Reducing Air Bubble Formation in High Performance Concrete

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PRECAST CONCRETE ELEMENTS

A complex phenomenon
Reducing air bubble formation in high performance

concrete
High performance concretes are increasingly gaining in importance in the concrete industry. Due to their enhanced performance, concrete
products can be designed and manufactured with greater span lengths, thinner cross-sections and less weight. They also contribute to
improving product durability.
However, the rheological characteristics of these extremely compact construction materials also favour the entrapment of air bubbles in the
course of individual production stages (mixing, spreading concrete in formwork). A major part of the air bubbles remain in the matrix even
after compacting. These entrapped air bubbles (whose size ranges between one and several millimetres) are the cause of a reduction in the
products performance values. Lower mechanical strength, less aesthetical facing concrete qualities, greater susceptibility to contamination,
and decreasing durability are the results.
The research work carried out at CERIB was primarily concerned with understanding the mechanisms causing air bubble formation in the
cement matrix. The experimental study consisted in determining the definitive parameters at the time of air bubble formation in high
performance concrete both in relation to the material (concrete admixture, properties of fines, etc.) and also in terms of the manufacturing
process (mixing, spreading the concrete, compaction, oil, formwork properties).
Sylvain Dehaudt, CERIB, France
Patrick Rougeau, CERIB, France
Mechanisms causing air bubble formation

When air bubbles occur in concrete, there
can be three causes: air bubbles that find
their origin in the mix design and the mixing
process itself; air bubbles originating in cement hydration and water evaporation; and
finally air bubbles due to the utilisation of
formwork release agents.
Air bubbles with their origin in mix design
and mixing process
In the case of aggregates, the types that
favour air bubble formation are those that
both exhibit a critical particle size (Dmax <
16 mm), and also possess a greater specific
surface. This means that sands favour the
retention of air. The size of the air bubbles
formed is comparable to sand particle size.
Plasticisers can also be the cause of air bubble formation due to their function as air
entraining agents (like, e.g. older generation
calcium lignosulphonates). This effect probably does not occur so readily with waterreducing younger generation plasticisers
like, e.g. polyacrylates and polyphosphonates.
Air entrained in the mixing cycle through
agitator motion and material movement can
remain entrapped in the mix right up to the
compaction stage. Vibration leads to the air
bubbles not only travelling towards the surface but also towards the interface between
formwork and concrete so that an even
greater formation of air bubbles takes place
at the facing concrete surface. The air volume
also increases with a greater shear threshold
of the fresh concrete. The effect of the vibra114
CPI Concrete Plant International 4 | 2010
tions causes a marked fall in the shear threshold and facilitates the ascent of air to the
surface. The higher the value for spread or
slump may be (or the lower the shear threshold value), the more readily entrapped air
can escape.
Air bubbles generated by water evaporation
During the compaction process, water droplets originating from unused mixing water
in cement hydration can gather at the interface between concrete and formwork.
Once the formwork has been stripped, this
water evaporates but leaves behind voids or
air bubbles.
Air bubbles caused by the utilisation of
formwork release agents
Air bubbles occurring on a concrete surface
can also arise from an excess dosage of
formwork release agent. Most of these
release agents exhibit stable behaviour in
contact with an alkaline water environment.
Even if a minute part does get mixed in with
the interstitial concrete solution, the hydrophobic characteristics of these molecules act
in such a way that this tends to lead to a
reduction in their surface contact with the
water.
The molecules deposit themselves instead at
the water-air interface, i.e. around the air
bubbles. And so that their contact surface
with the water can be lessened still more, air
bubbles surrounded by formwork release oil
molecules have a tendency to fix themselves
to the molecules present on formwork walls,
especially during compaction. When the
formwork is stripped, the thin film of release
oil agent is dislodged and spherical cavities
become visible.
Shape and particularities of air bubbles

