
^k
k

The dual angle between the moving g^t and the fixed g^ 0 is stationary of second-order8 at t 0 [8]. Due to the spherical analogy,
cot^c can be called the dual (geodesic) curvature of the ruled surface. We have, further,
LEMMA 2. If two ruled surfaces are in contact at all points of a
common generator and if they share the corresponding Frenet
frame and the Disteli axis, then their dual coefficients in the Frenet equations differ at the corresponding parameter values only
by a real factor c 6 0.
Proof. Let g^t for t 2 J and g~^~t for ~t 2 J~ be the dual parametrizations of the two surfaces, such that for t ~t 0, the corresponding Frenet frames coincide; hence, also their striction
points coincide. The contact at all points of the common
generator implies, by virtue of Eq. (22), equal distribution parameters d0 ~d0. Consequently, there is a real constant c 6 0
^~
^
c k0.
with k~ ck and k~ 0 ck0 at t ~t 0 and hence k0
On the other hand, the coincidence of the Disteli axes implies
^
~^ =k~ l
^ =k^ and, therecot ~^c cot^c ; hence, by virtue of Eq. (24), l
fore, l
~^ 0 c l
^ 0.
Without loss of generality, we can set c 1 because we can
apply the parameter transformation ~t ! t c ~t to the second surface. This yields the new dual parametrization g^t g^~t =c, and
hence
d ^ 1 d ^
1^
1^
^ l
g
g~ ) ^k ~k and l
~
d t
c d ~t
c
c
^0 l
^ 0.
By Lemma 2, this implies ^k0 ^k0 ; likewise, l
 t yields
In analogy with Eq. (17), the dual parametrization g^
the parametrization x t ; u x~ t =c; u of the second ruled surface, such that the tangent vectors
a x t 0; u b xu 0; u

and a xt 0; u b xu 0; u

(25)

of the two corresponding ruled surfaces are identical for all

a; b 2 R2 and u 2 R.
THEOREM 2. Let g^t and g^~~t be two twice-differentiable ruled
surfaces, which, at t ~t 0, share the same Frenet frame, the
distribution parameter d0 ~d0, and the Disteli axis. Then,
the surfaces have a G2-contact at the striction point of the com~
^~0 c l
^ 0,
mon generator. Moreover, if ^k0 c ^k0 and l
8

That is, up to its second t-derivative.

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then by Lemma 2 there is a G2-contact at all points of the common

_
_
^ 0 if and only if ~d0
generator g^0 g~
c d0.
Proof. The dual-vector function g^t gt e g0 t determines the real parametrization xt; u of the ruled surface, as given
in Eq. (17). The partial derivatives at t 0, as given in Eq. (19),
define the coefficients of the first fundamental form as [11]
@x @x

k2 u2 k20
@t @t
@x @x
@x @x

0; G0; u

1
F0; u
@t @u
@u @u
E0; u

(26)

For the second surface, parametrized by t , we obtain the analog

 with E0;
 F;
 G
 u E0; u; F0;
 u F0; u,
coefficients E;
 u G0; u.
and G0;
The second-order partial derivatives at t 0 are displayed in
Eq. (20). Together with the normal vector b of Eq. (21), the coefficients of the second fundamental form [11] at the points of the
generator t 0 are defined as
1
@2x
b 2
jjbjj
@t
h
i


1
_ 0  kk_ 0 u  k2 l u2
q k0 k0 l kl0 kk
k20 k2 u2

THEOREM 3. Let g^t and g~^~t be two twice-differentiable ruled

surfaces, which share the same Frenet frame and the distribution
parameter d0 ~d0 < 1 at t ~t 0.
If, for t ~t 0, the spherical images are osculating and the
surfaces have a G2-contact at the striction point, then the surfaces
share the Disteli axis, too.
Proof. Let g^t for t 2 J and g^~~t for ~t 2 J~ be the dual parametrizations of the two surfaces such that for t ~t 0 the corresponding Frenet frames coincide. Hence, also their striction points
coincide. According to the proof of Lemma 2, there is a real con^~
^
stant c 6 0 with k0
c k0.
The osculation of the spherical
images implies
~ 0
l0 l

;
k0 ~k 0

provided k0 6 0. By virtue of Eqs. (26) and (27), the coefficients of the fundamental forms at the striction point (u 0)
follow:
E0; 0 k20 ;
L0; 0 k0 l kl0 ;

1
@2x
1
b
q kk0
jjbjj
@t@u
k2 k2 u2
1
@2x
b 2 0
jjbjj
@u

F0; 0 0;
M0; 0 k;

G0; 0 1
N0; 0 0

(28)

By a suitable parameter substitution, as in the proof of Theorem 2,

we can conclude that G2-contact at the striction point implies
~ 0 c2 L0; 0, and hence
L0;
~k 0 l
~ ~k~
l 0 j~t 0 c2 k0 l kl0 jt0

~ 0 c l0
) l

(27)

 M;
 N of the parametrization xt ; u
The analog coefficients L;
 u M0; u and N0;
 u
of the second surface satisfy M0;
 u L0; u holds if and only if either
N0; u. However, L0;
u 0 or


d k 
d k 0 
dk
dk0 
k 0  k
k


k
0
d t
d t t 0 dt
dt t0

^
~ 0 0 c l0 0. But ~k0 c ^k0 and
From k0 6 0 follows l
~^0 c l
^ 0 imply that the two surfaces share the Disteli axis at
l
t ~t 0.

