section 3.

4 Resistance & Propulsion

source: Woud
Chapter 3

3.4.1 Hull Resistance

2

R := c1 v s

physics

PE := R
R v s

PE = effective_power

(3.1)
(3.2)

defined

(3.3)

PE c1 v s

substitution

( )

c1 := y c0 v s

physics

(3.4)

y = f( fouling , displacement_variations , sea_state, water_depth)

essentially time and operations

(3.5)

speed dependency of c1 .... nondimensional resistance coefficient

CT :=

R
1

defined

CT = non_dimensional_total_resistance

Asv s

As (ship surface area) not readily available, so use volume proportionality ...
PE

CE :=

Vol v s

= Vol

since

PE

CE :=

Ro :=

CE:=

2
3

v 3
s

vs
g Le
k

dimensional analysis, physics

9/7/2005

(3.8)
3

(3.9)

(3.11)

Fr = froude_number
defined

CE = f v s , , fouling , Hull_form, sea_state, water_depth

PE := R
R v s

(3.10)

Ro = non_dimensional_roughness

Len

PE

v s

Re = reynolds_number

Fr :=

CE = f( Re , Fr , Ro, Hull_form, external_factors)

v sLen

(3.7)

PE

Vol
Vol v s

Re :=

Vol :=

CE

As ~ Vol^2/3

defined

CE = specific_resistance

(3.6)

PE c1 v s

c1 :=
1

PE
3

vs

(3.12)

and from (3.8)

PE := v s C
CE
1

c1 :=

PE

c1 CE

vs

(3.13)

shows dependency of P E on speed and displacement

PE := v s C
CE

e.g. if CE and v s are assumed constant ... a change in from nominal changes effective power
2
3

P
PE :=
E_nom
nom
3.4.2 Propulsion

(3.14)

need to deliver thrust T to overcome

resistance R at speed vs

PE := R
R v s

(3.2)

N.B. I am assuming one

propeller. Woud uses k p =
number of propellers.

power delivered by propeller in water moving at v A

PT := Tvv A

defined

PT = thrust_power

(3.15)

Thrust deduction factor

required thrust T normally exceeds resistance R for two main reasons:
propulsor draws water along the hull and creates added resistance
conversely, the advance velocity is generally lower that the ship's speed, due to operating in the wake
t = thrust_reduction_factor = difference_between_thrust_and_resistance_relative_to_thrust
t :=

TR
T

=>

R := (1 t) T

T :=

defined

R
1t

(3.16)

"The term thrust deduction was chosen because only part of the thrust produced by the propellers is
used to overcome the pure towing resistance of the ship, the remaining part has to overcome the added
resistance: so going from thrust T to resistance R there is a deduction. The term is somewhat
misleading since starting from restance R the actual thrust T is increased." page 55

Wake fraction
propeller generally in boundary layer of ship where velocity is reduced; v A is then < vs
w :=

vs vA
v s

w = wake_fraction

defined

(3.17)

w = difference_between_ship_speed_and_advance_velocity_in_front_of_propeller_relative_to_v s

"(Note that as a result of the suction of the propeller, the actual water velocity at the propeller entrance is much
higher than the ship's speed: the advance velocity, however is equal to the water velocity at the propeller disc
area if the propeller would not be present In other words it is the far field velocity that is felt by the propeller
located in the boundary layer of the hull.)" page 56
thus ...

9/7/2005

v A := (1 w) v s

Hull efficiency

redefine

with these two factors the thrust power does not equal

the effective power. The ratio of effective power to thrust

power is defined as the hull efficiency.
R
R

T :=

v A := (1 w) v s

1t

Propeller efficiency
Po := Q p
since ...
o :=

H :=

H :=

R vs
R

T v A

PE

(3.18)

PT
1t

(3.19)

1w

to deliver the required thrust at a certain ship's speed, power must be delivered to

the propeller as torque Q and rotational speed p.

defined

p := 2nn p
PT

defined

Po
o

(3.20)

Po = open_water_power
Po := Q
p

Po 2 Q n p

o = open_water_efficiency

1
2

vA

(3.21)

Qn p

"In reality, i.e. behind the ship, the torque Mp and thus the power delivered Pp actually delivered to the propeller

are slightly different as a result of the non-uniform velocity field in front of the propeller." page 58

PNA vol II page 135 says: " Behind the hull, at the same effective speed of advance V A, the thrust T and revolutions
T
T
VA
(34)

n will be associated with some different torque Q, and the efficiency behind the hull will be B :=
2nQ

The ratio of behind to open efficiencies under these conditions is called the relative rotative efficiency, being given

by

B :=

T
T VA

o :=

2nQ

T VA
T

R :=

2nQo

B
o

Q
Q
o

(35)

Thus we define P p as power delivered. (per propeller)

Pp := M p
p

(3.22)

Pp 2 M p n p

and ... the ratio between open water power and actually delivered power is
Po
o
Q
R :=
R
Pp
Mp

Propulsive efficiency

D :=

PE
PD

(3.23)

combining all these effects .. looking forward to design/evaluation at model

(open water) scale

defined

rewriting ...
D
=

D =

effective_power
power_delivered

PE

for kp = 1

(3.24)

Pp

PE PT Po
PE PT Po

Pp PT Po
PT Po Pp

using definitions of efficiency from above ...

H =

PE
PT

1 t
1w

o :=

PT
Po

R :=

Po

D := H o R

Pp

(3.25)

9/7/2005

D :=

1t

1 w
o R

(3.26)

Actuator Disk

VA, p0, D0

stream tube
assume: propeller is a disk with
diameter D and area A

VA+v, D1
p0

frictionless
no rotation - upstream or downstream
model propeller as thin "actuator disk"
causing instantaneous increase in
pressure

actuator disk A

pressure in
stream tube

A1 , D1 , VA + v

D , A, V
(10.1)

Thrust = T = Ap
continuity ...
m_dot

VA = constant

= VAA0 = V A = VA + v A1

V
2
2
D0 =
D
VA
D0 :=

V
VA

D1 =

D1 :=

VA + v

T :=

D1

T simplify

VA + v

V D v

D0

(10.3a)

(force = mass flow * delta velocity)

(10.4)

VA

using (10.3a) above

p+

now using Bernoulli equation

on both sides of the disk (a force is applied at the disk)

(10.2)

(10.3)

)2 A0VA2

VA + v

T = A1 VA + v

VA D0 = V D = VA + v D1

_in_momentum = thrust_on_disk = T = m_dotout VA + v m_dotinVA

9/8/2006
9/8/2006

D0 , A0 , VA

1
2

(10.5)
2

v = constant

p+

ahead ...

1
2
2
V = p 0 + VA
2
2
p =

subtract ahead from aft ...

1
2

VA + v

A :=

T := A p
T :=

D v 2 VA + v

2 VA + v

p :=

1
4

1
2

v 2 VA + v

)
v
V := VA +
2

from which ...

D VA +

(10.6)

V D v

so ....

1
2

2
V = p 0 + VA + v
2
2

now using (10.1) and equating to (10.5)

)2 VA2 = 2 v (2 VA + v)

(VA + v)2 VA2 simplify

result ...

(10.5)

p + p +

aft ...

v v

T :=

D
D VA +

v
2

(10.9)

define a thrust loading coefficient ...

CT :=

T
1

D VA
2
4
Given

CT 2 VA +

substitute (10.9)

CT = 2 VA +

1
2

Find( v )

V 2
A

VA

1
2

a quadratic in v

V 2
A

(10.10)

1
1

2
2

( 1 ) + ( 1 + CT)
( 1 ) ( 1 + CT)

taking only positive root

VA
I = ideal_efficiency =

I :=

with ...

9/8/2006
9/8/2006

T VA
T V

= ( 1 ) + 1 + CT

)2

useful_work_from_disk
work_done_on_fluid_by_thrust_per_unit_time

VA
VA + v

PT
Padded

T VA
T V

uses relationship for V above (10.9)

(10.11)

v := VA ( 1 ) + ( 1 + CT)

I :=
1+

1 v

2 VA

(10.12)

simplify

1 + 1 + CT

create plot with loading

0

1
CT := 2
3

i := 0 .. 4

I :=
i

0.828
I = 0.732
0.667

0.618

2
1+

1 + CT
i

as shown in PNA

0.5

CT

Observations: 1). Propeller at high load coefficient C T

2).

3)

9/8/2006
9/8/2006

I :=

1
1 v
1+
2 VA

for given thrust T,

efficiency maximum when v small

=>

less efficient

1
4

D VA +
2

1
2

v v

v small => D large => propeller

diameter large

Propeller Testing
Screw propeller replaced paddle wheel ~1845 in Great Britain (vessel) - Brunel
In test;
independent variables are
velocity of advance
VA
shaft rotation speed
n (rev/sec), N (rev/min)
dependent variables are:
torque
Q
thrust
T
i.e. we build a propeller, rotate it a a given speed in a given flow and measure thrust and torque
(at this point - conceptually - not practical at full scale)
are considering propeller in general, no ship present, => open water
velocities relative to blade:

VA
VR
2**n*r=*n*d

VA

*n*d

test at given n, vary VA, measure thrust (T), torque (Q) and calculate efficiency ( )

Q
T
o

Q
T

o
typical performance curve at
given rotaion speed, note zero
efficiency at VA = 0 and T = 0

VA
Obviously, testing at full scale impractical, hence use model scale and apply to geopmetrically similar propeller.
Expect performance to depend on:

VA velocity of advance

D diameter of propeller

n rotational speed

fluid density

dynamic viscosity ( =/ = kinematic viscosity

p - pv pressure of fluid (upstream static pressure) compared to vapor pressure

9/8/2006

First non-dimensionalize: using n and D

KT :=

Thrust

KQ :=

Torque

J :=

advance_velocity

T
2

n D
Q
2

VA
n D

Reynold's number based on diameter:

ReD :=

nominal cavitation index (presure)

N :=

DVA

p pv
1

VA
2

dimensional analysis would show:

n D

KT = f J , ReD , N

KQ = f J , ReD , N

Typical propeller: fully turbulent, hence only weakly dependent on Re D

deeply submerged, N not influential, hence:
KT = f( J)

KQ = f( J)
substituting the above coefficients ...

recall open water efficiency efficiency

o :=

T VA

2n Qo

1
2

KT

J
KQ

o :=

KT

2 KQ

so now we test a model scale propeller ~ 12 inches diameter measuring thrust and torque and plotting
non-dimensionally: (10 * K Q is used for similar scales, K Q has extra D when non-dimensionalized)

10*KQ 10*KQ
K T KT

J=VA/(n*D)

9/8/2006

ref: PNA pg 186 ff

Propeller Series Testing

Early series done by Taylor, Gawn, Schaff, NSMB

For design purposes NSMB became standard

NSMB = Netherlands Ship Model Basin; now MARIN Maritime Research Institute Netherlands

first series designated A were airfoil shapes had some cavitation

revised shapes to avoid cavitation:

widened blade tips

circular section near tip

airfoil near hub, etc.

designated B series see figure 48 in PNA for geometry

Propeller pitch
Pitch = distance moved along axis of propeller by an imaginary line parallel to the blade chord line for
one rotation of the blade
- unyielding fluid - chord defined as line between nose and tip

P/(2)

tan( ) =

usually non-dimensionalized by D

P
2 r

P
D

r
typically use at r =0.7*R if variable

D = D( r) = D( radius)

B series is family of curves of open water performance at model scale for numbers of blades and area ratio
Blade area ratio AE/A0

Number of
blades Z

.
.
.
.
2 0.30 .
3 . 0.35 .
. 0.5 .