in concrete
Air bubbles at a concrete surface can occur
in varying shapes, i.e. as spherical bubbles
or more irregular cavities. Their structure is
essentially dependent on their manner of
formation. In the main, five structures can be
observed as will be presented in the following:
Air bubbles with a spherical structure and
less than 4 mm cross-section
These bubbles are imprisoned in the concrete mass during the mixing process. They
are subsequently set free by the impetus of
buoyancy and vibration. Under the effect of
vibration, they tend to concentrate at the surface where they remain more affixed. As a
general rule, these air bubbles are distributed uniformly. However, strings of bubbles
can occur ending in one air bubble with an
enlarged cross-section and irregular shape.
This air bubble structure can be explained
by a progressive discharge and concentration of smaller bubbles at the surface which
have become blocked on encountering a
build-up of fines in their ascent.
Coarse air bubbles with a cross section
(>5 mm) and irregular shape
These bubbles mostly possess an elongated
or croissant-type shape and their cross-section varies between 5 and 10 mm. They are
generated through the accumulation on vertical surfaces of numerous smaller air bubbles that have been blocked by an amassment of fine aggregates. These air bubbles,
which have been partially covered by
cement slurry, become visible when the formwork is stripped.
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Sylvain Dehaudt gained his doctorate in civil engineering and was subsequently employed for three years as research director at a French precaster.
Since 2004, he has been engaged at CERIB (Centre dEtudes et de Recherche
de lIndustrie du Bton), the French concrete industry research centre. He has
specialised in the field of new concrete types: self-compacting concrete, high
performance concrete, ultra-high performance concrete, fibre-reinforced concrete
plus the utilisation of ultra-fines, cement and binding agents in improving facing concrete surfaces in concrete products.
s.dehaudt@cerib.com
Patrick Rougeau is engineer for construction materials and gained his doctorate in the durability of concrete in storage facilities for radioactive waste.
He possesses 18 years experience in the domain of R&D concerning construction
materials with a hydraulic binding agent base, new types of concrete (high
performance concrete, self-compacting concrete, ultra-high performance
fibre-reinforced concrete) as well as their durability (performance-oriented
approach, modelling of probability processes). Within the research and innovation management
team at CERIB, he is responsible for the construction materials department.
Cavities with an oblong structure

The structure of this type of air bubble is reminiscent of a network of
mining galleries, which can attain a length of up to 50 mm but are
not very wide (2 to 3 mm). They usually originate in the utilisation of
an excess dose of formwork release agent that has accumulated at
the surface.
Air or water pockets
These are flat shaped or roundish. Their width is greater than 50 mm
and can attain rather conspicuous sizes of 150 up to 200 mm when
pockets of air or flushing water in formwork sections are being dealt
with whose shape does not facilitate their evacuation.
Quality at its Best

Prestressed concrete elements made by the
best quality casting machines available
Irregularly shaped cavities

These cavities occur only up to a certain depth (5 mm) but are often
of considerable size (10 to 15 mm). They arise in concrete of high
strengths whose compaction has not permitted the elimination of such
bubbles by the time the formwork is filled.
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Methods of analysing air bubble formation
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A new procedure has been developed that makes a more precise

quantification of air bubble formation possible so that the parameters
influencing manufacturing (materials and processes) can be investigated. The analysis is carried out with the aid of a video microscope
which permits the test samples to be photographed in a glancing
light. This video microscope is equipped with image processing softwww.cpi-worldwide.com
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The development of methods for the quantitative analysis of air bubble

formation in concrete has progressed very little. These procedures
are generally based on comparative visual observations. They are
expressed in terms of the percentage of a surface containing air bubble
formations and enable a diagnosis to be determined at the facing
concrete surface using an air bubble free concrete as a reference
yardstick according to standardised specifications. The photographs
reproduced in fig. 1, taken from the French standard NF P 18-503
pertaining to the characteristics of concrete surfaces and facings and
which have also been adopted in the manual Prefabricated facing
concrete components, can serve as a yardstick for average air bubble formation at a concrete surface. This means of measurement can
be used for determining an acceptable level of air bubble formation
in the precast concrete components in question. A scale with 7 levels
is utilised for average air bubble formation; level 3, for example, corresponds to average air bubble formation amounting to 2% of the
total surface; level 5 corresponds to 3% and level 7 equals 10%.
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Fig. 1: Scale of average air bubble formation according to French NF P 18-503 standard
pertaining to the characteristics of concrete surfaces
Fig. 2: Digitalisation of a photo for
determining air bubble formation
Air bubble distribution can be represented by the number of air bubbles in relation to their diameter in order to be able
to ascertain the most appropriate air
bubble category (fig.3) or else in relation to their surface distribution so as to
determine the predominant air bubble
category with regard to the surface
affected by air bubbles (fig.4).
The surface affected by air bubbles

