The need to develop

managerial
competencies in Asia
Pacific
A Study of the Attributes of Managerial Effectiveness in
Singapore: Implications for a Competency model for
Managers in Singapore.

The purpose of this paper is to summarise the findings of a

study to establish the attributes demonstrated by managers
deemed to be effective, in Singapore. The paper synthesises
relevant previous research in the field of study and develops a
useful new competency framework from research forums with
business leaders, practicing managers and human resource
professionals.

Dr. John Kenworthy

12/14/2003
Managerial Effectiveness in Singapore

Table of Contents

Acknowledgement.................................................................................................................................... 3

Purpose of Paper ...................................................................................................................................... 3

Background .............................................................................................................................................. 3

Research Aims ..................................................................................................................................... 4

Research Questions.............................................................................................................................. 4

Managerial effectiveness and competency ............................................................................................... 5

Competence and Competency ............................................................................................................. 6

Previous Research .................................................................................................................................... 8

The need to develop managerial competencies in Asia Pacific .............................................................. 8

Competences for International Management ....................................................................................... 9

Singapore Public Sector Manager Competences ................................................................................... 9

Influence of Cultural differences........................................................................................................... 9

STADA NTU Study .............................................................................................................................. 11

Singaporeans abroad ......................................................................................................................... 11

Findings from this research study ........................................................................................................... 12

Note on Research Method ............................................................................................................. 12

Analysis ......................................................................................................................................... 12

Results ............................................................................................................................................... 13

Comparison with other research ........................................................................................................ 15

Conclusions ............................................................................................................................................ 16

Limitations ......................................................................................................................................... 17

Further Research................................................................................................................................ 17

References ............................................................................................................................................. 18

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Managerial Effectiveness in Singapore

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This study was made possible through the generous support of our participants, colleagues and friends
who gave up their time to join the discussions and tell us their stories and shared their experiences.

Thank you

PURPOSE OF PAPER

The purpose of this paper is to summarise the findings of a study to establish the attributes demonstrated
by managers deemed to be effective, in Singapore. The paper synthesises relevant previous research in
the field of study and develops a useful new competency framework from research forums with business
leaders, practicing managers and human resource professionals.

BACKGROUND

The Singapore media regularly generates and reflects on-going debate about the Singapore Government’s
policies on foreign workers. A recent NTU study was lambasted by the Ministry of Manpower for
suggesting, inaccurately, that 25% of new jobs created were taken up by Singaporeans (Channel News
Asia, 2003). Frequently, the media also highlights discussion on the topics of ‘Foreign Talent’ – non-
Singaporeans who are attracted to work in Singapore as specialists and managers. Typical arguments
supporting the need to employ foreigners suggest that local managers do not possess the abilities
required by the organisation to undertake the job and/or manage it effectively or successfully.

Anecdotally, expatriates and Singaporeans in Singapore give a mixed interpretation of the reasons or
‘need’ for foreign talent. Typical of the reasons cited by expatriate managers currently based in Singapore
or Malaysia

 “Locals are not capable of running this business because they don’t understand how to manage
all the [local and home-based] people involved”

 “Expat managers are at least 5 times as productive as a local manager – and hence more than
justify their package”

 “Local managers don’t have the international experience or exposure required [in this
organisation]”

 “Most locals are unwilling to take risks or lose face”

 “Most Singaporeans ‘freeze’ when promoted and find themselves reporting directly to a
Caucasian manager”

 “Most Malaysians are unwilling to put in the required effort”

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Managerial Effectiveness in Singapore

Similar discussions with locals, i.e. Asian Singaporeans or Malaysians, reveal similar beliefs that ‘locals’
lack suitable international exposure or experience and a recognition that most [Asian] individual
managers do not prefer to expose themselves to [perceived] risk. Most often though the reason cited that
expatriates are employed as managers in organisations is “that’s the way life is”.

This study attempts to identify the attributes or characteristics or behaviours associated with effective
managers such that a useful framework may be developed that may be used to help organisations recruit,
retain or develop their managers – be they foreigners or Singaporeans – to the benefit of the individuals,
organisations and the economy.