The Curvature of the Ruled Tooth Flanks

In the realm of gearing, we need two different Frenet frames,

the frame ^f 1 ; ^f 2 ; ^f 3  R1 for the axodes with the ISA ^f 1 (see
Fig. 1) and the frame g^1 ; g^2 ; g^3 for conjugate tooth flanks U2 ; U3
with g^1 as the meshing line (see Fig. 4). Let R5 denote the moving

which is equivalent to


d 
1
d k 0 d k  
d 0 2 k
k0 

k
d t
d t
d t


 t 0

1
dk0 dk
d
k0  d0
2 k

dt
dt
dt
k
t0
_
_

~
~
Because of dt dt =c, we obtain d c d.
According to a standard formula from differential geometry, for
the first surface the normal curvature of the tangent vector
a @x=@t b @x=@u 6 0, i.e., the curvature of the orthogonal section through this tangent is given by the quotient of the two fundamental forms [11], namely,
jn

II a; b La2 2Mab Nb2

2
Ia; b
Ea 2Fab Gb2

Therefore, for our two given ruled surfaces the two statements
below are equivalent:
(i) The two second fundamental forms have equal coefficients
at the point x0; u x0; u.
(ii) For all tangent vectors at this point, the normal curvatures
are equal.
Statement (ii) characterizes the G2-contact of the two surfaces
at this point.
For our particular case of cycloid gearing, we use the converse
of Lemma 2 and Theorem 2:
Journal of Mechanisms and Robotics

Fig. 4 The triplet ^

g 1 ; g^ 2 ; g^ 3 is the Frenet frame for the conjugate tooth flanks U2 and U3 . The corresponding Disteli axes g^ 
are defined by the spatial EulerSavary equation (36).

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space attached to the foregoing frame. Then, R5 =R2 and R5 =R3

are the Frenet motions along U2 and U3 , respectively.
5.1 The Frenet Frame of the Axodes. Upon gear meshing,
the Frenet frame ^f 1 ; ^f 2 ; ^f 3 of the axodes with ^f 1 p^ 32 remains
fixed to the machine frame R1 . The second axis ^f 2 equals the
spear9 ^e 3 along the common perpendicular of the gear axes p^ 21
and p^ 31 . In terms of the basis ^e 1 ; e^2 ; ^e 3 , we obtain, from
Eq. (3a) and Fig. 1,
2
3
^ 0
^
cos u
sin u
^ 0 cos u
^5
(29)
^f 1 ^f 2 ^f 3  ^e 1 e^2 ^e 3 4 sin u
0
1
0
or, conversely,
2

^
cos u
^e 1 e^2 ^e 3  ^f 1 ^f 2 ^f 3 4 0
^
sin u

^
sin u
0
^
cos u

3
0
15
0

by simple transposition.
The origin of the Frenet frame is the striction point
S 0; 0; u0 of the axodes, the point of intersection between the
^ 31 . The motion
ISA p^ 32 and the common normal of p^ 21 and p
of this frame along the axode P2  R2 is the rotation R1 =R2
^ 21 with the angular velocity x21 . Therefore,
about the axis p
p^ 21 cos^
u ^a ^f 1 sin^
u ^a ^f 3 is the permanent Disteli axis
of P2 . From Eq. (1), the corresponding Frenet equations (note
e^3 ^f 2 ) begin with
^f_ 1 x21 p^ 21  ^f 1 x21 sin^
u ^a ^f 2
x21 sinu a eu0 a0 cosu a^f 2
which implies for the axode P2 the distribution parameter10
d2 u0 a0 cotu a
and the coefficients
^k 2 x21 sin^
u ^a ;

^ 2 x21 cos^
l
u ^a

The last equation follows from the third Frenet equation (16),
^f_ 3 x21 p
^ 21  ^f 3 , which confirms, for the dual angle ^c 2
between the generator p^ 32 ^f 1 and the Disteli axis p^ 21 , from
^ ^a with cot^c 2 l
^ 2 =^k 2 as the dual curvaEq. (24), that ^c 2 u
ture of P2 , provided that k2 6 0.
The Frenet motion along the other axode, the one-sheet
hyperboloid P3  R3 , is the rotation R1 =R3 about p^ 31
cos^
u  ^a ^f 1 sin^
u  ^a ^f 3 , with the velocity x31 . Here,
^ 32 ^f 1 and
^c 3 u
^  ^a is the dual angle between the generator p
the Disteli axis p^ 31 . We obtain for P3 the distribution parameter

In the Frenet equations of the AS P4  R4 with axis p^ 41

^ ^f 1 sin^
^ ^f 3 and dual velocity x
^ 41 , we
cos^
u  b
u  b
obtain the coefficients
^
^k 4 x
^ 41 sin^
u  b;