. 0.40 .
. 0.55
4 .
5 .
.
. 0.45 .
.
6 .
.
.
. 0.5 .

.
.
.
. 0.55

7 .

0.65

0.80

0.70

0.6

0.75

0.65

0.80

0.7

0.85 .

above performance curve (K T, KQ, vs. J shown for particular number of blades, P/D A E/A0

member designated as: B.5.50 =>

B series

5 blades

0.50 area ratio

This introduced Expanded area ratio =

consider section along cylindrical surface at radius r using helix of pitch P

flatten helix

rotate to show cross section at radius r

9/8/2006

0.85 . 1.0

.
1.05

sum expanded section over radius = expanded area of blade * number of blades Z =
expanded area
EAR (Expanded area ratio) = Expanded area / disk area

EAR =

Expanded_area
disk_area

AE
D

can also express developed area and projected area

see hydrocomp report

Troost published a set of these curves in "notebook"

later Oosterveld and Van Oossanen published a set of curves based on an empirical curve fit
ref: "Further Compiuter - Analyzed Data of the Wageningen B-Screw Series", International Shipbuilding
Progress, Volume 22

P AE
t
KT = f1 J, ,
, Z, Rn ,
c
D A0

P AE
t
KQ = f2 J, ,
, Z, Rn ,
c
D A0

and ....

the coefficients for Re = 2*10^6 without t/c in the fit are listed in Table 17 page 191 of PNA

corrections for t/c and Re can be added later

this provides a set of curves as indicated. e.g.

regression coefficients Re=2*10^6

P_over_D := 0.6

plot for B.5.75 for single value of P/D

38

Kt( J , P_over_D) :=

n= 0

EAR := 0.75

a JsKtnP_over_DtKtnEARuKtnzvKtn
n

46

Kq( J , P_over_D) :=

n=0

(J ,
P_over_D) :=

Kt( J , P_over_D)
2

trust_power
propeller_power

J
Kq( J , P_over_D)

T VA
Q 2 n

n =

revolutions
second

1 n 2D4D

2
VA
Kt J
T
=

Q
1
Q 2 n
2 4
2n
2 Kq

n D D
T
VA

9/8/2006

z := 5

b JsKqnP_over_DtKqnEARuKqnzvKqn
n

we have some data problem with polynomials as they calculate some values beyond real data (K T <0)
(J , P_over_D) := if ( Kt( J , P_over_D) > 0 , ( J , P_over_D) , 0 )
Kt(J , P_over_D) := if ( Kt( J , P_over_D) > 0 , Kt( J , P_over_D) , 0)

correct first - before Kt

is made positive definite

eliminate negative segments - make

positive definite

Kq(J , P_over_D) := if ( Kq( J , P_over_D) > 0 , Kq( J , P_over_D) , 0)

plotting constructs

EAR := 0.75

z := 3

P_over_D := 1.2

1.5
1.4
1.3

Kt, 10*Kq,efficiency (eta)

1.2
1.1
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0

0 0.13 0.25 0.38 0.5 0.63 0.75 0.88 1 1.13 1.25 1.38 1.5 1.63 1.75 1.88 2

Advance ratio J=VA/(n*D)

9/8/2006

Plot for P/D = 1.4, 1.2, 1.0, 0.8, 0.6 calculated using regression relationships

z := 3

B_series

EAR := 0.75

1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1

Kt, Kq*10, efficiency

1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

Advance Ratio J=VA/nD

9/8/2006

1.1

1.2

1.3

1.4

1.5

1.6

these notes are landscape

as plots are usually shown in
that mode

Using KT and KQ for design

we have seen in general the development of the Wageningen B series. The performance curves are available either in chart form or can be generated from
polynomials:
regression coeff. Re=2*10^6
polynomial representation

use in design
A typical design problem calls for designing a propeller that will provide the required thrust at a given speed of advance. These parameters result

from applying thrust deduction and wake fraction to resistance and ship velocity respectively. Design will imply selecting a P/D from a B-series

plot that will maximize open water efficiency.

For now we will arbitrarily pick a number of blades and expanded area ratio. Later we will address the criteria in their selection. Reviewing the
non-dimensional forms of the parameters associated with thrust and speed:
VA
T
we have independent variables n and D. Normally one of these is determined by other criteria, e.g. maximum diameter
KT =
J=
2 4
n D
by hull form, or n by the propulsion train design, so we will look at two cases, one in which D is fixed - determine n,
n D
and the other where n is fixed determine D

case 1

VA , T, D

given:

find n and P/D for maximum efficiency

only thing unknown is n, eliminate ... from ratio of K T and J

Kt
2

T
2

n D

n D

D VA

VA

Kt_over_J_sq :=

T
2

D VA

this says that propeller (full scale and model) must match this ratio which is a constant determined by T,
VA, D and
we can plot a curve of KT vs J2 and determine the points (values of J) for which K T vs J for a given P/D
match.

the design point for a particular propeller (B.n.nn) i.e. n is determined from the value of J that satisfies:

9/12/2006

Kt( J) = constant J

for example, let

Kt_over_J_sq := 0.544

what n i.e. J will satisfy the relationship for a B 5.75 propeller with P/D -1.0

Kt_design ( J) := Kt_over_J_sq J

z := 5

select using B_series

EAR := 0.75

P_over_D := 1.0

determine intersection

1
0.9

0.8

Kt, Kq*10, efficiency

0.7

0.6

0.5
0.4

0.3

Kt
10 * Kq
efficiency
Kt = constant*J^2
intersection

0.2

0.1

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.1

1.2

1.3

Advance Ratio J=VA/nD

intersection occurs at

9/12/2006

JJ = 0.64

so ...

n=

VA
JJ D

where VA and D are known as described above

1.4

1.5

1.6

selection of the optimum n for this B z.EAR propeller is a matter of comparing similar curves for a range of
P/D and choosing the maximum open water efficiency o
z=5

B series

say ....

EAR = 0.75

1.4
1.2

P_over_D := 1.0
0.8

0.6

1
0.9
0.8

Kt, Kq*10, efficiency

0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.1

Advance Ratio J=VA/nD

busy plot of Kt, Kq, o and Kt = constant * J^2. see breakdown below. P/D not labeled but ~ J at Kt = 0

9/12/2006

1.2

1.3

1.4

1.5

1.6

intersection solution

plot with only Kt but vertical lines at J for Kt/J^2 = Kt to show points which satisfy the design requirements
1

0.9

0.8

0.7

Kt, efficiency

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.1

1.2

1.3

1.4

1.5

1.6

Advance Ratio J=VA/nD

P/D = 0.6
9/12/2006

P/D = 0.8

P/D = 1.0

P/D = 1.2

P/D = 1.4

note the o at each J intersection and select the maximum (P/D curves not well labeled, P/D ~ = J at K T=0. left to right lowest to highest
1
0.9
0.8

Kt, efficiency

0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.1

1.2

1.3

1.4

1.5

1.6

Advance Ratio J=VA/nD

P_over_D = ( 1.4 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 )

Plot for P/D =

this case appears to have maximum at

so ...

9/12/2006

n=

VA
J_ans D

J_ans = 0.64

calculated using regression relationships

P_over_D_ans = 1

( J_ans , EAR , z, P_over_D_ans) = 0.61

where VA and D are known as described above

case 2

VA , T, n

given:

find P/D and D for maximum efficiency

only thing unknown is D, eliminate ... from ratio of K T and J

Kt
4

T
2

n D

n D

VA

Kt_over_J_4 :=

this says that propeller (full scale and model) must match this ratio which is a constant determined by T,
VA, n and

VA

T
2

we can plot a curve of KT vs J4 and determine the points (values of J) for which K T vs J for a given P/D

D VA
for example, let

match.

Kt_over_J_4 := 0.544

Kt_design( J) := Kt_over_J_4 J

select using B_series

z := 5

EAR := 0.75

the design point for a particular propeller (B.n.nn) i.e. n is determined from the value of J that satisfies:

since the process is identical to case 1, only the final result is shown

intersection solution

9/12/2006

Kt( J) = constant J

note the o at each J intersection and select the maximum (P/D curves not well labeled, P/D ~ = J at K T=0. left to right lowest to highest)
1
0.9
0.8

Kt, efficiency

0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.1

1.2

1.3

1.4

1.5

1.6

Advance Ratio J=VA/nD

T

P_over_D = ( 1.4 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 )

Plot for P/D =

this case appears to have maximum at

and ...

9/12/2006

D=

VA
J_ans n

J_ans = 0.74

calculated using regression relationships

P_over_D_ans = 1

where VA and n are known as described above

(J_ans , EAR , z, P_over_D_ans) = 0.67

Propeller Design (Detail Stage)

To this point we have developed the K T vs J2 (J4 ) design approach. Most references present the series data in
alternative format. One version is curves of constant efficiency and 1/J on a scale of P/D vs B P1 or P/D vs
Kq1/4*J -5/4. These are due to D. W. Taylor plotting the series data using B P which we will define later. The best
description of use of the forms of the charts I found was in PNA, page 159 Propulsion and Propellers Section 10:
Propeller Design, by Karl Schoenherr. The following is excerpted from the text:

The procedure in using these charts depends on the nature of the problem to be solved; that is, on which
data are known and which are unknown. In general, propeller design problems belong to one of the
following categories:
1. Preliminary Design.
a. Given: The designed speed of the ship, the corresponding ehp and the propeller diameter .Required:

The propeller pitch and the rpm for best efficiency.

b. Given: The designed speed of the ship the corresponding ehp and the engine rpm. Required: The

propeller pitch and the propeller diameter for best efficiency.

