Index

Certificate
Acknowledge
ment
Self
inductance
Bibliography

Certificate
This is to certify that
physics project titled
Semi-Conductor has been
successfully completed by
Yash Maheshwari of class
12th under the guidance of
Mrs. Rakhi (physics
teacher).

Signature Of Principal
SignatureOf Teacher

Acknowledgement
I wish to express my deep
gratitude and sincere
thanks to the Principal,
Vidya Niketan School for
her encouragement and
the facilities he provided
for the project work. I
extend my hearty thanks
to Mrs. Rakhi, physics
teacher, who guided me to

the successful completion

of the project.

I cant forget to offer

my sincere thanks to
my parents and my
classmates who helped
me to carry out this
project.

CLASSIFICATION OF METALS, CONDUCTORS AND SEMICONDUCTORS On the basis of energy bands

In the case of isolated atoms, there are discrete energy levels. But when
we take a solid as a whole there are bonds between atoms. For a particular atom in the solid,
neighbouring atoms influence the energies of the outer electrons.
Therefore, discrete energy levels spread into bands of energy levels.
The highest filled band is called valence band. The next higher unfilled
band is called conduction band. The valence band and conduction band
are usually separated by certain forbidden energy region called
forbidden energy gap. The lowest energy level in the conduction band
is shown as EC and highest energy level in the valence band is shown
as EV. Above EC and below EV there are a large number of closely
spaced energy levels The gap between the top of the valence band and
bottom of the conduction band is called the energy band gap
(Energy gap Eg). It may be large, small, or zero,depending upon the
material.
Case I: This refers to a situation, as shown in Fig. One can have a
metal either when the conduction band is partially filled and the balanced
band is partially empty or when the conduction and valance bands overlap.
When there is overlap electrons from valence band can easily move into the
conduction band. This situation makes a large number of electrons available
for electrical conduction. When the valence band is partially empty, electrons
from its lower level can move to higher level making conduction possible
. Therefore, the resistance of such materials is low or the conductivity is high.
Case II: In this case, as shown in Fig. a large band gap Eg exists
(Eg > 3 eV). There are no electrons in the conduction band, and therefore
no electrical conduction is possible. Note that the energy gap is so large
that electrons cannot be excited from the valence band to the conduction
band by thermal excitation. This is the case of insulators.
Case III: This situation is shown in Fig. 14.2(c). Here a finite but small
band gap (Eg < 3 eV) exists. Because of the small band gap, at room
temperature some electrons from valence band can acquire enough
energy to cross the energy gap and enter the conduction band. These
electrons (though small in numbers) can move in the conduction band.
Hence, the resistance of semiconductors is not as high as that of the
insulators.
S.No.

Properties

Conductors

Insulators

Semiconductors

(1)

Band structure

C.B.

C.B.

V.B.
V.B. V.B.

C.B.

(less)
Eg Eg
(maximum)

(2)

Energy gap

Zero or very small

Very large; for diamond it is 6

eV

For Ge Eg = 0.7 eV
1.1 eV

(3)

Current carries

Free electrons

Free electrons and holes

(4)

Condition of V.B. and C.B. at

ordinary temperature

V.B. and C.B. are completely filled

or C.B. is some what empty

V.B. completely filled

V.B. somewhat empty

C.B. completely unfilled

C.B. somewhat filled

(5)

Effect of temperature on
resistance

Increases

Decreases

(6)

Examples

Cu, Ag, Au, Na, Pt, Hg etc.

Wood, plastic, mica, diamond,

glass etc.

Ge, Si, Ga, As etc.

Conduction band
Fermy energy level
Valence band

Intrinsic semiconductor
INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
Semi conductors, in their pure form are called intrinsic semiconductors,
Examples of intrinsic semiconductor are silicon and germanium. Silicon
and germanium are tetravalent. In their crystal lattice, each atom with its
neighboring four valence electrons forms four covalent bonds, with the
adjacent atoms. As the temperature increases, one of the electrons
escape from the bonds an empty space is left behind in the valence
band which is called a hole. These holes drift in an opposite direction
to the electrons with lesser speed and behave like positive charge carriers.
In intrinsic semiconductors, holes and electrons are always equal in number. Their number increases with increase in temperature. The
highest energy level which an electron can occupy at 0 K is called Fermi level. For intrinsic semi conductors this Fermi level lies in the
middle of the forbidden energy gap.
An intrinsic semiconductor will behave like an insulator at T = 0 K as shown in Fig (a). It is the thermal energy at higher temperatures (T >
0K), which excites some electrons
from the valence band to the conduction band. These
thermally excited electrons at T > 0 K, partially
occupy the conduction band. Therefore, the
energy-band diagram of an intrinsic semiconductor