RESEARCH AIMS

This research design attempts to clarify and update this current issue faced in Singapore:

 What competencies make for an effective manager in Singapore?

It is not intended that this research be all-encompassing but to provide a solid foundation that may be
developed and refined.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The aims of the research have been broken down into suitable research questions (Creswell, 2003) with
the aim being partially accomplished through answering two questions:

 Which competencies distinguish effective managers from less-effective managers in Singapore?

 Do effective managers in Singapore demonstrate distinctive competencies?

In order to start to address the issues, this paper briefly reviews the literature and directly relevant
previous research on the subject in Singapore and Malaysia. This research design will then qualitatively
assess the competences of effective managers through a series of research forums facilitated by the
author with targeted groups of individuals to provide a triangulated assessment. The research forums
th nd
held between 26 August and 2 September 2003 included invited individuals to represent their own
opinions on the topic in one of three groups:

 Individual Managers – persons in a managerial role in a range of foreign and locally owned, small,
medium and large companies

 Business Leaders – persons in a senior position with direct influence on local strategy

 Human resource Professionals – persons in a human resource management role

The research design leans to a social constructionist approach (Remenyi et al., 1998) recognising that the
critical independent variable (effectiveness) is subject to wide interpretation.

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Managerial Effectiveness in Singapore

MANAGERIAL EFFECTIVENESS AND COMPETENCY

There is a growing level of interest and focus on managerial competences and managerial performance
with a wealth of literature (Boyatzis, 1982, Finn, 1993, Higgs, 1999, Sarawano, 1993, Spencer and Spencer,
1993, Young, 2002)

Definitions of competences and competencies within the literature are the subject of considerable debate
(Finn, 1993) and confusion. Schroder (1989) defines competences quite simply as “personal effectiveness
skills”. Others consider competences as being linked to personality and therefore, within the context of
the intended research on input factors, potentially impact on the understanding of managerial
performance and effectiveness.

Many researchers have attempted to identify and isolate the competencies or characteristics or
dimensions of superior performers in the practice of management. David McClelland is often cited as the
father of the modern competency movement. In 1973, he challenged the then orthodoxy of academic
aptitude and knowledge content tests, as being unable to predict performance or success in life and as
being biased against minorities and women (Young, 2002). Identified through patterns of behaviour,
competencies are characteristics of people that differentiate performance in a specific job or role (Kelner,
2001, McClelland, 1973). Competencies distinguish well between roles at the same level in different
functions and also between roles at different levels (even in the same function) often by the number of
competencies required to define the role. A competency model for a Middle Manager is usually defined
within ten to twelve competencies, of those two are relatively unique to a given role. Kelner suggest that
competency models for senior executives require fifteen to eighteen competencies, up to half of which
were unique to the model (Kelner, 2001).

Kelner (2001), cites a 1996 unpublished paper by the late David McClelland were he performed a meta-
analysis of executives assessed on competencies, where McClelland discovered that only eight
competencies could consistently predict performance in any executive with 80 percent accuracy.

The first scientifically valid set of scaled competencies – competencies that have sets of behaviours
ordered into levels of sophistication or complexity – were developed by Hay/McBer (Spencer and
Spencer, 1993). The competencies found to be the most critical for effective managers include:

 Achievement Orientation

 Developing Others

 Directiveness

 Impact and Influence

 Interpersonal Understanding

 Organisational Awareness

 Team Leadership

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Managerial Effectiveness in Singapore

This set of characteristics, or individual competencies, that a manager brings to the job need to match
well to the job or additional effort may be necessary to carry out the job or the manager may not be able
to use certain managerial styles effectively. These are in turn affected by the organisational climate and
the actual requirement of the job.

COMPETENCE AND COMPETENCY

The concept of competence remains one of the most diffuse terms in the organisational and occupational
literature (Nordhaug and Gronhaug, 1994). Exactly what does an author mean when using any of the
terms of competence?