2. Final Design.

Given: The ehp curve as a function of the ship speed, the propeller diameter, and the power output of

the engine at the designed rpm.

Required: The propeller pitch, the efficiency and the ship speed obtainable under the given conditions.

3. Analysis.

Given: The propeller dimensions, the ship speed, power, thrust and rpm.

Required: The true slip, wake fraction and thrust deduction.

The KT vs J2 (J4 ) design approach we have done to date is directed at 1. Preliminary Design. At this stage,
the power required is determined based on a reasonable first estimate of propeller efficiency determined with
this approach. The propulsion plant is then sized accordingly. The propulsion plant may have discrete
incremental sizes and thus may not exactly match the first estimate exactly. The ship design proceeds,
perhaps a new resistance (close to preliminary design) etc, is obtained and then Final Design takes place. At
this point, PD (power delivered) to the propeller is known. It may not match (exactly), the preliminary estimate,
hence the V s
may be different.
Taylor selected two parameters for plotting information for design work:

BPn = N * P1/2 /VA5/2

where N = rpm, P = power delivered (hp) ( = Q*2**N) and VA = speed of

advance (kts), n = number of blades

and ..

BUn = N * P1/2 /VA5/2

where N = rpm, U = useful power (hp) ( = T*V A) and VA = speed of advance

(kts), n = number of blades

These are not non-dimensional but Taylor thought that was ok "since propellers work in water of practically
constant density, which will be taken care of by the constants used". S&P page 100
This motivated NSMB to present the data on plots of P/D vs K Q^1/4*J^(-5/4) = B P^1/2* constant which can be
shown to be equivalent as follows:
1

KQ J

9/13/2006

see B_series_units_US.mcd
1

= 0.17279 BP

P in hp
n in RPM
VA in kts

similarly, not
developed here...

KQ J

= 1.75 BP

P in hpUK
D in ft
VA in kts

1
5

1
4

KQ J

Q VA
=
2 5 n D
n D
4

PD = Q 2 n

lbf ft

PDhp550
2

hp s
2 min
=
rpm

2
5
2
sec
ft
sec

60

2 lbf 4 VA kt1.688 sec kt

min
ft

in lbf

ft

BP =

2.5

VA

1
5

1
4

KQ J

2
=
rpm
( V kt) 5

PDhp

removing units
:= 1.99

P n2
D
550

5
sec
V
5 2
2 lbf
A
1.688 60

4
ft

1
4

= BP

another approach which accommodates other

units for P D, VA and n is shown in

= 0.1728

5 2
2 1.688 60
550

1
2
PD n
=

5

V 2
A

B_series_units_conversion.xmcd

regression coeff. Re=2*10^6

details

these are fixed;

form of plot shown in PNA: P/D vs Kq1/4*J -5/4. Curves are constant and
1/J. These are derived from the same data as our previous K T KQ curves.

EAR 0.40

z4

1.4

1.2

P/D

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

Kq^1/4*J^-5/4
9/13/2006

0.5

2n

n PD

PD

Q =

sec

1.2

1.4

another form of the same information

conversion of Kq1/4*J -2.5 to BP. note

constant
efficiencies
2

absi , j

bp1 :=
i, j

0.17279

abscissa is log scale

158.871

1
= 601.6889
139.697
J
= 124.652 nn =
112.533

102.562

EAR = 0.4

z=4

0.5

0.55
0.6
0.65

0.7

higher to right

= 0.7
1.2

= 0.65

1
P/D

= 0.6
= 103
= 0.55

0.8

= 112
= 0.5
= 125
0.6

= 140
= 159
0.4

10

100

BP1

an example of use of these curves ...

say we have a design such that:
n P D

BP1 :=

VA

PD := 16000hp

100
min

VA := 16knot

0.5

2.5

BP1 = 12.353

0.5

hp

BP_ans := BP1

2.5

min knot

9/13/2006

n :=

v_line := 0.5 , 0.6 .. 1.5

we will plot that vertical line on the curves and determine the maximum efficiency, P/D and

= 0.7

1.2

= 0.65

P/D

= 103
0.8

= 112

= 125

= 0.6
= 0.55

0.6

= 140

= 0.5
= 159

0.4

10

100

BP1

it appears that for the max is

0 := 140

0 := 0.67

P_over_D0 := 0.98

approximately

n D

VA
ft

D :=

min knot

0 VA
n

let's say the diameter is limited to 20 ft by another constraint

n D1

ft
min knot

D = 22.4 ft

D1 := 20ft

V A

1 :=

ft
min knot

1 = 125

then the best situation is

1 := 0.65

P_over_D1 := 1.25

approximately

N.B. The shape of the developed curves is generally OK. I'm not completely confident in the exact values. The
validation is not as close as I would like.

9/13/2006

PROPELLER NOTE BOOK

B S E R I E S PROPELLERS

Definition:'

Series

No.

E x p a n d e d Area: R a t i o ,
Percent

o f Blades

Notation:

P/D = Pitch/Diameter

T = Thrust,

Ibf

Q = Torque,

I b f ft.

p = Mass d e n s i t y ,

1.9905 l b f s /ft

n = R o t a t i o n a l speed,

revs/s

D = Maximum d i a m e t e r ,

ft.

VA = V e l o c i t y o f advance,

ft/s

Cavitation Notes

ref: PNA pages 181-183

handout

p 0 = uniform_stream_total_pressure

p 1 = pressure_at_arbitrary_point

V0 = uniform_stream_velocity

V1 = velocity_at_arbitrary_point

q=

V0 = dynamic_or_stagnation_or_ram_pressure

p0 +

V0 = constant
2

p 0 := constant

1
2

V0

Bernoulli

p 1 := constant

1
2

V1

for propeller immersion, measured at radius r, minimum p 0 is obtained from ...

p a = atmosphere

p 0 = p a + gh gr

h = shaft_centerline_immersion

gr

V0 estimated as (VA^2+(*r)^2)0.5

if p1 => pv = vapor pressure, cavitation occurs

L = local_cavitation_number =

define:

accounts for minimum when r vertical up

p a + gh gr p v

2 2
2
V + r

2 A

and if pressure REDUCTION / q

>= L cavitation occurs

early criteria (Barnaby) suggested limiting average thrust per unit area to certain values (76.7
kN/m2 = 10.8 psi) for tip immersion of 11 in increasing by 0.35 psi (unit conversions don't
match up)
76.7

kN
2

= 11.124 psi

earlier PNA (1967) stated Barnaby suggested 11.25 psi

can calculate pressure distributions around blade so can calculate local cavitation situation
early in propeller design, want blade area to avoid cavitation (more blade area, less pressure

per unit area for given thrust)

Burrill ((1943) "Developments in Propeller Design and Manufacture for Merchant Ships",

Trans. Institute of Marine Engineers, London, Vol. 55) proposed guidance as follows:

limit thrust (coefficient) to a certain value depending on cavitation number at the 0.7 radius

c = coefficient_expressing_mean_loading_on_blades

T = thrust

c =

= water_density

AP

1
2

AP = projected_area

VR

VR = relative_velocity_of_water_at_0_7_radius

can estimate projected area from

AP
AD

= 1.067 0.229

P
D

from Taylor S & P page 91 P/D

from 0.6 to 2.0 elliptical bladed
prop, hub = 0.2 D

and as usual ...

T=

PE
( 1 t) V

PE

D = quasi_propulsive_coefficient =

PD

this parameter is plotted versus

:= 1.0259 10

= 1.99057

0.7 =

VA + ( 0.7 n D)
2

(1 t) V

VA + 4.836( n D)

PE = effective_power

PE = RTV

H =

cavitation number at 0.7*r using relative velocity at

0.7*r and pressure at CENTERLINE

m
VA =
sec

188.2 + 19.62 h
2

D=m

C :=

c + 0.3064 0.523
0.0305

0.2

0.2

n = sec

units in PNA (61)

approximation SI
pv apparently ~
0.69 psi (90 degF)

C = cavitation %

0.0174

example numbers

0.2

:= 0.4 c := 0.2

C :=

c( C , ) := C 0.0305

0.2

0.2

c as above

at 0.7 radius as
above (centerline
immersion)

for C <= 25 (%) or so

c + 0.3064 0.523
0.0305

or ...

h=m

in US units

Carmichael correlation

:= 0.1 , 0.11 .. 2

1t
1w

2026 + 64.4

0.7 =

RT = T( 1 t)

= H R o

VA + 4.836 ( n D)

PD = delivered_power

slug

ft

p 0 + gh p v
1

PD D

0.7

3 kg
3

C = 8.88

% cavitation

0.0174

0.0174 + 0.523

0.2

0.3064

see plot below

this can be carried further

into ...

c =

1
2

AP =
1

VR C 0.0305
2
2

T
0.2

AP

VR

= C 0.0305

0.0174 + 0.523

0.2

0.3064

0.2

0.0174 + 0.523

0.2

0.3064

Ap = minimum_area_for_specified_cavitation

c(30, )
c(20, )
c(10, )
c(5, )
c(2, )

0.1
0.1

Carmichael correlation valid only for C <= 25 %. 30 % shown to indicate over estimates
compared with fig 45 page 182 of PNA
for example from prop_design_notes
T := 278000lbf

derived above

VA := 14kt

rpm := min

kt := 1.688

p 0 = 14.696 psi

n := 218rpm

ft
s

p v = 0.694 psi

D := 15ft
P_over_D := 0.8

0.7 r =

p 0 + gh p v
1
2

:=

h := 10ft

VA + ( 0.7nD)

188.2 + 19.62 h
2

VA + 4.836(n D)

2
2
VA + ( 0.7nD)

consider % cavitation in steps of 5%

D=m

h=m

m
VA = 7.203
D = 4.572 m
s

p 0 + gh p v
1

m
VA =
sec

188.2 + 19.62 3.048

= 0.179

7.203 + 4.836( 3.633 4.572)

C := 5 , 10 .. 25

0.5

h = 3.048 m n = 3.633

= 0.179 using SI
approximation

VR := VA + ( 0.7n D)

n = sec

m
VR = 37.234
s

1
s

AP( C) :=
1
2

AP

0.2
0.2
VR C 0.0305
0.0174 + 0.523
0.3064
2

AD

= 1.067 0.229

P
D

assume AD ~ AE

AP( C)
AE( C) :=
1.067 0.229 P_over_D
cavitation %
C =

estimated minimum EAR to avoid

AE( C)

AE( C) =
=

2
D
23.045 2
m

4
18.48

AP( C) =
20.367

5
10
15
20
25

16.333

13.632

15.425

1.404

11.698

13.236

1.126

10.245

11.592

0.94
0.806
0.706

supercavitating c to the left. very low

cavitation % is 100
h = 3.048 m

D = 4.572 m

m
VA = 7.203
s

n = 218

m
VA := 10
s
0.7 r =

2
2
VA + ( 0.7nD)

:=

c( C , ) := C 0.0305

0.2

0.7nD = 167.573

p 0 + gh p v
1
2

to avoid 25% cavitation

0.7nD = 36.531

min

n := 1000rpm

p 0 + gh p v
1

VA + ( 0.7nD)

m
s
m
s

= 8.8 10

C := 25

0.0174 + 0.523

0.2

0.3064

c( C , ) = 0.243

off the scale hence

supercavitating propellers
correlation not valid but
trend is ok

Waterjet

first draft 9/23/04 from Prof. Carmichael notes.