represents the total air bubble surface
on the photos surface (in the order of
25 cm2).
With each test sample analysed (prismatic

test item), the average surface affected by
air bubbles is calculated using upwards of
16 photos for each face amounting to a
Number of air bubbles by category
ware, whose principle is based on a digitalisation of a photographic image (fig.2) and

the subsequent delimitation of the perimeter
of each individual air bubble something
that allows the surface of each one of them
to be calculated. An evaluation of the images
can then be undertaken either in terms of air
bubble surface proportions or in terms of air
bubble size distribution.
Diameter (mm)
Air bubble distribution in relation to

surface affected by air bubbles
Fig. 3: Quantitative distribution
Diameter (mm)
total of 400 cm2. A repeatability study carried out several times with the same photographic images enabled the exactitude of
measurements assisted by video microscope
to be calculated at 0.5%.
Experimental study
The objective of the experimental study carried out was to quantify more precisely the
impact of each of these parameters on air
bubble formation at facing concrete surfaces
made from high performance concrete. The
first stage consisted in defining a production
process that could serve as reference and
in verifying the processs repeatability for
generating air bubble formation at facing
concrete surfaces. In the second stage, a
variation was made to one parameter at a
time in order to be able to quantify the
effect of differing factors on air bubble formation. For the first stage, three identical
high performance concrete test mixes
were produced (tab.1) following the different phases in the manufacturing procedure
and quantification method for air bubble
formation. The standard deviation calculated for the three test mixes amounted to
0.5% in respect of absolute value at an average value of approximately 5% for the surface affected by air bubbles (fig.5). The
expanded value of uncertainty for surface
air bubble formation incorporating the
manufacturing process and the statistical
recording method for the air bubbles is 1%.
In the second stage, the influence of the
concrete mix composition, the mixing cycle,
spreading and compacting the concrete,
the formwork material and also the release
agent was investigated.
Influence of mix design on air bubble
formation
Mix design parameters were investigated,
such as the relationship Weff/C, the charac-
Fig. 4: Distribution related to surface
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Surface affected by air bubbles (%)

Tab. 1: Composition and properties of the
high performance concrete test reference
mix
Test mix
Fig. 5: Facing concrete surface with air bubble formation for 3 high performance concrete test
reference mixes
Tab. 2: Modification of the parameters of the high performance concrete test mix composition
teristics of the coarse aggregate or of the

additive, the type of ultra-fines plus the
addition of air bubble inhibiting additives
(tab. 2).
Slump
Influence of the mixing process

on air bubble formation
Mixing time is a criterion directly correlated
with economic efficiency, particularly because it influences the amount of energy
consumed during the production of concrete
and also, in part, determines manufacturing
output. An optimum cycle time would feature
the most rapid mix homogenisation possible
whilst simultaneously maintaining the rheological and mechanical properties of the
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Any reduction of air bubble formation attained by increasing the proportion of water,
the utilisation of sand or filler containing
hydrated lime in slurry form, a phonolithic
additive or an admixture with polyacrylate
base is significant as it is greater than the
uncertainty factor in the test measurements.