The concept of “individual competence” is widely used in human resources management (Boyatzis, 1982,
Burgoyne, 1993, Schroder, 1989). This refers to a set of skills that an individual must possess in order to
be capable of satisfactorily performing a specified job. Although the concept of individual competence is
well developed in human resources management, there is a continuing debate about its precise meaning.

Others take a “Job-based competence” view that according to Robotham and Jubb (1996) can be applied
to any type of business (Robotham and Jubb, 1996)where the competence-based system is based on
identifying a list of key activities (McAuley, 1994) and behaviours identified through observing managers’
in the course of doing their job.

A useful view is to look at “competence” to mean a skill and the standard of performance whilst
“competency” refers to behaviour by which it is achieved (Rowe, 1995). That is, “Competence” describes
what people do and “Competency” describes how people do it.

Rowe (1995) further distinguishes the attributes an individual exhibits as “morally based behaviours” –
these are important drivers of behaviours but especially difficult to measure – and “intellectually based
behaviours” as “capabilities” or “competencies”. Capabilities are distinguished as these refer to
development behaviours – i.e. are graded to note development areas to improve behaviours in how
people undertake particular tasks.

Young (2002) develops on a similar theme and builds on Sarawano’s model (Sarawano, 1993) linking
competency and competence to performance and identifies ‘Competency’ as the personal characteristics
(motives, traits, image/role and knowledge) and how the individual behaves (skill). ‘Competence’ is what
a manger is required to do – the job activities (functions, tasks). These in turn lead to the performance of
the individual [manager].

Jacobs (1989) considers a distinction between “hard” and “soft” competences. Soft competences refer to
such items as creativity and sensitivity, and comprise more of the personal qualities that lie behind
behaviour. These items are viewed as being conceptually different from hard competences, such as the
ability to be well organised. Jacobs’ distinction fits neatly into Young’s model with “Hard competences”
referring to identifiable behaviours, and “Soft competencies” as the personal characteristics of the
individual.

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Managerial Effectiveness in Singapore

Further distinctions relate to the usefulness of measuring competnc(i)es. Cockerill et al (1995) define
“Threshold” and “High performance” competences. Threshold competences are units of behaviour which
are used by job holders, but which are not considered to be associated with superior performance. They
can be thought of as defining the minimum requirements of a job – for example, basic literacy and
numeracy skills. High performance competences in contrast, are behaviours that are associated with
individuals who perform their jobs at a superior level (Cockerill et al., 1995).

In the UK, the Management Charter Initiative sought to create a standard model where competence is
recognised in the form of job-specific outcomes. Thus competence is judged on performance of an
individual in a specific job role. The competences required in each job role are defined through means of a
functional analysis - a ‘top-down’ process resulting in four levels of description:

 Key purpose

 Key role

 Units of competence

 Elements of competence

Elements are broken down into performance criteria, which describe the characteristics of competent
performance, and range statements, which specify the range of situations or contexts in which the
competence should be displayed.

The model now includes personal competence, missing from the original, addressing some of the
criticisms levelled at the MCI standards. Though the model tends to ignore personal behaviours which
may underpin some performance characteristics. Particularly in the area of management where recent
work has indicated the importance of behavioural characteristics such as self-confidence, sensitivity,
proactivity and stamina.

The US approach to management competence has focused heavily on behaviours. Boyatzis (1982)
identifies a number of behaviours useful for specifying behavioural competence. Schroder also offers
insights into the personal competencies which contribute to effective professional performance
(Schroder, 1989).

Personal competencies and their identifying behaviours form the back bone of many company-specific
competency frameworks and are used extensively in Assessment Centres for selection purposes. This is
because behavioural (or personal) competence may be a better predictor of capability – i.e. the potential
to perform in future posts – than functional competence – which attests to competence in a current post.
The main weakness of the personal competence approach, according to Cheetham, is that it doesn’t
define or assure effective performance within the job role in terms of the outcomes achieved.