(30)

As a consequence, P4 has, by virtue of Eq. (22), the distribution

parameter
d4 h41 u0  b0 cotu  b
The equations d4 d3 d2 can be verified via Eqs. (4), (9), and
(12). The axis of P4 makes, with all generators P4 , the dual angle
^
^c 4 u
^  b.
5.2 The Frenet Frame of the Tooth Flanks. According to
Theorem 1, any line g^ attached to the AS P4 traces conjugate
tooth flanks U2 and U3 under the respective relative motions
R4 =R2 and R4 =R3 with the AS P4 roll-sliding on the axodes P2
and P3 , respectively. The motion R4 =R2 is the composition of
R4 =R1 with the Frenet motion R1 =R2 along P2 [13,14].
We can set up the moving line g^ as
g^ cos ^g ^f 1 sin ^g cos ^n ^f 2 sin ^n ^f 3

(31)

This follows because the common perpendicular k^ between g^

^ sin ^n ^f 2 cos ^
n ^f 3 , as per
and the ISA ^f 1 can be written as k
Fig. 4. The dual angles ^n and ^g can be seen as dual geographical
longitude and colatitude, respectively.
^ of
The common perpendicular k^ is already the central normal n
the tooth flanks. This follows because, for the trajectory of g^
under R4 =R2 , we obtain
11

^ 42 ^f 1  g^ x
^ 42 sin ^g cos ^n ^f 3  sin ^n ^f 2 x
^ 42 sin ^g k^
g^_ x
^ g^3 ^t for the
^ k;
Therefore, the Frenet frame g^1 g^; g^2 n
conjugate tooth flanks U2 and U3 has the initial pose
2
3
cos ^g
0
sin ^g
g^1 g^2 g^3  ^f 1 ^f 2 ^f 3  4 sin ^g cos ^n sin ^n cos ^g cos ^n 5
sin ^g sin ^n
cos ^n cos ^g sin ^n
(32)
or, conversely
2

cos ^g
6
^f 1 ^f 2 ^f 3  g^1 g^2 g^3  4 0
sin ^g

sin ^g cos ^n
sin ^n
cos ^g cos ^n

3
sin ^g sin ^n
7
5
cos ^n
^
cos ^g sin n
(33)

^ 42 ^f 1  g^ and considering that

Upon differentiation of g^_ x
^ 42 const, the following relation is obtained:
x
^ 42 ^f_1  g^ ^f 1  g^_ 
g^ x

d3 u0  a0 cotu  a

During the motion R4 =R2 , the ISA ^f 1 traces P2 with angular

velocity x21 . Therefore,

and the coefficients

^k 3 x31 sin^
u  ^a ;

^
^ 41 cos^
^ 4 x
l
u  b

^ 3 x31 cos^
l
u  ^a

The condition d2 d3 , which can also be concluded from Eq. (5),

guarantees the line contact between P2 and P3 , i.e., at least G1^ 32 [12].
contact at all points of the ISA p
9

Spear is a line with a direction, usually represented with an arrow indicating the
positive direction.
10
Let a, b denote the sem-iaxes of a one-sheet hyperboloid of revolution, where b
is measured along the axis of rotation. Then, b equals the absolute value of the
distribution parameter of the generators, i.e., jdj b.

021015-6 / Vol. 8, APRIL 2016

^f_ 1 x21 p^ 21  ^f 1 x21 sin^

u ^a ^f 2
and hence
^ 42 x21 sin^
^ 42 ^f 1  g^
u ^a ^f 2  g^ ^f 1  x
g^ x
^ 42 ^f 1  g^^f 1  ^f 1  ^f 1 g^
^ 42 x21 sin^
u ^a ^f 2  g^x
x
11
Under sin g 0, the moved line g^ is parallel to the ISA ^f 1 and a cylindrical
generator of its trajectory. In this case, the common perpendicular k^ is not unique.

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By virtue of Eq. (33), we can express the first and second derivatives of g^ in the Frenet frame g^1 ; g^2 ; g^3 as

On the other hand, from Eq. (16), a dual multiple of g^U 2 equals
the twist

^ 42 ^f 1  g^ x
^ 42 sin ^g g^2
g^_ g^_ 1 x
2

^ 42 sin ^g g^1 x21 sin^

^ 42 x
u ^a cos ^n cos ^g g^2
g^ x
^ 42 sin ^g cos ^g g^ 
x21 sin^
u ^a sin ^n x

^ 52 l
^ U2 g^1 ^k U2 g^3
q
of the Frenet motion R5 =R2 along U2 . After expressing this dual
vector in the basis ^f 1 ; ^f 2 ; ^f 3 , the comparison of the coefficients
of ^f 1 and ^f 3 results, from Eq. (6), in

which, upon comparison with Eq. (18), yields the instantaneous

invariants of the tooth flank U2 under g 6 0, i.e., g^ not parallel to
the ISA ^f 1 , as

cot ^g U 2  cot ^g

U2

^k U x
^ 42 sin ^g
2
^ U2 x21
l

(34)