The modifications brought about in the mix
composition make it possible to reduce air
bubbles at the concrete surface perceptibly
(fig.6). Of course, modifications to the mix
composition also have an impact on the
behaviour of concrete in its fresh state. It
can be observed that an improvement in
workability or a reduction in entrained air
coincides with a decrease in air bubbles at
the facing concretes surface (figs.7 and 8).
Fig. 6: Air bubble formation in relation to modifications

in the mix composition
Entrapped air(%)
Fig. 7: Influence of slump on the entrapped air
Speed
Slump
Addition of additives
Mixing for fluidisation
Addition of water
Dry premixing
Mixing for
homogenisstion
Trockenvormischung
Fig. 8: Air bubble formation in relation to flowability
Mixing cycle
Fig. 9: Mixing cycle adjusted for air bubble reduction in a planetary

mixer
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material. Differing mixing cycles with modifications to both mixing speeds and times
were investigated on a planetary mixer and
a high-energy mixer. The efficiency of these
cycles was examined by measuring the
homogenisation times, the rheology and
the air bubble formation of the concrete.
The results of these investigations demonstrated clearly that the mixing cycle must be
adapted to mixer type and mix design. As
a general rule, a reduction in air bubble formation can be attained by optimising the
mixing sequence. This should also lead to
improvements in rheological properties
(enhancing flowability and reducing viscosity) whilst also limiting the phenomenon of
air entrainment. As a consequence, it is
recommended that high performance concretes with great viscosity are not manufactured by means of intensive mixing process
at high rotational frequency with unsuitable
agitators that do not possess infinitely adjustable speed regulation.
Figure 9 shows a mixing cycle adjusted for
a planetary mixer with a view to minimising
air bubble formation in high performance
concrete. Dry premixing with slightly moisturised aggregates has to take place in all
cases. The admission of water must be carried out in such a manner that dispersion
and homogenisation can be accomplished
as rapidly as possible. Admixture dispersion
should also be made as homogeneously as
possible. It is therefore recommended that
water and additives should be injected into
the mixer from several delivery points. From
the time when the additives start to react,
the mixing speed can be raised to improve
their efficiency. The mix material then passes progressively from a zero slump consistency to a paste state. At this stage, it is
necessary to lower the mixing speed to
avoid entrapping air. The last stage in
mixing (homogenisation), inline with the termination of plasticity generated by admi-
xing, has to be undertaken at reduced speed

so as to facilitate the discharge of air bubbles
from the concrete.
Influence of concrete spreading
and compaction
The parameters investigated in this section
mainly concern the manner of filling formwork during concreting (in one or two layers) plus the influence of the compacting
process (frequency, duration and acceleration).
The first tests were carried out with a frequency and duration identical to the standard test mix.
Test R1 consists in filling the formwork
with a single layer of concrete so that
the concrete is deposited in one shot.
Compacting begins as soon as the
formwork is completely filled.
Test R2 consists in filling the formwork in
two layers. The first layer is poured by
letting the concrete spread in the formwork under its own weight. At mid-formwork height, this first layer of concrete is
vibrated at a frequency of 40 Hz for 15
to 20 seconds. The second concrete
layer is deposited in the same way and
subsequently compacted.
Minimal air bubble formation at the concretes surface was observed for the test
reference filling with the one layer filled with
concrete under its own weight in the formwork (tab. 3).
This result can be explained by the two following phenomena:
A certain amount of air was trapped at
the interface between the two layers
during filling; the air that had been
imprisoned in this way caused an
increase in surface air bubble formation.
With regards to concretes with great
coherence, like high performance con-
Tab. 3: Air bubble formation at the concretes surface as a function of the filling method
Tab. 4: Air bubble formation at the concretes surface in relation to vibration for self-compacting high performance concrete
118
Tab. 5: Rate of air bubble ascent in relation