In his seminal work The Reflective Practitioner, Schon (1983) attempts to define the nature of professional
practice. He challenges the orthodoxy of “technical rationality”, the belief that professionals solve
problems by simply applying specialist or scientific knowledge. Instead, Schon offers a new epistemology
of professional practice of “knowing in action” (a form of acquired tacit knowledge) and “reflection (the

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Managerial Effectiveness in Singapore

ability to learn through and within practice). Schon argues that reflection (both “reflection in action” and
“reflection about action”) is vital part of the process professionals go through in reframing and resolving
day-to-day problems that are not answered by the simple application of scientific or technical principles.

Schon does not offer a comprehensive model of professional competence. Rather, he argues that the
primary competence of any professional is the ability to reflect – this being the key to acquiring all other
competencies in a cycle of continuous improvement.

Some writers have identified competencies that are considered to be generic and overarching across all
occupations. Reynolds and Snell (1988) identify “meta-qualities” – creativity, mental agility and balanced
learning skill – that they believe reinforce other qualities. Hall (1986) uses the term “meta-skills” defined
as “skills in acquiring other skills”.

Linstead (1991) and Nordhaug and Gronhaug (1994) use the term “meta-competencies” to describe
similar characteristics.

The concept of meta-competence falls short of providing a holistic model but it does suggest that there
are certain key competencies that overarch a whole range of others.

There is however, some doubt about the practicability of breaking down the entity of management into
its constituent behaviours (Burgoyne, 1989). This suggests that the practice of management is, by
definition, almost an activity that should be considered only from a holistic viewpoint.

Managerial effectiveness is a combination of these four critical factors, Organisational Climate,

Managerial Styles, Job Requirements and the Individual Competencies that the manager brings to the job.
Reddin (1970) points out that 'managerial effectiveness' is not a quality but a statement about the
relationship between his behaviour and some task situation. According to Reddin, it is therefore not
possible to discover as fact the qualities of effectiveness which would then be of self-evident value.

PREVIOUS RESEARCH

THE NEED TO DEVELOP MANAGERIAL COMPETENCIES IN ASIA PACIFIC

Picket (1998) notes a ‘major survey of global organizations conducted by the economist Intelligence Unit
found that 61 per cent of the respondents from Asia Pacific area indicated that there was a need to
improve management competencies. They also expressed concern about the need to improve
organizational structure, to better utilize corporate strategy to drive change and to strengthen the link
between strategic intent and day-to-day implementation.

This research design stems from a paper published in the Singapore Management Review in 1996 by
Birchall, Tan and Gay (1996). Building on Gay’s MPhil thesis of the same title (Gay, 1995) and undertakes
to determine whether there are competencies which are identifiable with effective international
management.

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Managerial Effectiveness in Singapore

COMPETENCES FOR INTERNATIONAL MANAGEMENT

Birchall, Tan and Gay (Birchall et al., 1996) used the Job Competences Survey developed by Dulewicz and
Herbert (1992) as a comparison base of UK managers and international managers based in South East
Asia. They developed an outline model for an International [Managers] Competences Model. Gay was
specifically looking for “differences in the relative importance which practicing international managers
might give to the ranking of competences which had been carried out with respect to national
managers”(Gay, 1995).

The research uses the JCS model supplemented with suggested specific competences for international
managers derived from his literature review including the consideration of the influence of cultural
differences on the conduct of international business. Citing the work of Hutton (1988) and Hofstede
(1980), Elashmawi and Harris (1993) and Adler (1986), Gay developed three additional categories to
supplement the JCS including Global Awareness, Cross-border Cultural Awareness and Foreign Language
Skills.

SINGAPORE PUBLIC SECTOR MANAGER COMPETENCES

Chong (1997) builds upon a follow-up study in 1996 by Dulewicz and Herbert to compare the managerial
competences and performance of British managers with Singaporean public sector managers. As with
Gay’s research, this used the Job Competency Survey. Chong used a proxy for performance – due to
restrictions on data access – of advancement incorporating a number of key factors drawn from the
literature that essentially uses age, number of years tenure and level in the organisation to establish how
advanced the individual was. In the Singapore public service, such a proxy is suitable as advancement in
the service is largely driven by seniority with the exceptions usually attributed to higher performance.