for Si Eg =

will be as shown in Fig. b). Here, some electrons are

shown in the conduction band. These have come
from the valence band leaving equal number of holes
there .
EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
The conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor depends on its temperature, but at room temperature its conductivity is very low. As such, no
important electronic devices can be developed using these semiconductors. Hence there is a necessity of improving their conductivity. This
can be done by making use of impurities. When a small amount, say, a few parts per million (ppm), of a suitable impurity is added to the
pure semiconductor, the conductivity of the semiconductor is increased Such materials are known as extrinsic semiconductors or impurity
semiconductors. The deliberate addition of a desirable impurity is called doping and the impurity atoms are called dopants. Such a material
is also called a doped semiconductor.
The dopant has to be such that it does not distort the original pure semiconductor lattice. It occupies only a very few of the original
semiconductor atom sites in the crystal. A necessary condition to attain this is that the sizes of the dopant and the semiconductor atoms
should be nearly the same. There are two types of dopants used in doping the tetravalent Si or Ge:
(i) Pentavalent (valency 5); like Arsenic (As), Antimony (Sb), Phosphorous(P), etc.
Free(valency
electron
(ii) Trivalent
3); like Indium (In), Boron (B), Aluminium (Al), etc.
Types of extrinsic semiconductor
Vacancy
N-type semiconductors
If a pentavalent impurity is added to a pure tetravalent semi conductor, it is called n-type semiconductor, when a pentavalent impurity like
arsenic is added to germanium, the arsenic atoms occupy some of the sites at which there would otherwise be germanium, atoms. Arsenic
has five valence electrons. But only four electrons are engaged in forming covalent bonds with the adjacent germanium atoms. The fifth
electron is very loosely bound and needs less amount of energy to become a free electron. Therefore, excess electrons are available for
conduction and conductivity of semiconductor increases. In n-type semi conductors, the electrons are called majority charge carriers
and holes are called minority charge carriers. In these semiconductors, the Fermi energy level will be nearer to the conduction band. The
impurity is called a donor impurity.
P-type semiconductors
When a trivalent impurity is added to a tetravalent semiconductor, it is called n-type semiconductor. If a trivalent impurity like indium is
added to germanium, the indium atoms occupy some of the sites at which there would otherwise be germanium atoms. Indium has three
valence electrons and these three electrons form covalent bonds with the adjacent germanium atoms. The fourth covalent bond is incomplete
or empty. So, an additional hole (absence of electron) is created. Therefore, excess holes are available for conduction in the valence band
and the conductivity of semi increases. In p-type semiconductor, holes are called majority charge carriers and electrons are minority
charge carriers. In these semiconductors, Fermi energy level will be nearer to the valence band. Energy level diagram for p-type extrinsic
semiconductor is given in figure. The impurity is called acceptor impurity.

N-type semiconductor
(i)

P-type semiconductor

Intrinsic
S.C.

Pentavalent
impurity

Intrinsic
S.C.

Ge

Ge

Ge

(ii) Majority charge carriers electrons

Minority charge carriers holes
(iii) ne >> nh; ie >> ih

Trivalent
impurity

Ge

Ge

N-types
S.C.
Majority charge carriers holes
Minority charge carriers electrons
nh >> ne; ih >> ie

Ge

Ge

Ge

P-types
S.C.

(iv) Conductivity ne e e

Conductivity nh h e

(iv) N-type semiconductor is electrically neutral (not negatively

charged)

P-type semiconductor is also electrically neutral (not positively

charged)

(v) Impurity is called Donar impurity because one impurity atom

generate one e .

Impurity is called Acceptor impurity.

(vi) Donor energy level lies just below the conduction band.

Acceptor energy level lies just above the valence band.

V.B.

C.B.

C.B.
Donor energy level

Acceptor energy level

Junction diode
Diode means a device with two electrodes. (di means two, and ode stands for electrode). A p-n junction diode is a two terminal device
made up of a semi conductor crystal. As it has two terminals which act as electrodes it is generally called Junction diode.
When a semi conductor material such as silicon germanium crystal is doped in such a
way that one side of it becomes a p-type and the other side becomes an n-type we
obtain
a P-N junction diode. The plane dividing the two regions is called as a junction.

+
p

p n Junction diode circuits

symbol
Junction diode as rectifier
The process of conversion of an alternating current into a direct current is called rectification. The device used for this purpose is called a
rectifier. Junction diode can be used as rectifier. A single diode is used in a half wave rectifier and two diodes are used, in a full wave
rectifier.

Bibliography

www.google.co.in
www.wikipedia.co.in
NCERT
Practical book