^ ^a sin ^n
sinu
^ 42 cos ^g
x
sin ^g

The conjugate tooth flank U3 is the trajectory of line g^ under

the composition R4 =R3 of the helical motion R4 =R1 of the AS P4
and the Frenet motion R1 =R3 along P3 . We obtain,

provided that sin n sin g 6 0. Thus, we can verify the spatial

EulerSavary equation (see the Appendix)
cot^g U 2  cot^g sin ^n cot^c 2  cot^c 4

and

^
cot^
u ^a  cot^
u  b

^ 43 ^f_ 1  g^ ^f 1  g^_ 
g^ x

^f_ 1 x31 p^ 31  ^f 1 x31 sin^

u  ^a ^f 2
In terms of the Frenet frame g^1 ; g^2 ; g^3 , we obtain, further

g^U3 cos ^g U 3 ^f 1 sin ^g U3 cos ^n ^f 2 sin ^g U3 sin ^n ^f 3

^ 43 sin ^g g^2
g^_ x

^ 43 sin2 ^g g^1 x31 sin^

^ 43 x
u  ^a cos ^n cos ^g g^2
g^ x
^ 43 sin ^g cos ^g g^ 
x31 sin^
u  ^a sin ^n x

which satisfies
cot ^g U 3  cot ^g sin ^n cot ^c 3  cot ^c 4

^
cot^
u  ^a  cot^
u  b

The instantaneous invariants of U3 are

^  ^a sin ^n
sinu
^ 43 cos ^g
x
sin ^g

(35)

provided g 6 0.
By virtue of Eq. (15), the invariants ^k U2 and ^k U3 differ only by
a real factor. This is, of course, a consequence of the G1-contact
along g^. The distribution parameter along the instant meshing
line is
kU2 0 kU3 0 x320 sin g x32 g0 cos g

x32 sin g
kU2
kU3

This confirms that all lines g^ that under R3 =R2 trace ruled surfaces
with the same instant distribution parameter d constitute a quadratic line complex, i.e., the six (normalized) real coordinates of
g^ g1 ; g2 ; g3 eg10 ; g20 ; g30 in Eq. (31) satisfy a homogeneous quadratic equation
x320  d x32 g22 g23 x32 g2 g20 g3 g30 0
which includes, for d 0, the complex of tangent lines.12
We can set up the instant Disteli axis g^U 2 of U2 in analogy to
Eq. (31), in light of Fig. 4, as
g^U 2 cos ^g U 2 ^f 1 sin ^g U 2 cos ^n ^f 2 sin ^g U 2 sin ^n ^f 3

See Theorem 56 in Ref. [15].

Journal of Mechanisms and Robotics

(37)

Upon subtraction of the two EulerSavary equations (36) and

(37), we obtain

^k U x
^ 43 sin ^g
3

12

(36)

for the motion R4 =R2 , which generates the tooth flank U2 .

In the same way, we can confirm that, for the conjugate
tooth flank U3 , the Frenet motion R5 =R3 undergoes the twist
^ U3 g^1 ^k U3 g^3 and the Disteli axis becomes
q^ 53 l

where

dU

^ 42
x

^ ^a sin ^n
x21 sinu


^
sin ^a b



^ sin ^
^ ^a sin u
^ b
sinu
n

^ 43 ^f 1  g^
g^_ x

^ U3 x31
l

^ U2 cot ^g ^k U2
l
 cot ^g
^  ^k U cot ^g
l

cot ^g U 2  cot ^g U 3 sin ^n cot^c 2  cot^c 3

thereby proving the spatial version of a result which is well known
in planar and spherical kinematics, namely,
THEOREM 4. Let U2 and U3 be conjugate ruled gear-tooth flanks
with permanent line contact. Then, the Disteli axes g^U 2 and g^U 3 of
the instant meshing line satisfy the EulerSavary equation for the
relative motion R3 =R2 between the two gears.

A Spatial Analog of Involute Gearing

In planar cycloid gearing there are two auxiliary curves,

namely, two circles, which usually are laid out in a symmetric relative position with respect to the pole tangent. The same is true on
the sphere. However, when the auxiliary circles are specified as
great circles they become identical, coinciding with the spherical
pole tangent t. The axis p41 of the great circle t is orthogonal to
the ISA p32 . The corresponding profiles are involutes of the polodes; in the mean pose, they have the pressure angle a 0 deg.
This is the particular case of involute gearing, where the pitch
circles coincide with the base circles. These profiles are not geometrically feasible because of one reason (see Fig. 5): At the
meshing point M on the instant pole tangent t, the profiles have
either
a G2-contact with mutual penetration, or
a cusp, and, if gears are external, the curves open toward opposite sides.
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Fig. 6 When the ISA coincides with the meshing line g^ , the singular lines of the two flanks U2 ; U3 come together sharing the
tangent plane at each point of g^ , but the flanks open toward opposite sides

Fig. 5 Involute bevel gearing with the pole tangent as auxiliary

curvea case which is geometrically unfeasible because the
conjugate profiles c2 and c3 always penetrate each other at the
meshing point Mi