9/17/06: modified to reflect w (V=>VA) and separate inlet
and outlet pressure loss (in addition to drag) to reflect paper

VA

velocity inlet

w
Vs
Vj

wake fraction
ship velocity
nozzle (outlet) velocity

Vj

VA := Vs(1 w)

T = m_dot VJ VA

m_dot = mass_flow_rate

VA
p local = p atmos + g d

at inlet centerline ...

1
1
2
2
p oin = p local + VA = p atmos + gd + VA
2
2

at this point ... total pressure (pitot tube)

pressure at inlet to pump ...
total pressure (pitot tube) ...

1
2
p op = p oin g(d + h) = p atmos gh + VA
2

pressure at pump exit... total

pressure (pitot tube) ..

1
2
p oj = p atmos + Vj
2

total pressure increase

across pump ...

1
1
2
2 1
2
2
p oj p op = p atmos + Vj p atmos + gh VA = Vj VA + gh

2
2
2
p oj p op

energy rise across the pump

per unit mass flow is ...

power absorbed by ideal pump is

therefore ...
ideal efficiency is then ...

i =

i =

PTi

D =

Ppi

PTi
Ppi

T VA
Ppi

V VA
2 j
1

Ppi = m_dot

p oj p op

+ gh

1
2
2
= m_dot Vj VA + g h

and quasi propulsive coefficient is ...

effective_power
power_delivered

PE
Ppi

R Vs
PPi

m_dot VA VJ VA

1
2
2
m_dot Vj VA + g h

(1 t) T Vs

PPi

2 VA VJ VA
2

Vj VA + 2g h

1 t PTi
1 t T VA
1 t

1 w PPi
1 w Ppi
1 w
i

2 VA VJ VA
2

Vj VA + 2g h

VJ

2
=

VA
2

Vj
gh
V 1 + 2 2
A
V

 VJ

if h = 0

VA

i =

Vj
1
VA

same as propeller (we

developed following in
actuator disk

2
Vj
VA

+1

from actuator_disk.mcd using new variables to avoid duplication

v := VVj VVA
v
VV := VVA +
2

I :=

T VVA
T V

simplify 2

VVA
VVA + VVj

what are implications of

VVj = VVA ?

I =
1+

VVj
VVA

h cannot be negative (would be ducted prop, h limits efficiency

Real waterjet with losses

net thrust of waterjet

Tnet = T Draginlet

conventional drag coefficient

Cd =

CD =

Drag
1
2

drag coefficient of inlet

T = m_dot Vj VA

v A
Drag

1
2

v A

Drag
1
2

VAAVA

Drag
1
2

m_dotVA

Vj

1
1
Tnet = T Draginlet = m_dot Vj VA CD m_dot VA = m_dot VA
1 CD
2
VA
2

net thrust

1
2 Vj
PT_net = TnetVA = m_dot VA
1 CD
2
VA

net thrust power

delta p across pump must be increased to account for losses ...

we'll assume separate inlet and outlet losses

assume internal losses are ... ~ 1/2**v^2

and the pump pressure rise is ...

non-dimensional pressure loss coefficient is ....

and the real pump pressure rise is ...

p loss = p in_loss + p out_loss

p in_loss
Kin =
1
2
VA
2

Kout =

p out_loss
1
2

Vj

1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
p oj p op = Vj VA + gh + p loss = Vj VA + gh + Kin VA + Kout Vj

2
2
2
2
2
V 2
Vj
j
g h

p oj p op = VA
1 + 2
+ Kin + Kout
VA
2
2
VA
VA

ideal pump power is ...

Ppi = m_dot

define p such that

p =

p oj p op

Ppi

2
V 2
Vj
g h
j

= m_dot VA
V 1 + 2 2 + Kin + Kout V
2

A

V
A

Pp = actual_pump_power

Pp

Vj
m_dot p oj p op
1 m_dot VA Vj
g h
Pp =
=

=

V 1 + 2 2 + Kin + Kout V
2

p
p
p

A

V
A

PPi

real =

PT_net
Pp

Vj

1
1 CD
2
VA

m_dot VA
=

Vj
g h

1 m_dot VA Vj

1
+
2

+
K
+
K

out V
in
VA

2
2
p

A

VA

for a different form ... multiply numerator and

denominator by (V A/Vj)^2 ...

Vj

1
1 CD
2
VA

2 p
real =

2 p
=

Vj
Vj
g h
V 1 + 2 2 + Kin + Kout V

VA

and substitute for VA/Vj ...

real =

VA
Vj

VA

1 VA
CD
Vj
2 Vj

VA
VA
g h
1
+ 2
+ Kin

+ Kout
2

Vj

Vj

Vj

1
2 p ( 1 )
CD
2

Kin 1 + 1 + Kout + 2

g h
Vj

1
2 p ( 1 )
CD
2

1 + Kout 1 Kin + 2

g h
Vj

and the quasi propulsive coefficient

is then ..
Vj

1
1
2 p
1 CD
2 ( 1 )
CD
V
2
1t
1t
2
A

D =

=

2
2
2
g h
1w p
1w p
1 + Kout 1 Kin + 2
Vj
Vj
g h
2
V 1 + 2 2 + Kin + Kout V
Vj

VA
as from above ...

1
2 Vj
net thrust power
PT_net = TnetV = m_dot VA
1 CD
2
VA

first some comments to relate to previous lecture/notes version and Wrtsil paper

with Kout = 0 (N.B. this just means lumping all the pressure losses into a factor of 1/2* *VA^2 and

accounting for a drag increase due to the inlet ...

Vj

D =

1t
1w

1
1 CD
2
VA

2 p
p

this is the form previously

Vj
g h
1 + 2 2
+ K

VA
VA

and ... with CD = 0 and assuming h = 0 (i.e. head loss is small compared to other terms ...
this is the form in the paper with
D =

1t
1w

2 ( 1 )
2

1 + Kout 1 Kin

Kout = = nozzle_loss_coefficient

at this point, assuming K, C D, and p are constant, could differentiate wrt V j/VA (or

) and determine V j/VA for max propulsive coefficient, but minimum weight usually

pump background (Wislicenus)

example

p out_loss
1
2

Kin = = inlet_loss_coefficient

determines parameters.

Kout =

Vj

p in_loss
Kin =
1
2
VA
2

First Law

Sept 2005: changes reflect text: Woud

Sept 2006: added examples
first law: during any cycle a system undergoes, the cyclic integral of the heat is proportional to the cyclic
integral of the work
pg 83 van Wylen & Sonntag Fundamentals of Classical Thermodynamics 3rd Edition SI Version

1 dQ = 1 dW

first law for cycle

(5.2)

The net energy interaction between a system and its environment is zero for a cycle executed by the system.
pg 2 Cravalho and Smith

1 dQ 1 dW = 0

where integral are cyclic and dQ = Q dW = W

plot data

Pressure Volume plot for Processes

2.5

1.5

0.5

0.5

1.5

2.5

v
A process

B process

C process

1 dQ = 1 dW

apply first law to cycle A B

apply first law to cycle A C

subtract A C from A B
rearrange ...
1

1 dQ_WB = 1 dQ_WC

dE = Q W
9/21/2006
9/21/2006

1 dQA + 1 dQB = 1 dWA + 1 dWB

1 dQA + 1 dQC = 1 dWA + 1 dWC

1 dQB 1 dQC = 1 dWB 1 dWC

i.e. Q - W is a point function ... only dependent

upon the end points => define as ...

energy, point function

first law for system (Woud: Closed system) - change of state

rearrange and integrate ...

Q1_2

Q = dE + W

Q1_2 = E2 E1 + W1_2

E1

N.B. Woud starts with rate

equation and obtains this
assuming steady state

is the heat transferred TO system

E2

W1_2

are intial and final values of

energy of system and ...