to bubble radius in a 100 mm formwork
crete, the material in the formwork can

be set in motion by the vibration. A convective movement (rotation of the concrete in the formwork) can mostly be
observed in the concrete rather than
compaction.
The second series of tests was carried out
with variations in the frequency and duration
of the vibration. These tests provided evidence that, on its own, increasing vibration
frequency or duration was not sufficient to
reduce air bubble formation (tab. 4). By
way of contrast, the air bubble formation
observed could be reduced by a longer
vibration time period (60 s) in conjunction
with an augmentation in frequency (80
Hz). This result also corresponds to recommendations advocating the utilisation of
high frequency compaction processes of
between 90 and 150 Hz for improving the
visual surface aspect of fluid-plastic concretes. This lengthening of vibration time and
increase in frequency coincides with the
speed of ascent of small diameter air bubbles to the concretes surface. The rate of
air bubble ascent is greater with increasing
cross-section size (tab. 5).
As a consequence, it is recommended that
the formwork be filled in one layer to avoid
imprisoning air in between successive layers of concrete if the product being manufactured only has thin wall thickness. Filling
the formwork should be carried out at one
time and in a continuous motion with the
concrete spreading under its own weight.
The duration of the vibration must be adapted to products thickness and the materials
viscosity.
Influence of the formwork release agent
The foremost function of formwork release
agents is to reduce the adherence between
formwork and concrete in order to facilitate
stripping the product. The application of this
agent modifies the reactivity of the formwork in relation to the concrete in a major
way. The type and nature (or the characteristics) of a release oil play an important
role in selecting a release agent. Besides
the necessary formwork releasing properties, the release agent must also guarantee
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that high-quality facing can be attained i.e. that it exhibits great
homogeneity and is free from air bubbles. Not including the specific features bound up with the application of a release agent and of
aspects linked to hygiene and health, any considerations concerning the choice of release agent must be subject to the following criteria:
the characteristics of the formwork (steel, wood, polymer, etc.),
the number of times it will be reutilised and the state of the
formwork surface;
the consistency of the fresh concrete: a lean, fluid oil that is rich
in solvents should be utilised for a dry concrete; a higher viscosity
oil is preferable with concrete of greater fluidity;
the characteristics of the aggregates: certain calcareous
aggregates absorb some amount of the release agent;
the temperature: in winter products are employed with a lower
viscosity than in summer;
stability at high temperatures during thermal post-treatment of
the precast concrete components concerned.
This means that the performance values required from formwork
release agents are dependent on their field of application which
needs absolutely to be defined before any particular release agent
is selected.
There are the following categories of release agents:
products with a hydrocarbon base: mostly mixes of petroleumbased solvents, of mineral oil, tensides and antioxidants;
water-in-oil emulsions
inverted water-in-oil emulsions
waxes in paste or liquid form mostly of petroleum origin
all other products such as chemical deactivators, greases, paraffins, vaselines (silicone pastes or greases), varnishes or diverse
emulsifiers.
Oils, greases, waxes and paraffins have been employed for a very
long time as release agents due to their lubricant properties and for
protecting the formwork surfaces. Release oils are often complex
products and generally consist of a base oil, solvents and additives.
The base oils can be of plant origin (natural triglycerides, rape,
soya, sunflower) of mineral origin (paraffin, naphthenic or naphthenic-aromatic mineral oil) or synthetic (synthetic hydrocarbons,
organic ester, polyglycol, silicone oils, etc.):
vegetable oils are natural, easily bio-degradable triglycerides
that possess good lubricating properties;
mineral oils originate primarily in crude oil distillation
(petrochemical origin);
synthetic based oils are obtained by chemical synthesis processes (addition, polymerisation, esterification) from components
derived from organic chemistry.
In the course of formwork stripping operations, a decrease in the
friction processes at the formwork/concrete interface is either achieved by a chemical reaction or by a physical reaction or by a combination of both reactions. The chemical reaction is marked by a
saponification effect between the acids issuing from the release
agent and the alkali components of the concrete. The physical reaction corresponds to the creation of a film at the interface of formwork and concrete. The films thickness will depend on the wetting
angle between the oil and the formwork. If the angle of departure
equals zero, then the oil will spread out onto the surface of the formwork (Fig.10).
120
In contact with the concrete (that contains water), the release agent
must exhibit a small wetting angle and more hydrophilic characteristics
but still simultaneously maintain its non-adhesive properties between
the formwork and the concrete. The hydrophilic characteristics of
release oils can be outlined by the term, surfactant (surface tension
active). The surfactants contained in certain release agents are composed of amphiphile molecules i.e. they possess two different chemical affinities simultaneously (Fig.11):
one part is lipophilic, mostly aliphatic chains, illustrated in fig.11
as an elongate side chain;
another part is hydrophilic, in most cases a cation or an anion,
illustrated as a spherical structure
The tests carried out on these oils (fig.12) show that the phase separation speed decreases with increasing HLB value i.e. the better the
oils can be mixed with water. Moreover, this development is not
dependent on the type of oil (vegetable or synthetic base, or emulsion). With oil-in-water emulsions, the phase separation speed is
practically zero i.e. these oils are stable in the presence of water.
Testing was then continued with a similar batch of high performance
concrete but employing different release oils with lower or higher
HLB values. The mineral oils were not tested as their industrial utilisation has become increasingly restricted. Tab. 7 highlights the
capacity of oils belonging to the oil-in-water emulsion category of
both a vegetable and synthetic base in terms of a reduction of air
bubble formation. The miscibility of these oils with water is confirmed
by their greater HLB values and separation speeds of zero phases.
For water-in-oil emulsions, the reduction in air bubble formation is
less pronounced and is probably dependent on oil properties. Fig.
13 illustrates the development of average air bubble formation at
the concretes surface. It demonstrates clearly the relevance of the
miscibility test in characterising an oil in relation to the reduction in
potential air bubble formation.
Influence of formwork characteristics
The interface potentially generated by a release agent between
concrete and formwork must exhibit the following properties:
Prevent any sort of adherence between material and formwork
Avoid stabilising air bubbles against the surface of the formwork
Hydrophilic
component
Lipophilic
component
Fig. 10: Wetting angle between release oil and formwork
Partial wetting
Full wetting
Fig. 11: Schematic illustration of a surfactant (surface tension active