We obtain the corresponding spatial version when we specify

^ 41 orthogonal to the ISA p^ 32 on the Plucker conoid (see
the axis p
Fig. 1). This is the case analyzed below in detail, following a preliminary study [16].
^ e^1
By virtue of Eqs. (4)(9), the representation p^ 41 sin b
^ ^e 2 implies13
cos b
bu

p
;
2

b0 u0 ;

^  p 2eu
^ b
u
0
2

^ 2eu
and cos^
u  b
0

(39)

From Eqs. (5), (10), and (12) follow, for our particular choice
^ 41 x21 sin^
x
u ^a x31 sin^
u  ^a
h41 Rcos 2a cos 2u

(40)

The AS P4 is a skew orthogonal helicoid with axis p^ 41 and

pitch h41, the ISA p^ 32 being its initial generator. The invariants of
P4 , by virtue of Eq. (30), are
^k 4 x
^ 41 ;

^ 41
^ 4 2eu0 x
l

^ 42 x21 cosu a eu0  a0 sinu a

x
^ 43 x31 cosu  a eu0 a0 sinu  a
x

(42)

Hence,
^ 43 : x
^ 42 tanu a : tanu  a
x
u0 a0 : u0  a0

(43)

(38)

Therefore,
^ 1
sin^
u  b

By Eq. (14), the generating motions R4 =R2 and R4 =R3 of the

^ 42 ^f 1 and
tooth flanks U2 and U3 have the twists q^ 42 x
^
^ 43 f 1 , respectively; in our particular case, we have
q^ 43 x

(41)

The dual angle between the generators of P4 and its axis is

6.1 The ISA as a Line of Regression. Analog to the planar

and spherical cases, in spatial cycloid gearing the ISA p^ 32 is a singular generator of the two tooth flanks U2 and U3 . All the genera^ 32 being
tor points are uniplanar, the tangent planes along p
equally distributed along a regular generator with distribution parameter d R cos 2a. As revealed in Fig. 6, the ISA I32 does not
look singular at all; it is the border line of the two components,
originating from two symmetrically placed ASs. However, in our
particular case the two ASs coincide with the skew helicoid P4 .
The ISA is, in fact, a line of regression for both tooth flanks. In
external gears, as depicted in Fig. 6, the two flanks open toward
opposite sides. Hence, when the ISA becomes the meshing line,
no transmission of forces can take place. Figure 6 shows the conjugate tooth flanks as wire-frames, the depicted thick lines being
the intersections of the flanks with planes perpendicular to the
ISA.

From Eq. (4a), the distance c40 between axis and generators vanishes if and only if u 0, i.e., if x21 x31 .

6.2 G2-Contact at the Striction Point. Now a question

arises: What corresponds in skew gears to the osculation of tooth
profiles when the pole tangent serves as auxiliary curve?
Figure 7 shows an example14 where the meshing line g^ differs
from the ISA. But g^ is parallel to the ISA and intersects the central
tangent of the axodes at right angles. This central tangent passes

13
One could also set b u  p=2. However, this has no effect on the AS. It only
reverses the orientation of p^ 41 and changes the signs of x41 and x410.

14
Data: 2a 60:0 deg; 2a0 70:0 mm, x31 : x21 2 : 3, and distance between
 g 35:0 mm.
the ISA and the initial meshing line g^ : SS

^  p 2eu
^c 4 u
^ b
0
2

^ 4 =^k 4 2eu0
with cot ^c 4 l

021015-8 / Vol. 8, APRIL 2016

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Fig. 7 Two conjugate flanks U2 and U3 with G2-contact at the

common striction point Sg. The meshing line g^ is here parallel
to the ISA and a cylindric generator of U2 and U3 .

through the striction point S of the axodes and is parallel to the

axis p^ 41 of the AS P4 note ^f 3 in Fig. 1.
The spatial EulerSavary equation (36) for the motion R4 =R2
recalled below
^
x
cot ^g   cot ^g sin ^n cot ^c 2  cot ^c 4
^k
holds only under sin n 6 0, but we can replace it by Eq. (A2) in
the Appendix, namely,
^k sin ^ncos ^g sin ^g   sin ^g cos ^g  x
^ sin ^g sin ^g  0
^ ^f 3 in Fig. 4, it is apparent
Under the relation sin ^n 0, i.e., k
that sin ^g 6 0 implies sin ^g  0. In other words, when g^ 6 p^ 32
intersects the striction tangent ^f 3 of the axodes at right angles, the
Disteli axis g^ coincides with the ISA. The same holds for the
motion R4 =R3 , which means that under this condition the two
tooth flanks share the instant Disteli axis. According to Theorem
2, U2 and U3 are under G2-contact at the common striction point
Sg. In Fig. 7, the thick lines, which are in contact at marked points
on the meshing line g^, are level lines of the two flanks, i.e., intersections with planes orthogonal to the ISA. The mean section
shows the G2-contact at the striction point Sg, which causes the
interpenetration.
The case of osculating cylindrical or spherical tooth flanks is
misleading. In the true spatial version, there is no G2-contact at all
other points of g^ for one reason: According to Theorem 2, in this
_
_
case the condition ~d0 c d0
must be satisfied. However,
because of the permanent line contact the flanks have the same
distribution parameter ~dt dt for each t 2 J. This implies
_
~d0
_
d0,
but by Eqs. (34), (35) and (43), the constant c in
^k U c ^k U is
3

c tanu a= tanu  a u0 a0 : u0  a0 6 1
The different postures depicted in Fig. 8 reveal that there is also
a mutual penetration of the conjugate tooth flanks U2 and U3 at
the other postures. Since the surfaces share this curve of
Journal of Mechanisms and Robotics