(5.5)

is work done BY the system

energy E consists of internal energy + kinetic energy + potential energy

E = U + KE + PE

dE = dU + dKE + dPE

Closed System

(5.4)

Q = dE + W = dU + dKE + dPE + W

and first law can be restated ...

d
U = Q_dot W_dot
dt

dU = Q W

m_dote = m_doti = 0

(W 2.3)

d and : VW&S: page 62 Woud page 11

d = differential of point functions state variables
= differential of path functions - amount depends on
path/process: diminutive
see discussion of cyclic process below

difference between d and

cycle may be considered a closed system; initial state and final state are identical, For example (detailed

discussion later)

set up limits and calculations

p-v plot of Brayton cycle

6

pressure

volume
adiabatic compression
heat addition
adiabatic expansion in turbine
heat rejection

closed (cycle)

d
U = 0 = Q_dot W_dot
dt

Q_dot = W_dot

Qcycle = Wcycle

(W 2.6)

this is where we started above using

different approach to first law

9/21/2006
9/21/2006

example 5.3

Sonntag example 5.3: vessel with volume 5 m 3 contains 0.05 m 3 of saturated liquid water and 4.95 m 3 of
saturated water vapor at 0.01 MPa. Heat is added until the vessel is filled with saturated vapor. Determine Q.
3

V := 5m

State 1:

Vvap := 4.95m

MPa := 10 Pa

Vliq := 0.05m

p := 0.1MPa

v f := 0.001043

constant volume and

mass => constant v

steam tables at p =
0.1 MPa

v g := 1.694

State 2:

V2 = V

v = vg

u g := 2506.1

kg

Q1_2 = E2 E1 + W1_2

first law:

Vliq
vf

V = m v n
n

mass1_liq = 47.9386 kg

x 1 :=

x = quality( of_steam)

Vap H2O

page 616
kg Sonntag

kJ

u fg := 2088.7

kg

Q1_2 = U2 U1

kJ
kg

Liq

H2O

V = 0

z = 0

E=U

Vf
massf =
vf
mass1_vap :=

mass1_vap

Vvap

mass1_vap = 2.9221 kg

v g

x 1 = 0.0575

mass1_vap + mass1_liq
4

U1 := mass1_liqu f + mass1_vapu g

1 Q2

kJ

u = ug
W1_2 = 0

have volume, determine mass of each

mass1_liq :=

u f := 417.36

kg

kJ := 10 J

U1 = 2.7331 10 kJ

x%1 := x 1 100

x%1 = 5.7453

intensive property = not dependent on

mass (x, v, u, )
extensive does (U, V, mass)

or ... using average specific properties

u 1 := u f + x 1 u fg

u 1 = 537.3611

kJ
kg

U11 := u 1 mass1_vap + mass1_liq

U11 = 2.7331 10 kJ

which can be shown by ...

U1 = mass1_liqu f + mass1_vapu g

u g = u f + u fg

mass1_liqu f + mass1_vapu g

u 1a =

mass1_liq + mass1_vap

mass1_liq u f + mass1_vap u f + u fg
mass1_liq + mass1_vap

9/21/2006
9/21/2006

u fg = 2.0887 10

3 kJ

kg

3 kJ

u g u f = 2.0887 10

substitute for u g

) = (mass1_liq + mass1_vap) uf + mass1_vap ufg = u

mass1_liq + mass1_vap

f + x 1 u fg

kg

state 2: need 2 properties, e.g. quality = 100%, can

calculate v (specific volume). T and p will be rising as heat

is added.

mass_total := mass1_liq + mass1_vap

v 2 :=

v 2 = 0.0983

mass_total

and ... is saturated vapor so we need to look up

(interpolate) steam tables for v g = v2

kg

my_interp( x2 ,
x1, y2, y1, vx) := y1 +

vx x1
x2 x1

(y2 y1)

an interpolation statement
v is value between x1 and x 2

result is y at v

could use mcd function linterp(vx,vy,x) where:

vx is a vector of real data values in ascending order.

vy is a vector of real data values having the same number of elements as vx .

x is the value of the independent variable at which to interpolate a result. For best results, this

should be in the range encompassed by the values of vx .

using Table A.1.1

vg

ug
3

values at 1
values at 2

T1 := 210

v 1g := 0.10441

u 1g := 2599.5

kg
3

T2 := 215

v 2g := 0.09479

pg
kJ

u 2g := 2601.1

kg

p 1g := 1.9062MPa

kg
kJ

p 2g := 2.104MPa

kg

vx := v 2

interpolated values at

T2 := my_interp v 2g , v 1g , T2 , T1 , vx

p 2 = 2.0317 MPa

u 2 = 2.6005 10

p 2 := my_interp v 2g , v 1g , p 2g , p 1g , vx
u 2 := my_interp v 2g , v 1g , u 2g , u 1g , vx
total internal energy at state 2:

3 kJ

kg
5

U2 := mass_total u 2

Q1_2 := U2 U1

heat added ...

T2 = 213.1717

U2 = 1.3226 10 kJ

Q1_2 = 104933 kJ

same result can be obtained using Table A.1.2 Pressure Tables

my_interp( x2 , x1, y2, y1, vx) := y1 +
p

ug

vg
3

values at 1

p 1g := 2.0MPa

v 1g := 0.09963

v 2g := 0.08875

kg

u 1g := 2600.3

kJ

u 2g := 2602.0

kJ

values at 2

9/21/2006
9/21/2006

p 2g := 2.25MPa

kg

kg

kg

vx x1
x2 x1
T

(y2 y1)

T1 := 212.42
T2 := 218.45

vx := v 2

interpolated values at

T2 := my_interp v 2g , v 1g , T2 , T1 , vx

T2 = 213.1529

p 2 = 2.0304 MPa

u 2 = 2.6005 10

p 2 := my_interp v 2g , v 1g , p 2g , p 1g , vx

u 2 := my_interp v 2g , v 1g , u 2g , u 1g , vx

Q1_2 := U2 U1

heat added ...

kg
5

U2 := mass_total u 2

total internal energy at state 2:

3 kJ

U2 = 1.3226 10 kJ

Q1_2 = 104933 kJ

example 5.3

first law as a rate equation

Q1_2 = E2 E1 + W1_2 = U2 U1 + KE2 KE1 + PE2 PE1 + W1_2

from above ...

Q = U + KE + PE + W

in small time interval t

divide by t

U
t

KE
t

PE
t

W
t

d
d
d
d
d
d
d
Q = U + KE + PE + W = E + W
dt
dt
dt
dt
dt
dt
dt

first law as a rate equation

(5.31 and 5.32)

first law as a rate equation - for a control volume (Woud: system boundary)
Q1_2 = E2 E1 + W1_2

=>

Q
t

E2 E1
t

+ W

(5.38)

= energy in control volume at time t

Et
Et_t

= energy in control volume at time t +dt

E1 := Et + eimi

E2 := Et_t + eeme

= the energy of the system at time t

= the energy of the system at time t +dt

system consists of control

volume and differential entities
mi each with ei, vi, Ti, pi
where i = input
and differential entities me
each with ee , ve , Te , pe where
e = output

E2 E1 Et_t + eeme Et eimi

eeme eimi

9/21/2006
9/21/2006

E2 E1 = Et_t Et + eeme eimi

(5.39)

represents flow of energy across boundary during t as a result of

mi and me crossing the control surface

now consider work associated with masses mi and me

work done ON mass mi is ...

p iv imi

ON as work must be done to make it enter

system

work done BY mass me is ...

p ev eme

BY as leaving represents work done

work done BY system in t is then ...

divide by t and substitute into first law ... (5.38) and combining and rearranging
Q

mi
t

Et_t Et

ei + p iv i =

e + p v = u + pv +

me

ee + p ev e +

Wc_v

E2 E1
t

H = U + p V
+ g z

+ W

(5.38)

(5.42)

+ g z = h +

(5.41)

W + p ev eme p iv imi

(5.43)
h = u + p v

enthalpy defined - is
a property (5.12)

therefore ...
2
2

E
W
Vi
Ve
me
t_t Et
c_v
+
hi +
+ g zi =
+
he +
+ g ze +

2
2
t
t
t
t

mi

mi

me

and

(5.44)

are summed over all inputs and outputs ...

example 5.4

Sonntag example 5.4 a cylinder fitted with a piston has volume 0.1m3 and contains 0.5 kg steam at 0.4 MPa.
Heat is transferred until the temperature is 300 deg_C while pressure is constant
What are the heat and work for this process?
3

V1 := 0.1m
T2 := 300 deg_C

quality =

mtot := 0.5kg
p := 0.4MPa

mass_of_vapor
total_mass

v f := 0.001084

kg

v g := 0.4625

v 1 = v f + x v fg
constant pressure
Q1_2 = E2 E1 + W1_2

9/21/2006
9/21/2006

1x=

an intensive property

=x

I think by definition, steam = water + vapor at quality = x

3
V1
m
=>
v 1 :=
v 1 = 0.2
mtot
kg

kg
x :=

v fg := v g v f
v1 vf

v fg = 0.4614

kg

x = 0.4311

v fg

W1_2 = p V2 V1 = p mtot v 2 v 1
E2 E1 = U2 U1

as V^2 and z = 0

mass_of_liquid
total_mass

E2 E1 = U2 U1 = mtot u 2 u 1

Q1_2 = E2 E1 + W1_2 = mtot u 2 u 1 + p mtot v 2 v 1 = mtotu 2 + p v 2 u 1 + p v 1

h f := 604.74

kJ
kg

h fg := 2133.8

Q1_2 := mtot h 2 h 1

kJ
kg

h 1 := h f + x h fg

h 1 = 1.5246 10

3 kJ

kg

Q1_2 = 771.0904 kJ
3

Table A.1.2 Saturated Steam Pressure Table

v 1 = 0.2

kg

W1_2 := p mtot v 2 v 1

W1_2 = 90.96 kJ

Q1_2 = E2 E1 + W1_2 = U2 U1 + W1_2

U2 U1 = Q1_2 W1_2 = Q1_2 p mtot v 2

v 1

U := Q1_2 p mtot v 2 v 1

9/21/2006
9/21/2006

U = 680.1304 kJ

example 5.4

kJ
kg

Table A.1.2 Saturated

Steam Pressure Table

v 2 := 0.6548

h 2 := 3066.8

kg

first law as a rate equation - for a control volume

d
Qc_v +
dt

Vi
d
m_dot

h
+
+
g

i i
i = Ec_v +
2

dt

Ve
(5.45)
d
m_dot

h
+
+
g

e e
e + Wc_v
2

dt

this is where Woud starts

W_dot

system boundary

m_dote, ve, he
Q_dot

z = elevation

Q_dot = heat_flow

i = inlet

W_dot = work_flow

ze

e = exit

m_dot = mass_flow
v = velocity

m_doti, vi, hi

m, U

m = mass_system

h = specific_enthalpy

U = internal_energy_system

zi

First law: change of energy within the system equals the heat flow into the system, minus the work flow delivered
by the system, plus the difference in the enthalpy, H, kinetic energy E kin and potential energy Epot of the entering
and exiting mass flows.
assuming energy

E = U + Ekin + Epot

and ...