substance)
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Tab. 6: Oil types and the HLB values of the reference oils
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Certain pure vegetable oils have a tendency to amplify formwork
contamination phenomena, particularly if cleaning work has not
been carried out correctly. The formwork release agent can also be
the cause of air bubble formation. In this case, a solution to the problem not requiring formwork release agent can be advantageous.
The very nature of certain materials makes it possible to prevent any
adherence between the formwork surface and the concrete, i.e. that
no chemical bonding can occur between the formwork surface and
the cement paste in the course of the hydration process. As a result
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Surface tensions for metal formwork have heightened values found

between 400 and 4,000 mJ/m. On the other hand, formwork
made from plastic materials are mostly composed of hydrophobic
polymers and possess only low surface tension (50 mJ/m2). A
distinction can be made between four categories of polymers: thermoplastics, polymers or thermosets, elastomers or rubber products,
and biopolymers.
Three different formwork compositions were investigated. Their
major properties and characteristics, especially their surface tension
values, are given in table 8.
Phase separation speed (mm/min)
For each category, one formwork was manufactured whose interior

could lined with metal formwork (Fig.14). In order to be able to investigate the surface tension properties of this formwork, no release
agent was employed in the case of polyurethane. The release oil
agent utilised for the metal formwork was the reference oil (oil 6).
The highest average air bubble formation at the concretes surface
was measured with polyurethane formwork. However, the figure is
considerably lower than in the case of the metal formwork and
coming close to the results with the silicone formwork (tab. 9). In the
HLB value
Fig. 12: Phase separation speed in relation to HLB value

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Seite 122
Tab. 7: Air bubble formation at the concretes surface in relation to oil properties
High air bubble formation
Phase separation speed (mm/min)
Average air bubble formation at surface

HLB value
Low air bubble formation

Average air bubble formation
at surface (%)
HLB-value
Fig. 13: Average air bubble formation at the concretes surface in relation to the HLB value
and phase separation speed
test carried out with the polystyrene formwork, a facing concrete surface could be
obtained that was free from air bubbles.
Conclusion
Air bubble formation in differing types of
concrete and here, specifically, in high performance concrete is a complex phenomenon. From a mix design viewpoint, high per-
formance concretes are more fastidious

than normal concretes. They necessitate a
considerably greater number of mix components and an especially adapted manufacturing process in respect of mixing, spreading and compacting the concrete. The
experimental study carried out at the CERIB
enabled a method to be developed for
quantifying air bubble formation based on
a procedure for analysing pictures.
It was then possible to quantify the influence