Fig. 8 Snapshots of the penetrating tooth flanks with their

striction curves upon meshing

intersection as well as the tangent planes at all points of the meshing line, there must be a G2-contact at the point where the curve
of intersection meets the meshing line. This point is close to the
striction point; however, it must be different from Sg for the following reason.
If a G2-contact takes place at the striction point, then by
Theorem 3 the two gear-flanks must share the Disteli axis g^ .
However, when we plug the pair g^; g^ of lines into the left-hand
side of the EulerSavary equation, it cannot happen that under
sin ^n 6 0 we obtain two different results on the right-hand side,
either cot ^c 2  cot ^c 4 for R4 =R2 , Eq. (36), or cot ^c 3  cot ^c 4 for
R4 =R3 .
This can also be confirmed by studying the coefficients of the
fundamental forms for U2 and U3 at the striction point of the
meshing lines g^. With respect to the machine frame R1 , the
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Fig. 9 Planar version of the generalized Camus theorem in the

particular case leading to involute gears

meshing lines trace the helicoid P4 . In the frame ^f 1 ; ^f 2 ; ^f 3 , we

can set up
2
3
2
3
cos s
h41 s sin s
g^ 4 sin s 5 e4 h41 s cos s 5
2u0 1  cos s
0
The corresponding dual angles ^n and ^g according to Fig. 4 are
^n p 2eu tan s
0
2

and ^g s eh41 s

As in the proof of Theorem 3, we have to compare the values

listed in Eq. (28) for U2 with those of U3 . Equations (34) and (35),
together with Eq. (43), show that ^k U2 and ^k U3 differ by the same
real factor c 6 1, as mentioned before. We find the same factor c
^ U3 ; however, the first terms are
^ U2 and l
in the second terms of l
equal. So, the necessary condition LU3 0; 0 c2 LU2 0; 0 for a
G2-contact at the striction point is not satisfied, except in the
case sin n0 0, which is only possible for u0 0. In this case,
^ 41 equals the striction
the helicoid P4 is not skew, and its axis p
tangent ^f 3 of the axodes. Then, all meshing lines g^ intersect the
striction tangent of the axodes at right angles.
6.3 A Spatial Analog of Octoidal Gears. In the plane as
well as on the sphere, the generalized Camus Theorem states that,
for any curve c4 attached to the auxiliary curve p4  R4 , the envelopes c2 and c3 under motions R4 =R2 and R4 =R3 , respectively, are
conjugate tooth profiles, both being conjugate to a virtual gear
with pitch curve p4 and the tooth profile c4.
In the particular planar case depicted in Fig. 9, the auxiliary
curve p4 is the pole tangent t and the attached curve c4 is a line. In
all its postures, the line c4 shows the same inclination with respect
to the gear frame R1 . At each pose, the enveloping point M of c4
is the pedal point with respect to the pole I32 . The right triangle
enclosed by c4, p4, and the line I32 M shows that the angle15 ac
between the meshing normal and the polode p4 is constant, which
leads to the case of involute gearing.
The foregoing statement does not hold in spherical geometry
since for spherical triangles, the sum of the interior angles is not
constant. This sum is always greater than p, the amount by which
the sum exceeds p being proportional to the area of the triangle.
Therefore, we cannot conclude for the analog specification in
bevel gears that the angle ac between the meshing normal and the
polodes remains constant. Quite the contrary, the sum of ac and
the constant angle bc between the great circles c4 and p4 is always
15

Notation after [17], p. 274.

021015-10 / Vol. 8, APRIL 2016

Fig. 10 Octoidal bevel gears: The conjugate profiles c2 and c3

are the envelopes of the great circle c4 under the motions R4 =R2
and R4 =R3

greater than p=2 and increases with the spherical distance between
I32 and c4, as shown in Fig. 10. We obtain what is known as octoidal gears, as reported in Refs. [18] and [19].
Figure 10 shows octoidal bevel gears, the envelopes c2 and c3
of the great circle c4 under the respective motions R4 =R2 and
R4 =R3 are displayed at different postures c12 ; ; c42 and c13 ; ; c43 .
The corresponding meshing points M1 ; ; M4 trace the meshing
line m. Under the motion R4 =R1 , which is the rotation about the
axis p41 , the great circle c4 envelopes a pair of antipodal circles
with axis p41 . The complete meshing line m is the pedal curve of
these circles with respect to the relative pole I32 . It consists of two
antipodal curves of octoid shape [18].
The spatial analog of the generalized Camus Theorem [6] leads
to: For any surface U4 attached to the AS P4 , the envelopes U2
and U3 under the respective relative motions R4 =R2 and R4 =R3
are conjugate tooth flanks. We choose again P4 as the skew
orthogonal helicoid and specify U4 as a plane.
The envelope of a plane under any spatial motion is in general
a torse, i.e., a developable ruled surface. In each pose, the moving
plane contacts its envelope along a line. Let the one-parametric
set of planes be represented by the linear equation nt  x dt
with twice-differentiable functions nt and d(t) for all t in a real
interval J. Then, the corresponding line of contact with the envelope satisfies simultaneously the two equations below [11,20,21]
nt  x dt
_
_  x dt
nt