Chong noted a significant difference in 7 competences between the Singaporean high advancement and
normal groups. Comparing the Singaporean managers with the UK managers from Dulewicz and Herbert
studies (1992), Chong identified similarities in ten factors and distinct competences peculiar to each
nationality. UK managers’ competences were in managing himself with an orientation towards
achievement and tenacity coupled with good business sense. The Singapore civil service manager’s
competences were in analysing problems and taking decisive action. Chong notes a possible explanation
that the civil servant did not, independently, make decisions which had wider repercussions without first
submitting to higher authority.

Chong’s findings reflect the anecdotal evidence and several media articles in Singapore: “The key issue
with Singaporean managers is that they avoid assuming responsibility whenever possible”; “This is the
land of ‘passing the buck’”

INFLUENCE OF CULTURAL DIFFERENCES

Sarawano’s (1993) research focus was on the effect of cultural differences on managerial style and
comparing managerial competences exhibited by UK managers and those by Malaysian managers.
Sarawano used Cattel’s 16PF and a modified Job Competency Survey to facilitate comparison with existing
UK data and compared the results from a sample of Malaysian managers. He puts forward several

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Managerial Effectiveness in Singapore

hypotheses to predict differences expected between the two groups largely based principally on
Hofstede’s (1980,1991) work on cultural differences.

Sarawano found that the competences most prized in Malaysian managers largely reflected the
anticipated differences in behaviour influenced by the different cultures of the UK and Malaysia.

These three studies suggest that a generic managerial competency model could be used to assess both
expatriate managers and what makes for a successful manager in his or her own country – allowing for
differences in culture stemming from national cultures, the organisation culture and the individual’s
cultural heritage.

The three main studies reviewed above used Dulewicz’s Job Competency Survey. The use of this
instrument facilitates comparison with existing data of UK managers and from these studies as well. Since
Chong’s research in 1997, a number of major global and local events have transpired from the Asia Crisis
at the end of 1997, the US-led global recession, the demise of the dot-com era, 9-11, the Iraq crises and
war and recently the SARS outbreak. These events only serve to spur the need for Singapore especially to
re-invent itself and find new ways to be and become competitive again. Prof. Terry Garrisson in an
interview in 2001 in Singapore with the Business Times noted that “Singaporeans are great do-ers… what
they need to consider is how they will change from being able to do things and become people who
create things” (Teo, 2001).

Reviewing the results of Chong’s survey using the full JCS and Gay’s IM instrument, three competencies
noted in Chong’s study shown to be distinctive competencies of Singapore public servants, Reading,
Written Communication, and Integrity are not included in Gay’s instrument. The UK managers showed
distinctive competencies in Business sense, self-management, achievement orientation and tenacity.
These distinctive competencies have face validity to the author based on seven years experience in
Singapore, and would be expected to be drawn from the forum participants . Furthermore, the
STADA/NTU study below, suggests that important competencies for the new economy in Singapore must
include flexibility and creativity.

Gay (Gay, 1995) identified specific international and cross-border cultural competencies required by
International managers. The specific competencies may be relevant to an expatriate manager in a senior
position in a foreign country, however it may be considered that all except two of these is either included
implicitly within the full JCS (for example, International Negotiation adds little to the JCS Negotiation
competency), or is unlikely to be relevant to a middle or junior manager (for example, Building
International Teams). The two that are considered to still be relevant are, Global Awareness and Cultural
Empathy. These are implicitly included in the JCS in Extra-organisational awareness (Global awareness)
and Sensitivity (Cultural empathy).

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Managerial Effectiveness in Singapore

STADA NTU STUDY

The Singapore Training and Development Association in conjunction with Nanyang Technological
University undertook a study in 2001 on ‘Managerial Competencies in a Knowledge-based Economy (KBE)
(Rothwell et al., 1999). This study sought the views of HRD professionals in Singapore on the implications
of the KBE on human resource development.