Ekin = Epot = 0

Ve
Vi
d
U = Q_dot W_dot + m_doti h i +
+ g zi m_dote h e +
+ g z e
2
2
dt

enthalpy = H = U + p V

enthalpy = h = U + p v

E=U

N.B. dot => rate not d( )/dt

W (2.1)

a defined property

steady state, steady flow process ... Woud: open systems steady state (stationary)
assumptions ...
1. control volume does not move relative to the coordinate frame
2. the mass in the control volume does not vary with time
3. the mass flux and the state of mass at each discrete area of flow on the control surface do not vary with time
and .. the rates at which heat and work cross the control surface remain constant.
d
mc_v = 0
dt

9/21/2006
9/21/2006

d
Ec_v = 0
dt

steady state, steady flow process ...

m_dot = flow_rate

m_dotin = m_doten
n

d
Qc_v +
dt

(5.46)

Vi
m_dotin h i + 2 + g zi =

Ve
d
m_doten he + 2 + g ze + dt Wc_v

2
2

Vi Ve
W_dot = Q_dot + m_dot h i h e +
+ g ( zi ze)
2

q=

d
Qc_v
dt

w=

m_dot

(5.47)

(W 2.8) see text for examples of

application to steam turbine,
boiler or heat exchanger, nozzle
and throttle

Wc_v
dt

are heat transfer and work per unit mass

flow (5.51)

m_dot

steady state steady flow ... - single flow stream

Vi

q + hi +
+ g zi = h e +
2

Ve

+ g ze
+ w

(5.50)

uniform state, uniform flow process USUF

1. control volume remains constant relative to the coordinate frame
2. state of mass within the control volume may change with time, but at any instant of time is uniform
throughout the entire control volume - I define this as f(t) but not of space
3. the state of mass crossing each of the areas of flow on the control surface is constant with time although the
mass flow rates may be changing

m_doten m_dotin = 0

d
mc_v +
dt

at time t, continuity equation ...

integrating over time gives change in mass of the control volume

d m
dt = m2_c_v m1_c_v
dt c_v

mass entering and leaving

m_doti dt =
n

9/21/2006
9/21/2006

mi
n

m_doten dt = men
n

m2_c_v m1_c_v +

continuity for USUF process ...

men min = 0
n

(5.53)

apply first law at time t (5.45)

d
Qc_v +
dt

Vi
d

m_dot

h
+
+
g
z

i i
i = Ec_v +
2

dt

Ve
(5.45)
d

m_dot

h
+
g
z
+
+ Wc_v

e e
e
2

dt

since at time t c.v. is uniform ...

d
Qc_v +
dt

2
2

Vi
Vc_v
d
=
m_dot

h
+
+
g

z
m

u
+
+
g

c_v
i i
i
c_v ...
2
2

dt

Ve
d
m_dot

h
+
+
g

z
+

e e
e + Wc_v
2

dt

now integrate over time t

t

d Q
dt = Qc_v
dt c_v

Vi
m_doti h i + 2 + g zi dt =

Vi
mi hi + 2 + g zi

2
2
2

V2
Vc_v
V1
d m u
dt
m
u
+
+
g

z
=

+
+
g

u
+
+
g

z

2 2
c_v
2
1 1
1
dt c_v
2
2
2

Ve
m_dote h e + 2 + g ze dt =

Ve
me he + 2 + g ze

d W
dt = Wc_v
dt c_v

uniform state, uniform flow process USUF

Qc_v +

9/21/2006
9/21/2006

Vi
min h i + 2 + g zi =

Ve
men h e + 2 + g ze ...

2
2

V2
V1
+ m2 u 2 +
+ g z2 m1 u 1 +
+ g z1 + Wc_v
2
2

10

(5.54)

Summary of Thermo

from: first_law_rev_2005.mcd,
second_law_rev_2005.mcd,
availability.mcd
ref: van Wylen & Sonntag (eqn
#s) Woud (W nn.nn)

First Law

1 dQ = 1 dW

first law for cycle

first law for system
change of state

Q1_2

Q1_2 = E2 E1 + W1_2

E1

(5.2)

is the heat transferred TO system

E2

are intial and final values of

energy of system and ...

W1_2

(5.5)

is work done BY the system

Q = dE + W = dU + dKE + dPE + W

Closed System

d
U = Q_dot W_dot
dt

first law as a rate equation

dU = Q W

(5.4)

d
d
d
d
d
d
d
Q = U + KE + PE + W = E + W
dt
dt
dt
dt
dt
dt
dt
H = U + p V

first law as a rate equation - for a control volume

Vi
d
m_dot

h
+
+
g

i i
i = Ec_v +
2

dt

E = U + Ekin + Epot

Woud assuming energy

Ve
d
m_dot

h
+
+
g

e e
e + Wc_v
2

dt

and ...

Ekin = Epot = 0

Vi
Ve
d
+ g zi m_dote h e +
+ g ze
U = Q_dot W_dot + m_doti h i +
2
2
dt

steady state, steady flow process ...

open stationary

m_dotin = m_doten
n

d
Qc_v +
dt

Vi
m_dotin h i + 2 + g zi =

(5.31 and 5.32)

enthalpy defined - is
a property (5.12)

h = u + p v
d
Qc_v +
dt

(5.45)

E=U

N.B. dot => rate not d( )/dt

W (2.1)

m_dot = flow_rate (5.46)

Ve
d
m_doten he + 2 + g ze + dt Wc_v

(W 2.3)

m_dote = m_doti = 0

(5.47), (W2.8)

steady state steady flow ... - single flow stream

Vi

q + hi +
+ g zi = h e +
2

10/6/2005

Ve
2

+ g ze + w

this on per unit mass

basis q = Q/m_dot

(5.50)

uniform state, uniform flow process

Qc_v +

Vi
min h i + 2 + g zi =

Ve
men h e + 2 + g ze ...

(5.54)

2
2

V2
V1
+ m2 u 2 +
+ g z2 m1 u 1 +
+ g z1 + Wc_v
2
2

Second Law
Carnot cycle most efficient, and only function of temperature

Entropy

1 dQ = 0

=> for all reversible

heat engines ...

Qrev
dS =

1
T

inequality of Clausius ...

reversible ...

1
T

TL
TH

integrals are cyclic

dQ 0

1 dQ 0

=> all irreversibles

engines

dQ = 0

so as we did for energy E (e) in first law

(7.2)

dQrev. = S2 S1

thermal = 1

1
T

1
T

dQ < 0

dQ is

independent of path in reversible process => is a porperty of

the substance. entropy is an extensive property and entropy
per unit mass is = s

(7.3)

two relationships for simple compressible

S2 S1

1
T

equality holds when

substance - Gibbs equations
reversible and when
appicable to rev & irrev processes
irreversible, the change of
entrpy will be greater than
T dS = dU + p V (7.5)
T ds = du + p v
the reversible
T dS = dH V dp (7.6)
T ds = dh v dp

dQ

second law for a control volume

d
Sc_v +
dt

Q_dot c_v

(
m_dotese)
(
m_dotisi)

n

c_v

steady state, steady flow process

d
Sc_v = 0
dt

(
m_dotese)
(
m_dotisi)

n

(7.49)

= when reversible

(7.50)

Q_dot c_v
(7.51)

c_v

= when reversible

uniform state, uniform flow process

m2 s2 m1 s1 +

(
mese)
(
)

10/6/2005

Q_dot
c_v

mi si
dt

(7.56)

= when reversible

(7.7)

Availability
reversible work (maximum) of a control volume that exchanges heat with the
surroundings at To
2
2

Vi
Ve

...
Wrev =
min hi To si + 2 + g zi men h e Tose + 2 + g ze (8.7)

n
n
latter [..] is total for
2
2

V2
V1
c.v.
+ m2 u 2 To s2 +
+ g z2 m1 u 1 To s1 +
+ g z1
2
2

system (fixed mass

Wrev_1_2
m

V1
= wrev_1_2 = u 1 To s1 +
+ g z1
2

V2
u

T
s
+
+
g

z
2
o 2
2
2

(8.8)

steady-state, steady flow process - rate form

W_dot rev =

2


Vi

T
s
+
+
g

z
in i
o i
i
2

Ve

T
s
+
+
g

z
en e
o e
e
2

(8.9)

Ve
= wrev = h i To si +
+ g zi h e To se +
+ g ze
m_dot
2
2

Vi

W_dot rev

single flow of fluid

(8.10)

availablity

steady state, steady flow process ...(e.g. single flow ...availability (per unit mass flow)

Vo
= h To s +
+ g z h o To so +
+ g zo
2
2

Vi

(8.16)

reversible work between any two states = decrease in availablity between them

wrev = i e = h 1 To s1 h 2 + To s2 = h 1 To s1 h 2 + To s2 = h 1 h 2 To s1 s2

can be written for more than one flow ...

W dotrev =

min in
men en
n

10/6/2005

(8.18)

(8.17) extended

availability w/o KE and PE per unit mass of system

) (

= u + p o v To s u o + p o v o To so = u u o + p o v v o To s so

(8.21)

and reversible work maximum between states 1 and 2 is ...

2

wrev_1_2 = 1 2 p o v 1 v 2 +

10/6/2005

V1 V2
2

+ g z1 z2

(8.22)

Availability

From chapter 8 VW&S

control volume in uniform state, uniform flow process USUF, irreversible Q c.v. and Wc.v.

what if process were reversible, how much work would have been done if the process had been reversible

<= reversible heat

engine

Wrev = Wc_v_rev +
Wc

reversible heat transfer takes place through reversible heat engine

with output Wc

(8.1)

I = irreversibility = Wrev
Wcv
first law for uniform state, uniform process ... from first_law.mcd

uniform state, uniform flow process (USUF)

(5.54) = (8.3)
Qc_v_rev +

9/27/2006

Vi
min hi + 2 + g zi =

Ve
men he + 2 + g ze ...

2
2

V2
V1
+ m2 u 2 +
+ g z2 m1 u 1 +
+ g z1 + Wc_v_rev
2
2

Wc = Qo Qc_v_rev

for the reversible heat engine ...

S

from second law

for Qo and Qc_v_rev are the same, Qo at constant temperature

t

S = Sc_v_rev

Q_dot
c_v_rev

dt
Sc_v_rev =

Qo = To S

that is express as integral of rate

uniform state => T constant in c.v.

Q_dot
c_v_rev

=
dt
To
T

Qo

and

Q_dot
c_v_rev

dt
Qo = To

Q_dot
c_v_rev

dt Qc_v_rev
Wc = Qo Qc_v_rev = To

substituting into ...

(8.4)

m2 s2 m1 s1 +

also for USUF

from second law

(
mese)
(
)

substituting (8.5) into (8.4) ...