(44)

The cuspidal point of this generator satisfies also the third equa
t  x dt.
tion n
Suppose the instant pose of the plane U4  R4 with respect to
the frame R2 satisfies the equation n2  x2 d2 . Then, the motion
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Fig. 11 Skew gears with torses as conjugate tooth flanks

U2 ; U3 and permanent line contact

^ 42 q42 e q420 x
^ 42 ^f 1 , as given in
R4 =R2 with the twist q
Eq. (14), yields the derivatives
n_ 2 q42  n2

and d_ 2 q420  n2

(45)

Hence, the instant generator of the envelope U4 is represented, by

virtue of Eq. (44), as the intersection of two perpendicular planes.
Analog results hold for the envelope of U4 under R4 =R3 .
In this way, we obtain a pair of conjugate torses U2 ; U3 with
permanent line contact. In Fig. 11, one example is depicted that
indicates that these flanks should work correctly. Contrary to
the general case of Phillips involute gearing [22], contact is
not punctual, but along a line. The thick curves in Fig. 11 are
the intersections of the flanks with planes perpendicular to the
instant meshing line, which is depicted as magenta double line.
Figure 12 shows snapshots of the conjugate torses upon
meshing.16

Fig. 12 Snapshots of the conjugate torses U2 and U3 upon

meshing x31 : x21 522 : 1

Conclusions

Based on the Camus Theorem and on Martin Distelis work, we

showed in this paper that the flanks of spatial cycloid gears can be
synthesized by means of an AS. In the first part, we studied in
dual-vector notation the curvature of the tooth flanks. Upon
choosing the skew orthogonal helicoid as AS, the tooth flanks of
the spatial equivalent of octoidal bevel gears are obtained. The
final example with torses as tooth flanks looks promising but still
needs a detailed analysis: Interference avoidance, singularity analysis, pressure angle, and sliding velocity are still areas warranting
further research.

Acknowledgment
The third author acknowledges the support received from the
NSERC, Canadas Natural Sciences and Engineering Research
Council, through Discovery Grant No. RGPIN/4532-2008 and
from the McGill University through a James McGill
Professorship.

Nomenclature
Rj =Rk motion of frame Rj with respect to frame Rk
R1 fixed frame (machine frame)
R2 ; R3 frames attached to the two wheels

Spur and Bevel Gears

c2, c3 conjugate tooth profiles of R3 =R2
I ij instant center of rotation of Ri =Rj
I21, I31 instant centers of rotation of pinion and gear
with respect to R1
p2, p3 pitch circles of the gears
p4 auxiliary curve
R4 frame attached to the auxiliary curve

Spatial Case (Gears With Skew Axes)

16

Data: 2a 56 deg; 2a0 50 mm, x31 : x21 2 : 3. The initial pose of the
enveloping plane U4  R4 is defined with respect to the frame ^f 1 ; ^f 2 ; ^f 3 in the
following way: Its normal vector has the geographical longitude 81:8 deg and the
latitude 11:9 deg, and U4 passes through the point 0; 0; 47:3.

Journal of Mechanisms and Robotics

^e 1 ; ^e 2 DUVs representing the directed bisectrix of

I21 and I31 and its intersecting perpendicular,
as indicated in Fig. 1
g^; n^ ; ^t Frenet frame of a ruled surface U
g^ instant Disteli axis of U
APRIL 2016, Vol. 8 / 021015-11

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hij xij0 =xij

I ij
I 21 ; I 31
I 41

pij
pij0
^ ij pij epij0
p
^ ij x
^ ij p^ ij
q
^a a ea0
^
b
^c
d
P2 ; P3
P4
R4
^
u
U2 ; U 3
xij
xij0
^ ij xij e xij0
x
x21, x31
2a
2a0

instant pitch of Ri =Rj

ISA of Ri =Rj
ISAs of pinion and gear with respect to R1
ISA of P4 with respect to the machine frame
R1
unit vector parallel to the instant axis of
Ri =Rj
moment of the axis I ij with respect to the
origin
DUV representing I ij
twist of Ri =Rj
dual angle between p^ 21 and ^e 1
^ 41
dual angle between e^1 and p
dual angle between the generator g^ of U and
the corresponding Disteli axis g^ cot ^c dual
curvature of the generator g^ of U
instant distribution parameter of U
axodes of the relative motion R3 =R2
AS, axode of R4 =R2 and R4 =R3
frame attached to the AS P4
dual angle between e^1 and the ISA p^ 32
conjugate tooth flanks of R3 =R2
signed instant angular velocity of Ri =Rj
signed instant translation velocity of Ri =Rj
instant dual velocity of Ri =Rj
angular velocities of pinion and gear,
respectively
angle between gear axes I21 and I31
distance between gear axes I 21 and I 31

