Anatomy Test 1 Review

Anatomical Position: position of the body when standing still, with arms at the side
and the palms facing forward.
Principal Axes:
Longitudinal (Vertical) Axes
Transverse (Horizontal) Axes
Saggital Axes
Principal Planes:
Median Sagittal Plane
Parasagittal Plane
Frontal (Coronal) Plane
Transverse Plane

Anterior: toward the front

Ventral: toward the abdomen
Superior: upward with the body erect
Cranial: toward the head
Medial: toward the middle
Proximal: toward the limb attachment
Peripheral: toward surface of the body
Ipsilateral: on the same side
Superficial: external
Palmar (Volar): on or toward the palm of
the hand
Median: within the median plane
Directions in Space

Posterior: toward the back

Dorsal: toward the back
Inferior: downward with the body
erect
Caudal: toward the buttocks
Lateral: away from the middle
Distal: away from the limb
attachment
Central: toward the center of the
body
Contralateral: on the other side
Deep: internal
Plantar: on or toward the sole of the
foot
Rostral: toward the mouth

Directions of Movement
Extension: straightening the Sagittal plane
joint
Coronal plane
Abduction: moving a limb
Adduction: moving a limb
away from the body
toward the body
Supination: turning palm
Pronation: turning palm Longitudinal axis of bone or limb
outward
inwards
Skeletal
Rotation: pivoting or rotary
Circumduction: circular
System
motion
movement
Made up of 206
bones and divided into two parts:
Axial Skeleton
Made up of 80 bones
Consists of skull, vertebral column, ribs, and sternum
Appendicular Skeleton
Made up of 126 bones
Consists of the bones of the shoulder girdle, upper limbs, pelvic bones, and
the bones of the lower limb
Flexion: bending the joint

 Bones: complex structures made up of several tissues, including bone tissue,

cartilage, nerves, and others
Classification
Long bones: longer than they are wide
Have a shaft (diaphysis) and two ends called epiphyses
Short bones: small and roughly cube shaped
Flat bones: thin, flattened and usually curved
Irregular bones: various shapes and dont fit into other categories
Function
Support: hard framework to protect organs
Movement: provide origin and insertion points to the muscles; bones used
as levers
Mineral storage: consists of organic and inorganic substances
Blood-cell formation (hemopoiesis): contains bone marrow, which is
found in the medullary cavity of the long bone or inside the cancellous bone
Triglyceride storage: yellow bone marrow consists of fat cells that store
triglyceride; found in medullary cavity
Yellow bone marrow replaces red marrow with age
Structure
Dense outer layer called compact bone
Internal network is spongy or cancellous bone
Long Bones
Diaphysis shaft
Epiphyses two ends
Articular cartilage hyaline which covers the articular surfaces
Epiphyseal plate cartilage between the diaphysis and epiphysis
Metaphysis flared part of diaphysis nearest to epiphysis
Periosteum outer membrane
Sharpeys fibers between periosteum and bone
Endosteum internally covering membrane which covers the medullary
cavity
Medullary cavity hollow cavity filled with bone marrow
Flat Bones
Compact bone at the periphery and a spongy part in the middle
Composition
Composed of a matrix along with widely separated cells
Matrix
Makes up about 50% of the bone
Consists of inorganic crystallized minerals
Mainly calcium phosphate and calcium carbonate
Small amounts of sulfate, fluoride, and magnesium hydroxide
Organic material
Collagen
Makes up 25% of the bone
Provides framework for the deposition of minerals, crystallization,
and bone hardening
Water