Of particular interest, this study notes that HRD practitioners in Singapore top ten competencies needed
in a KBE as:

1. Adaptability to changes
2. Ability to see the “big picture”
3. Communication skills
4. Visioning skills
5. Knowledge of own strengths and weaknesses
6. Creative thinking skills
7. Relationship building skills
8. Leadership skills
9. Consulting skills
10. Understanding of improvement in human performance.

Mapping these across to the JCS, it is evident that Gay’s instrument for International Managers lacks some
of the competencies viewed by Singaporean HRD practitioners as the most important for a KBE. Most
notably, Flexibility and Creativity – two words that are frequently mentioned in the Singapore press and
for Government officials as being [competencies] that Singaporeans need to develop for the ‘New
Economy’ and the new reality.

SINGAPOREANS ABROAD

Whilst not in the same field of competency research as the others, Tsang (1997) set out to discover what
and how Singaporean companies learn from direct investment in China (FDIs) and from conducting joint
ventures with Chinese companies. His research design involved a sample of 19 Singaporean companies
with business experience in China; he then carried out approximately 80 interviews with Singaporean and
Chinese managers working fro these companies. Tsang also examined meeting records and reports. On
the basis of his data, he concluded that Singaporean companies rarely learn much from their business
links in China, although there was considerable evidence of technological and managerial systems transfer
to the Chinese partners. From the evidence, Tsang inferred a number of reasons

1. Singaporeans felt that their systems were superior to those in China and therefore would learn
little from their Chinese partners

2. There was little transfer of learning back to the parent company because no institutional
structures were set up for this purpose

The interesting conundrum posed here is that whilst anecdotally, Singaporeans need greater exposure to
management abroad, once back in the home organisation, they may not put newly developed
competencies and capabilities to effective use.

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Managerial Effectiveness in Singapore

FINDINGS FROM THIS RESEARCH STUDY

NOTE ON RESEARCH METHOD

The research forums were organised to invite participants already known to the author through previous
business contact. The maximum number of participants in any forum was not to exceed twelve individuals
such that all participants would have the opportunity to relate their thoughts and opinions in the time
allocated.

 Participants were introduced to the forum by the author who established the purpose and
definitions for the discussions.
 For the purpose of mutual understanding and clarity, a manager was defined as: “Someone with
responsibility for: Money; People; Resources, or any combination of these.”
 Participants were asked to consider examples in their experience of a manager who they
considered to be effective and to share what such an individual knows, does or how they do
things that make the participant think they are effective.
 Participants were asked to focus, when possible, on positive attributes of effective managers
over negative aspects of less-effective managers.
 The discussions were then started by the author asking “What do we mean by effective?”
 The sessions were taped in full with the knowledge of the participants and later transcribed and
analysed.

ANALYSIS

The transcriptions from the sessions were subject to content analysis (Remenyi et al., 1998) by two
individuals, the authors, independently. The analysis was not commenced until 3 weeks following the
sessions to preserve as much objectivity as possible. This approach allowed themes to emerge of common
understanding across the sessions and between individuals. The richness of the data was meantime
preserved to use as descriptors of the themes. These are then compared with models from the literature
to identify differences found in emphasis and proposed changes to historical models of effective
management.

The discussions in each session were wide-ranging and required minimal prompting from the facilitator.
Occasionally, participants were asked to clarify their thoughts or provide examples of the behaviour
exhibited in order to ensure understanding. Broadly, discussions developed in three main areas in each
session:

 The essential abilities a manager should have – which may be regarded as threshold
competencies
 Abilities that set managers’ apart – which may be regarded as competencies associated with
more effective performance
 A manager’s reaction to environmental changes – the awareness of the environment and the
flexibility and adaptability to change behaviour in an appropriate way

The analysis shows that the beliefs and opinions of those participating do not fall neatly into any existing
managerial competencies model. Though the behaviours described often share similarities with existing
models as would be expected from groups of individuals already familiar with one or more of the modern
‘accepted thinking’.