Appendix: The Spatial EulerSavary Equation

The spatial version of the EulerSavary equation dates back to
Disteli [10] and has since been discussed in the literature [8,23].
The discussion goes along the lines of Ref. [8], where this equation was first derived as the exact dual extension of the spherical
version in Ref. [24].
First, we compute the Disteli axis g^ of the ruled surface U,
which is traced by the directed line g^ under the spatial motion
^ 32 x
^ 32 . To this end, we recall that by
^ 32 p
R3 =R2 with the twist q
virtue of the Frenet equations (16)
2
2
^  ^k_ n
^ ^k^k g^ l
^ g^
^ g^ ^k x
^ ^t  ^k ^k ^t l
g^_  g^ ^k n
(A1)

Hence, the vector product of the first and the second derivative of
g^ is a dual multiple of the Disteli axis g^ .
Let P2 and P3 denote the fixed and the moving axode of the
relative motion R3 =R2 . At each instant, the Frenet frames of the
axodes P2 and P3 for the instant axis p^ 32 are coincident,
thus defining a frame ^f 1 ; ^f 2 ; ^f 3  R1 with ^f 1 p^ 32 , as shown in
Fig. 4. Therefore, the motion R3 =R2 arises when the Frenet
motion R1 =R2 along the fixed axode is superimposed with the
inverse R3 =R1 of the Frenet motion R1 =R3 along the moving
axode U3 . The twist of R3 =R2 is obtained as
^ 32 ^f 1 ; where
q^ 32 q^ 12  q^ 13 x
^ i ^f 1 ^k i ^f 3 for i 2; 3
q^ 1i l
^ 3 ^f 1 and ^k 2 ^k 3 , where we have recalled
Hence, q^ 32 ^
l2  l
^ i =^k i .
that the dual curvature of the axode Pi is given by cot^c i l
We follow the notation explained in Fig. 4 and use the dual
angles ^n n en0 and ^g g eg0 for defining the relative position of the moving line g^ with respect to the Frenet frame
^f 1 ; ^f 2 ; ^f 3 of the axodes. Further, from Eq. (31)
g^ cos ^g ^f 1 sin ^g h^

with

021015-12 / Vol. 8, APRIL 2016

^ cos ^n ^f 2 sin ^n ^f 3
h

the derivative of g^ for the motion R3 =R2 is derived below

^
^ 32  g^ x
^ 32 ^f 1  g^ x
^ 32 sin ^g ^f 1  h
g^_ q
^ 32 sin ^g cos ^n ^f 3  sin ^n ^f 2
x
which proves that the central normal of U coincides with the common perpendicular k^ to g^ and the ISA ^f 1 . Also, the Disteli axis g^
intersects k^ at right angles, as shown in Fig. 4. Now the second
derivative follows:
^ 32 ^f_ 1  g^ x
^ 32 ^f 1  g^_
^_ 32 ^f 1  g^ x
g^ x
where the motion of ^f 1 with respect to R2 along the fixed axode
P2 leads to
^f_ 1 ^k 2 ^f 2
Hence,
^_ 32 ^f 1  g^ x
^ 32 ^k 2 cos ^g ^f 3 sin ^n sin ^g ^f 1
g^ x
^ 2 sin ^g cos ^n ^f 2 sin ^n ^f 3
x
32

Therefore,
^ 232 sin ^g cos ^n ^f 3  sin ^n ^f 2
g^_  g^ x
 ^k 2 cos ^g ^f 3 sin ^n sin ^g ^f 1
^ 32 sin ^g cos ^n ^f 2 sin ^n ^f 3 
x
^
^ 32 sin ^g ^f 1 ^k 2 sin ^n sin ^g h
^ 232 sin ^g ^k 2 sin ^n cos ^g x
x
By virtue of Eq. (A1), this product equals a dual multiple of the
Disteli axis g^  , which can be expressed as (see Fig. 4)
^
g^ cos ^g  ^f 1 sin ^g  h
Hence, if x32 sin g 6 0, we obtain, upon comparison of
coefficients
^k 2 sin ^ncos ^g sin ^g   sin ^g cos ^g  x
^ 32 sin ^g sin ^g  0 (A2)
Under the additional condition k2 sin g  6 0, we may divide the
equation above by ^k 2 sin ^g sin ^g  . Moreover, we can replace
^ 32 = ^k 2 by ^
^ 3 = ^k 2 and express this, by virtue of ^k 2 ^k 3 ,
x
l2  l
in terms of the dual curvature of the axodes, thereby obtaining the
desired result
^ 32
x
cot ^g   cot ^g sin ^n
cot ^c 2  cot ^c 3
^k 2
which is the spatial EulerSavary equation.

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