Q_dot
c_v

dt
mi si =

Wc = Qo Qc_v_rev = To m2 s2 m1 s1 +

so ... the bottom line, substitute (8.3) rearranged and (8.6) into (8.1)

(
mese)
(
misi) Qc_v_rev
n

Wrev = Wc_v_rev + Wc

2
2

Vi
Ve

Wrev = Qc_v_rev +
min h i + 2 + g zi men he + 2 + g ze ...

n
n

2
2

V1
V2
+ m2 u 2 +
+ g z2 m1 u 1 +
+ g z1 ...
2
2

+ To m2 s2 m1 s1 +
me se)

mi si) Qc_v_rev
(

n
n

(7.56) = when
reversible (8.5)

} (8.3)

} (8.6)

Qc_v_rev cancels and rearranging (moving T o and s terms into mass flow terms) ...

reversible work (maximum) of a control volume that exchanges heat with the
surroundings at To
2
2

Vi
Ve

Wrev =
min hi To si + 2 + g zi men h e To se + 2 + g ze ...

n
n

2
2

V
V2

1
+ m2 u 2 To s2 +
+ g z2 m1 u 1 To s1 +
+ g z1
2
2

(8.7)
latter [..] is total for
c.v.

two special cases: a system (fixed mass) and steady-state, steady flow process for a control volume
9/27/2006

system (fixed mass)

2

Vi
min h i Tosi + 2 + g zi = 0

Ve
men h e Tose + 2 + g ze = 0

m1 = m2 = m

system (fixed mass

Wrev_1_2
m

V1
= wrev_1_2 = u 1 To s1 +
+ g z1
2

V2
u 2 To s2 + 2 + g z2

(8.8)

steady-state, steady flow process

2
2

V2
V1
m2 u 2 To s2 +
+ g z2 m1 u 1 To s1 +
+ g z1 = 0
2
2

steady-state, steady flow process - rate form

W_dot rev =

2


Vi

min hi To si + 2 + g zi

Ve

men h e Tose + 2 + g ze

(8.9)

single flow of fluid

2

Ve
= wrev = h i To si +
+ g zi h e To se +
+ g z e
2
2
m_dot

W_dot rev

Vi

(8.10)

above represents maximum work for given change of state of a system

what is maximum work that can be done by system in a given state???
answer: when system is in equilibrium with the environment, no spontaneous change of state can occur, and is
incapable of doing work. therefore if system in a given state undergoes a completely reversible process until it
is in equilibrium with the environment, the maximum reversible work will have been done by the system

steady state, steady flow

process ...(e.g. single flow)

Ve
wrev = h i To si +
+ g zi h e To se +
+ g z e
2
2

Vi

(8.10)

maximum when mass leaving c.v. is in equilibrium with environment. define = availability (per unit mass flow)

steady state, steady flow process ...(e.g. single flow ...availability (per unit mass flow)
2

Vo
= h To s +
+ g z h o To so +
+ g zo
2
2

(8.16)

reversible work between any two states = decrease in availablity between them

wrev = i e = h 1 To s1 h 2 + To s2 = h 1 To s1 h 2 + To s2 = h 1 h 2 To s1 s2 (8.17) extended

extension

9/27/2006

W dotrev =

can be written for more than one

flow ...

min in men en
n

(8.18)

for a system (no flow across the control surface)

. need to account for work done by system against the surroundings ...
... assume kinetic and potential energy changes negligible ...
Wrev_1_2
m

2
2

V1
V2
= wrev_1_2 = u 1 To s1 +
+ g z1 u 2 To s2 +
+ g
z2
2
2

) (

wrev_1_2 = u 1 To s1 u 2 To s2

becomes ...

) (

wrev_max = u To s u o To so

(8.8)

(8.19)

availability per unit mass is then ... this maximum work - that done against the surroundings

Wsurr = p o Vo V = m p o v o v

(8.20)

) (

= availability_w_o_KE_PE = wrev_max wsurr = u To s u o To so + p o v v o

availability w/o KE and PE per unit mass of system

) (

= u + p o v To s u o + p o v o To so = u u o + p o v v o To s so

(8.21)

and reversible work maximum between states 1 and 2 is ...

2

wrev_1_2 = 1 2 p o v 1 v 2 +

V1 V2
2

+ g z1 z2

(8.22)

check ...

1 := u 1 u o + p o v 1 v o To s1 so

wrev_1_2 := 1 2 p o v 1 v 2 +

V1 V2
2

2 := u 2 u o + p o v 2 v o To s2 so

+ g z1 z2

1
2 1
2
wrev_1_2 simplify u 1 To s1 u 2 + To s2 + V1 V2 + g z1 g z2
2
2
matches ...
Wrev_1_2
m

9/27/2006

2
2

V1
V2
= wrev_1_2 = u 1 To s1 +
+ g z1 u 2 To s2 +
+ g z2
2
2

(8.8) from above

geothermal well example

kPa := 10 Pa

define some units ...

kJ := 10 J

example ... geothermal well

water as saturated liquid issues from a process at 200 deg C.

What is maximum power if the environment is at 10^5 N/m^2 at 30 deg C

T1_C := 200

Vo
= h To s +
+ g z h o To so +
+ g zo
2
2

1 saturated

T1 := 273 + T1_C K

environment
(dead state)

p 0 := 10

5 N
2

(8.16)

T1 = 473 K p 1 := 1.5538MPa

T0_C := 30

h 1 := 852.45

kJ
kg

kJ
s1 := 2.3309
kg
K

T0 := 273.16 + T0_C K T0 = 303.16 K

p 0 = 100 kPa

water at this state is "compressed liquid" as pressure exceeds saturation pressure at 30 deg C
p sat_30 := 4.246kPa

ref: water saturated liquid at 30 deg C

v f_30 := 1.004 10

3
3m

h f_30 := 125.79

kg

kJ

kJ
sf_30 := 0.437
kg K

kg

limited values for compressed liquid are in Table A.1.4 well beyond this pressure
water is ~ incompessible
values for u, v and s can be estimated to be the saturation values at the T so... (see example validation below)
v 0 := v f_30

s0 := sf_30

but work must be done to compress to higher pressure than saturated

estimate from definition of enthalpy:

2
2
2
2

h = u + p v
dh = du + p dv + v dp
1 dh = h 2 h 1 = 1 du + p dv
+ v dp

1 du = cv T2 T1

we'll see later

dv ~ 0 <<<1 => v = constant so ...

h 2 h 1 = v 1 dp = v f( T) p 2 p 1

h 0 := h f_30 + v f_30 p 0 p sat_30

:= h 1 T0 s1 h 0 T0 s0

9/27/2006

= 152.409

h 0 = 125.886
kJ
kg

kJ

kg

to show example of estimates u, v, and s of compressed liquid = saturation, but not h consider value in Table vs
stauration at T
i := 1 .. 4
Table A.1.1.1
saturation
t=40 deg C

Table A.1.1.4
p=10MPa
T=40 deg C

difference
(col 2 - col 3)
-------------------col2

p 10 106 7.384 103

v 0.0010034 0.001008

data := u 166.35
167.56

167.57
h 176.38

s 0.5686
0.5725

data

i, 1

data

data

i, 2

100 =

i, 1

-0.5
-0.7

differences all < 1% for 106 pressure

difference
h differs by 5%

5
-0.7

using estimate from definition of enthalpy

h := data

kJ
3 , 2 kg

+ data

1 , 2 kg

and difference is ...

data

data

0, 1

Pa data

kJ
3 , 1 kg

data

9/27/2006

kJ

Pa

3 , 1 kg

geothermal well example

0, 2

100 = 0.716

h = 177.643

kJ
kg

difference now < 1%

ref: Keenan, Joseph H., Thermodynamics, The MIT

Press, paperbook 1970, original J. Wiley & Sons,
1941, QC311K26 1970 Science library

Keenan Availabilty
Keenan's definition:

the maximum work which can result from interaction of system and medium when only cyclic changes occur in
external things except for the rise of a weight.
page 290
medium: environment, atmosphere of infinite extent in which system operates;
- in most stable state
- all parts at rest relative to each other
- homogeneous in temperature and composition
- uniform in pressure at any height in gravitational field
to be shown:

) (

Availability = E + p o V To S Eo + p o Vo To So

system at energy E, volume V and entropy S

po , To pressure and temperature of medium (and of system at dead state - no more possibility of obtaining work)

Eo , Vo , So ; energy, volume and entropy of system in dead state

first show when exchange of heat can occur between system and medium only, the maximum amount of work
which can be delivered beyond the boundaries of the medium when the system changes from one state to
another is the work which is delivered when the change is in every respect reversible
assume such process exists: consider complementary reversed process with both rev and irrev - it (irrev) will
violate second law
in same way can show same work occurs between any reversible processes
next determine work delivered when system goes from state 1 to 2 ininfinitesimal step t

Q = heat_flow_TO_system
To T

Q
T

Wstate_change =
as ...

Qmed := To S
S

work := To T S
S
W > 0

+ if into, - if out of

from Carnot type cycle

Q := TS
S

S :=

Q
T

Q
work To T
T

as both Q and (To - T) must be same sign

not only work done by system ... volume can expand, etc
any change in volume dV is resisted by the medium with pressure p o therefore work done by
system - the amount of which can be received by things other then the medium is then ...

10/6/2005

W = all_work_done_by_system
and net work delivered is then ...

W p o dV
Wnet := W +

To T
T

W := Q dE

Q
Wnet collect , T dE p o dV + To
T

Q p o dV
dV

cancels

substitute

Q
Wnet = dE + To
p o dV
T
Q

and since process is reversible

= dS

Wnet = dE p o dV + To dS
it follows that the maximum amount of work that can be
delivered by each step is then the decrease in ...
maximum decrease is to the dead state

E + p o V To S

Availability_at_state = E + p o V To S Eo + p o Vo To So

if system state changes from 1 to 2

increase in availability is ...