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RESULTS

The results of the content and hermeneutical analysis are grouped according to themes that make
intuitive sense and closely resemble similar themes found in the competency literature. Particular
behaviours representing the theme are shown in terms of whether they are perceived by the participants
to be base or threshold behaviours of an effective manager (or the behaviours that a manger could
demonstrate and remain employed as a manager) and those behaviours that appear to demonstrate
more effective managers (those individuals who add value to the company and actively seek to retain).

Descriptor Behaviours Base /

Differentiator
Achievement / Results Achieves the business results (goals, sales targets, financial targets) B
Oriented Completes tasks or targets on time B
Sets own and others’ goals or targets D
Accountability and Shows strong commitment to organisation B
Responsibility Prepared to make tough decisions and see them through B
Help to grow the business and grow with the business (intellectually and B
behaviourally)
Able to stand on own feet to make decisions B
Take accountability and responsibility for decisions made D
Executive Maturity Positive thinker B
Eye for detail B
Resourceful B
Analytical B
Attuned to own potential and limitations B
Prepared to learn from mistakes and open to continuous self-learning B
Unafraid of criticism or feedback B

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Descriptor Behaviours Base /

Differentiator
Cultural Sensitivity Aware of ‘face’ or ‘guan xi’ issues in dealing with people from different races B
Works around cultural barriers
Adopts and adapts the way business is conducted B
Respects different mindsets B
Enjoys mixed cultural environments and working in a ‘melting-pot’ B
Works well with foreigners and locals D
D
Building and Managing Invests time in building both formal and informal relationships B
Relationships Good at identifying others’ strengths and weaknesses B
Earns trust B
Develops and uses skills in influencing, networking and customer satisfaction D
Getting along upwards, downwards and laterally
D
Communication Able to package and present message B
Actively listens to others B
Shows strong interpersonal skills and always ready to understand other’s view B
Team Leadership Recognises, understands and uses team dynamics, social structure, culture, B
strengths and weaknesses
Works and relates well with people around and aligned with the company culture B
and builds consensus
Fits in and wants to belong and contribute B
Open communication style B
Supports and knows where to gain support B
Teaches or coaches others D
Motivates others and inspires team members D

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Descriptor Behaviours Base /

Differentiator
Proactive Self-motivated B
Seek new opportunities to build the business D
Think and act in putting company first D
Deliberately keep an eye on the internal and external environments and act D
quickly to the benefit of the organisation
Independent Plans and organises work B
Manages and coordinates resources available to realise successful achievement B
of goals
Manages own time B
Manages expectations and establishing priorities B
Overcomes crisis, problems D
Is unrestricted in finding new approaches to problems and thinks out-of-the-box D
or creatively
Passion Shows ‘Fire-in-the-belly’, hunger, drive to succeed and add value D
Willing to take risks to help company grow D
Wants to excel D
Focussed energy and drive D
Thrives on challenging self D
Shows perseverance and great resilience D
Adaptability / Quick to adapt to any kind of environment (company culture, different D
Flexibility management styles, faster-paced business cycles
Thrives on challenges, especially during turbulent times D
Adapts to context of internal or external environment and shows ability to adopt D
appropriate personal style to address the situation at the time

COMPARISON WITH OTHER RESEARCH

Looking at the broad cluster of competencies, there are many similarities between the model presented
in this paper and the models developed by other researchers – even though different research
approaches have been used. Dulewicz’s ‘supra-competences (Dulewicz, 1992, Dulewicz and Herbert,
1992, Fletcher and Dulewicz, 1984) (derived from Senior-level managers in the UK) can be recognised and
many of the Hay/McBer Managerial Effectiveness Competencies (McBer, 1997, Rosen et al., 2000,
Spencer and Spencer, 1993) (derived from US new and middle managers) show strong similarities.