 Makes up 25% of the bone

Water and collagen fibers permit some degree of compression and
tension on the bone
Bone cells
Osteoblasts bone forming cell
Secrete minerals of the matrix, collagen, and other organic material, and
initiate calcification to create bone
Secretion resembling bone is called osteoid
Infiltrated with inorganic salts to form bone
Osteoblasts entrapped in the surrounding matrix are called
osteocytes
Calcitonin reduces serum Ca++ concentration and promotes bone
deposition
Osteoclasts bone-dissolving cell
Demineralize bone
Derived from the fusion of several monocytes, typically associated with
the endosteum
Release lysosomal acid hydrolases which alter the polymerization of the
ground substances by digesting the protein and mineral components of
the underlying bone matrix, which results in bone resorption
Parathyroid hormone promotes bone resorption by increasing the
number and activity of osteoclasts, which leads to elevation of the blood
calcium level
Bone Remodeling - old bone resorption and new bone formation
Occurs throughout life particularly at the sites of bone growth, mechanical
stress, and fracture
Depends on precise action of osteoblast-osteoclast coupling through intricate
endocrine, neuronal, immune, and mechanical factors
Bone Tissue Formation (Ossification)
Intramembranous ossification: bones are ossified directly from
mesenchyme, without any pre-existing cartilage (e.g. bones of the skull and
clavicle)
1. Mesenchymal cells differentiate into osteoblasts that form an ossification
center in the connective tissue
2. Osteoblasts secrete bone matrix (osteoid) within the connective tissue
that is mineralized later. Some osteoblasts are entrapped in the
surrounding bone and are called osteocytes
3. Bone formation expands and surround the blood vessels. Periosteum
begins to form.
4. The bone at the periphery just beneath the periosteum forms compact
bone and the internally located spongy bone holds the red bone marrow
and vasculature.
CLINICAL POINT: Cleidocranial dysostosis/dysplasia (CCD) is a rare autosomal
inherited disorder characterized by defective ossification, delayed bone and tooth
development, and stomatognathic and craniofacial abnormalities. It may involve bones
of the skull and the clavicle. RUNX2 (CBFA1) is the only gene known to be associated
with CCD, and is responsible for osteoblast differentiation.
Endochondral ossification: bone development occurring from pre-existing
cartilage, usually hyaline cartilage (e.g. most bones in the body)

1. Mesenchymal cells differentiate into chondrocytes and secrete a cartilage

matrix, forming a cartilage model (hyaline), surrounded by perichondrium,
that continues to grow in length (interstitial growth) and width
(appositional growth).
2. As growth continues, chondrocytes grow in size (hypertrophy) and burst to
release their contents and promote calcification. Chondrocytes trapped by
calcification die, producing gaps that merge to form cavities in the
cartilage model.
3. Nutrient arteries penetrate the perichondrium, stimulating the osteogenic
cells in the perichondrium to differentiate into osteoblasts, which then
secrete a thin rim of compact bone called the periosteal bone collar
4. The periosteal bud and capillaries enter the middle of the cartilage model,
producing the primary ossification center that replaces the cartilage by
traveling inward. Here, spongy bone is formed by osteoblasts over the
remaining calcified cartilage tissue.
5. The ossification center grows toward the ends of the bone.
6. Medullary cavities form due to osteoclasts removing some spongy bone,
which will be filled with red bone marrow, and the diaphysis is gradually
replaced by compact bone
7. Around the time of birth, the epiphyseal arteries penetrate the epiphysis,
and the secondary ossification center develops from the inside outward.
8. Ossification of the epiphysis continues; however a rim of hyaline cartilage
remains in the epiphyseal plate, where ossification takes place during the
growth of the bone. In addition, the outer surface of the epiphysis
remains, as usual, covered by a thin layer of articular cartilage. The bone
grows both in thickness and in length.
Ossification at the Epiphyseal Plate
Responsible for the lengthening of bones which continues up to
approximately age 21, when diaphysis and epiphyses join together and
form the firmest joint between the bones called the primary
cartilaginous joint.
Epiphyseal line is a remnant of the epiphyseal plate
Five continuous zones showing structural and physiologic changes
taking place in the hyaline cartilage tissue. From the epiphyseal side
(zone 1) toward the diaphysis (zone 5)
Zone of Resting Cartilage (Zone 1):
Zone of Proliferating Cartilage (Zone 2):
Zone of Hypertrophic Cartilage (maturation) (Zone 3):
Zone of Calcified Cartilage (Zone 4):
Zone of Ossification (metaphysis) (Zone 5):