of each individual process parameter on
the formation and stabilisation (or lack of
the same) of the air bubble networks at the
surface of concrete products.
The following main conclusions could be
drawn from this:
The characteristics of the mix are the most
important parameter with high performance concretes in regards to a reduction
in air bubble formation. An increase in processability, i.e. a decrease in shear limit and
viscosity leads to a marked decline in air
bubble formation of a magnitude of 60%
in the context of this study. This improvement
in processability can also be obtained by
slightly raising the proportion Weff/Binder
(with the concurrent disadvantage of a
reduction in mechanical performance and
poorer durability), but particularly by utilising an especially adapted plasticiser plus
an ultra-fine lime (perhaps in the form of
slurry) or phonolite additive.
The characteristics of the oil employed with
steel formwork is the second major parameter in reducing air bubble formation. The
selection of a suitable oil with regard to this
problem is made more difficult by the product diversity currently available on the
market. Evidence was provided by the tests
carried out that concrete surfaces with very
Tab. 8: Characteristics and properties of the formwork
122
12.07.2010
8:02 Uhr
Seite 123
BASED
ON
AutoCAD
Fig. 14: Formwork made from polystyrene, silicone and polyurethane
CAD - Software
for precast
concrete parts
Tab. 9: Average air bubble formation at the concretes surface in relation to the material
characteristics of the formwork
carried out that concrete surfaces with very

little air bubble formation could be attained
by using oils of the category oil-in-water
emulsions that exhibit a raised HLB value
(Hydrophilic Lipophilic Balance). Since the
HLB value, which characterises the affinity
of water to oil, is not always given on the
technical data sheet, a miscibility test was
devised in order to be able to determine
this property.
The characteristics of the formwork material,
as with the characteristics of the oil, is also
a key element in lessening surface air bubble formation. Preference should be given
to formwork with hydrophobic properties.
Formwork manufactured from silicone, polyester and polyurethane can be cited as
examples here. By way of contrast to formwork made from silicone and polyester,
polyurethane formwork mostly requires the
application of a specially adapted stripping product. In all three cases, when compared to a metal formwork, a reduction of
approximately 60% in residual air bubbles
could be registered.
The mixing cycle has to be adjusted to the
type of mixer. Cycle optimisation is first and
foremost a matter of adapting the mixing
speed in order to facilitate the plasticisers

dispersion and action. Then, after the fluidisation stage, the mixing speed has to be
lowered and the mixing time shortened so
as to avoid air entrainment and encourage
air bubble discharge.
Preference should be given to high performance self-compacting concrete with
regard to spreading and compacting the
concrete. A uniform flow of material into the
formwork makes it possible to avoid entrapping air during spreading work. For specific
reasons and subject to an examination of
the concretes homogeneity and the absence of segregation, light vibration can be
applied in order to lower the shear limit as
well as to facilitate uniform flow and the
ascent of air bubbles to the concretes surface. Vibration also allows air bubbles to
be discharged at the surface when the
material is in a cohesive state. Compaction
frequency has to be optimised.
Based on this data, a methodology for guiding producers in their decision-making
was devised by means of which high performance concrete products can be created
with the minimum of air bubbles. This aid
can be employed equally well in diagnosing
Highly automated 3D Design

Software for AutoCAD
Solid walls Double walls
Insulating walls Sandwich walls
NEW: Prefabricated facades
Solid slabs Lattice girder slabs
Hollow core slabs
Straight stairs Winding stairs
Columns Beams
IDAT GmbH
Dieburger Strae 80
64287 Darmstadt | Germany
Fon +49 6151 7903-0
www.idat.de
12.07.2010
8:02 Uhr
Seite 124
Moulds
for Precast elements
Industrial Buildings
0%
# 1 %
#2%
# 3 %
#4%
# 5 %
#6%
# 7 %
Civil Buildings
Fig. 15 : Proportion of air bubbles in percent
the probable causes of air bubble formation in an existing product

and in identifying any measures needed for improving the properties of facing concrete (Fig.15, proportion of air bubbles for diagnostic purposes).
Bridges and Viaducts
SRL
Via G. Di Vittorio, 42 - Fornovo di Taro (Parma) - Italy

Tel: +39 0525 400511 Fax: +39 0525 400512
info@bianchicasseforme.it
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Reducing Air Bubble Formation in High Performance Concrete

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