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 Managerial Effectiveness in Singapore

Where this research points us, however, is that a reasonable proportion of the behaviours and knowledge
of an effective manager that were once considered to be differentiators are now considered to be base or
threshold. We may take this as signs of the highly educated society in which this research is based and/or
the evolution of the art and science of management has now since our standard expectations.

This research was targeted to understand managers across all levels in Singapore. The Table below shows
the competency clusters identified by Hay/McBer in the US, Dulewicz in the UK (and used subsequently in
two local studies) and the comparatively recent STADA/NTU study – aligning the clusters identified in this
study with these.

It seems that from our study, an effective manager, at any level, should demonstrate behaviours often
previously associated with senior managers and, in particular, behaviours that have been more
traditionally associated with good leadership. Notably, proactive behaviours (to some extent identified as
visioning skills by STADA/NTU) and passion. The latter cluster was identified clearly through the
terminology used frequently during the sessions and goes beyond the leadership qualities usually
associated with managers. The term is more frequently found when describing the more successful CEOs
and entrepreneurs in the press than in academic literature.

Hay/McBer Dulewicz Stada/NTU This Study

Achievement Achievement Achievement /Results
Orientation Motivation Oriented
Developing Others Understanding of Team Leadership
improvement in human
performance
Directiveness Assertiveness & Accountability &
Decisiveness Responsibility
Impact and Influence Persuasiveness Communication skills Communication
Consulting skills
Interpersonal Interpersonal Relationship building skills Cultural Sensitivity
Understanding Sensitivity Communication
Professionalism & Creative thinking skills Independent
Judgement
Organisational Strategic Perspective Ability to see the “big Executive Maturity
Awareness picture”
Knowledge of own
strengths and weaknesses

Team Leadership Leadership skills Team Leadership

Adaptability & Adaptability to changes Adaptability & Flexibility

Resilience
Visioning skills Proactive
Passion

CONCLUSIONS

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Managerial Effectiveness in Singapore

The proposed model shows strong resemblances to other well-established models whilst highlighting
particular differences in that cultural sensitivity, proactivity and passion are not adjunct to but and
integral part of effective management.

The influence of culture cannot be understated within the context of this study. Here we have generously
placed cultural sensitivity alongside interpersonal sensitivity. Rather than allowing (or adjusting) for
cultural differences within managerial competency models, it was clearly understood by all participants in
the research forums, that the ability to work with others, understand them and be sensitive to their needs
and wants, goes beyond recognising these at each individual level, that managers need to be sensitive
and work across cultures, those of a national, racial, religious and organisational nature (Hofstede, 1980,
Hofstede, 1991, Sarawano, 1993, Schein, 1992, Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner, 1993).

The discussions during the sessions though add further emphasis to the dimension of Adaptability and
Flexibility. Granted that the other dimensions are as important, it is the ability of a manager to adapt to
changing situations that our research identifies as being of paramount importance. This reflects the
findings in Sarawano’s (Sarawano, 1993) research ten years ago, though perhaps has a greater urgency for
development as the world moves ever more rapidly through economic cycles and crisis.

As the business world continues to become globalised, economically structured around the knowledge
economy and increasingly subject to the whims of terrorists and nature – adapting to change and
maintaining the flexibility to change according to the situation of the environment and the culture may
indeed prove critical to the manager’s survival.

LIMITATIONS

This research is intended as a first new step in understanding the current role of managers in Singapore
and the behaviours expected of them in being effective. The findings are limited by virtue of the fact that
those individuals participating in the study were already known to the researchers. Those helping us with
their participation may be biased in that they were kind enough to volunteer their participation and
therefore, we presume, interested in the topic.

The facilitation and interpretation of the discussions was undertaken by the authors, who are directly
involved in the business of training managers and may therefore, be assumed to have personal bias that
may have influenced the objectivity of the findings.

FURTHER RESEARCH

The limitations outlined above are partially overcome through the publication of this document – to
which we invite comments and feedback from all participants and any interested party.

After receiving feedback we intend to refine and revise the model such that a suitable instrument may be
developed that may be tested quantitatively for use in Asia.

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Managerial Effectiveness in Singapore

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