E2 + p o V2 To S2 E1 + p o V1 To S1

[146]

which is negative unless work or heat is supplied TO the system from a source other than the medium

10/6/2005

[145]

first draft 9/23/04, second Sept Oct 2005

minor changes 2006, used spell check,
expanded example

Second Law

Kelvin-Planck: It is impossible to construct a device that will operate in a cycle and produce no effect other than the
raising of a weight and the exchange of heat with a single reservoir.
Clausius: It is impossible to construct a device that operates in a cycle and produces no other effect than the
transfer of heat from a cooler body to a hotter body.
Woud: used to: 1) predict the direction of processes

2) establish the conditions of final equilibrium

3) determine best possible theoretical performance of a process

if it is impossible to have a heat engine with 100% efficiency, how high can it go??
define ideal process, termed reversible process: a process that, once having taken place, can be reversed
without changing either the system or surroundings
examples irreversible; piston expanding against stop

reversible; piston expanding by removing and replacing weights; excerpt from VW&S page 166 good

description of reversible and irreversible processes

Let us illustrate the significance of this definition for a gas

contained in a cylinder that is fitted with a piston. Consider first
Fig. 6.8, in which a gas (which we define as the system) at high
pressure is restrained by a piston that is secured by a pin. When
the pin is removed, the piston is raised and forced abruptly
against the stops. Some work is done by the system, since the
piston has been raised a certain amount. Suppose we wish to
restore the system to its initial state. One way of doing this
would be to exert a force on the piston, thus compressing the gas
until the pin could again be inserted in the piston. Since the
pressure on the face of the piston is greater on the return stroke
than on the initial stroke, the work done on the gas in this reverse
process is greater than the work done by the gas in the initial
process. An amount of heat must be transferred from the gas
during the reverse stroke in order that the system have the same
internal energy it had originally. Thus the system is restored to
its initial state, but the surroundings have changed by virtue of
the fact that work was required to force the piston down and heat
was transferred to the surroundings. Thus the initial process is an
irreversible one because it could not be reversed without leaving a
change in the surroundings.
In Fig. 6.9 let the gas in the cylinder comprise the system and let
the piston be loaded with a number of weights. Let the weights
be slid off horizontally one at a time, allowing the gas to expand
and do work in raising the weights that remain on the piston. As.
the size of the weights is made smaller and their number is
increased, we approach a process that can be reversed, for at each
level of the piston during the reverse process there will be a small
weight that is exactly at the level of the platform and thus can be
placed on the platform without requiring work. In the limit,
therefore, as the weights become very small, the reverse process
can be accomplished in such a manner that both the system and
surroundings are in exactly the same state they were initially.
Such a process is a reversible process.
9/25/2006

Carnot cycle
example steam power plant - working substance steam
boiler - heat transferred from high T (constant) reservoir to
steam - steam T only infinitesimally lower than reservoir
=> reversible isothermal heat transfer process. (phase
change fluid - vapor is such a process
turbine - reversible adiabatic (no heat transfer) T
decreases from T H to TL
condenser - heat rejected from working fluid to T L reservoir
(infinitesimal T) some steam condensed
pump - temperature raised to T H adiabaticly
can reverse and act as refrigerator

Carnot cycle four basic processes:

1. reversible isothermal process in which heat is transferred to or from the T H reservoir
2. reversible adiabatic process in which the temperature of the working fluid decreases from T H to TL
3. reversible isothermal process in which heat is transferred to or from the T L reservoir
4. reversible adiabatic process in which the temperature of the working fluid increases from T L to TH
Carnot cycle most efficient, and only function of temperature

efficiency (in heat engine)

thermal =

W = energy_sought
QH = energy_that_costs

QH QL
QH

=1

QL

QH

temperature scale (arbitrary but defined in terms of Carnot efficiency)

thermal = 1

QL
QH

= TL , TH

QH
QL

( ) TH
=
f( TL)
TL
f TH

proposed by
Lord Kelvin

thermal = 1

TL

TH

at this point have ratio of absolute temperatures

derive scale from non-Carnot heat engine operating at steam T H and ice temperature TL

if we could measure it would find

to be 26.80%

th = 0.2680 = 1

if want difference to be 100 as on the Celsius scale

TH := 100

TL := 200

initial values

9/25/2006

Given

0.2680 = 1

TL

TH

TL

T := 100

TH = TL + T

TH

most efficient

 TH
:= Find( TH , TL)

TL

TH 373.134
=

TL

273.134

T_deg_C + 273.134 = T_deg_K

Entropy
inequality of Clausius ...

1
T

VW&S has 273.15 changed to 273.16 to

correspond to triple point of water 0.01 deg_C

dQ 0

for fig 7.1

1 dQ = QH QL > 0

from definition of absolute temperature scale and T H and TL constant

if ..

1
T

dQ =

QH
TH

1 dQ

QL
TL

=0

approaches 0, TH approaches T L , while reversible

1 dQ 0

=> for all reversible heat engines ...

1
T

dQ = 0

dQ = 0

Wirrev < Wrev

if irreversible, with T H, TL , and QH same ...

QH QL = W

and ...

QH QL_irrev < QH QL_rev

for both

1 dQ = QH QL_irrev > 0

and ...

1
T

dQ =

QH
TH

=>

QL_irrev > QL_rev

QL_irrev
TL

<0

if heat engine becomes more irreversible such that W => 0..

as ...

1 dQ = 0

1
T

dQ < 0

=> all irreversible engines

should do refrigeration cycle as well

9/25/2006

1 dQ 0

1
T

dQ < 0

example figure 7.3 pg 188 VW&S

example fig 7.3 - simple steam power plant cycle - not

typical - pump handles mixture of liquid and vapor in such

proportions that saturated liquid leaves the pump and enters

the boiler. The pressures and quality at various points are

given in the figure. ? Does this data satisfy the inequality of

Clausius?

Saturated vapor, 0.7 MPa

2
Boiler

1 dQ 0

inequality of Clausius ...

90% quality, 15 kPa

1 - saturated liquid, 0.7 MPa

heat is transferred in boiler and condenser, both at constant T

dQ =

dQboiler +

Condenser

Pump

10% quality, 15kPa

mass := 1kg

on a per unit mass basis

kJ

h fg := 2066.3

q 1_2 := h fg

q 1_2 = 2066.3

h f := 225.94

x 3 := 0.9

h 3 := h f + x 3 h fg

x 4 := 0.1

h 4 := h f + x 4 h fg

MPa := 10 Pa

p 1 := 0.7MPa

p condenser = p 3 = p 4 = 15kPa

kJ
kg

kg

T1 := 164.97

kJ
kg
h fg := 2373.1

q 3_4 := h 4 h 3

kJ
kg

kJ := 10 J

q 1_2
T1 + 273.15

q 3_4
T3 + 273.15

deg_C

steam tables Table A.1.2

q = h

from first law

T3 := 53.97

q 3_4 = 1898.48

int_dQ_over_T = 1.087

example figure 7.3 pg 188 VW&S

9/25/2006

kPa := 10 Pa

steam tables Table A.1.2

kJ
kg

T_deg_C + 273.15 = T_deg_K

int_dQ_over_T :=

1
1
1 dQboiler +
1 dQcondenser

dQcondenser =
Tcondenser

T
Tboiler

boiler ...

Turbine

kJ
kg

deg_K

is < 0

entropy
plot data

2.5

two reversible cycles

from 1 to 2 (not labeled)
A-B
and ... A - C

1.5

0.5
0.5

1
T

dQ = 0

A -B

dQ = 0 =
T

dQA +
TA

2.5

A process
B process
C process

reversible ...

1.5

1
TB

A-C

dQB

dQ = 0 =
T

dQA +
TA

1
TC

dQC

subtract second from first =>

dQB =
TB

1
TC

dQC

so as we did for energy E (e) in first law

1
T

dQ is independent of

path in reversible process => is a property of the substance

dS =

Qrev

reversible ...
entropy is an extensive property and
entropy per unit mass is = S

1
T

dQrev. = S2 S1

(7.3)

9/25/2006

(7.2), W (2.13)

entropy change in a reversible process

example Carnot

Carnot cycle four basic processes:

1. reversible isothermal process in which heat is transferred to or from the T H reservoir
2. reversible adiabatic process in which the temperature of the working fluid decreases from T H to TL
3. reversible isothermal process in which heat is transferred to or from the T L reservoir
4. reversible adiabatic process in which the temperature of the working fluid increases from T L to TH
plot data

i := 1 .. 2

1 to 2
2

Q1_2
dQrev. = S2 S1 =
TH
T
1

2 to 3 - adiabatic

i := 2 .. 3
3

1
T

dQrev. = 0 = S3 S2

S3 = S2

3 to 4

i := 3 .. 4

Q3_4
dQrev. = S2 S1 =
TL
T
1

4 to 1 - adiabatic

1
T

dQrev. = 0 = S1 S4

S1 = S4

i := 4 .. 5

total cycle ...

i := 1 .. 5

in general .. for reversible process, area under T S curve represents Q

9/25/2006

from first law ..

.
without KE or PE

two relationships for simple compressible

substance: Gibbs equations in Woud
Q = T d

reversible ...

W = p dV

substitute ...

T dS = dU + p d

since ...

H = U + p

substitute ...

T dS = dH V dp

QED

Q = dE + W

(5.4)

Q = dU + W
W = F d = p Ads = p dV

as .. e.g. a piston ...

(7.5)

dH = dU + p dV + V dp
QED

(7.6)

T ds = du + p v

on a per unit
mass ...

(7.7)

T ds = dh v dp

applicable to BOTH reversible and irreversible processes as they are relationships between state variables

entropy change for irreversible process

plot data

2.5

reversible cycle from 1 to 2

to 1 (not labeled) A - B
and ...
irreversible cycle from 1 to 2
to 1 (not labeled) A - C

1.5

0.5
0.5

2.5

A process reversible
B process reversible
C process irreversible

A - B reversible ...

1.5

dQ = 0 =
T

dQA +
TA

1
TB

dQB

A - C irreversible

dQ =
T

dQA +
TA

1
TC

dQC < 0

subtract second from first and rearrange ...

dQA +
TA

9/25/2006

1
dQB
dQA +

TB
TA
1

1
TC

dQC > 0

inequality of Clausius

dQB
TB

1
TC

dQC > 0

dQB >
TB

1
TC

dQC

is a property and although calculated for reversible

process, is identical between states for irreversible.
substitute into inequality above ...

dQB_rev = 1 dSB_rev = 1 dSC

TB_rev
2
2
1

1 dSC >

1
TC

dQC
or in general ... dS

equality holds when

reversible and when
dQ
irreversible, the change of
T
entropy will be greater
1
than the reversible

S2 S1

Q
T

(W 2.14)

principle of increase in entropy

consider system at T and surroundings at To, Q transferred from surroundings to system
due to above

dSsystem

for the surroundings, Q is negative therefore

dSsurr =

total net change in entropy is ...

T0

Q
1
Q
1
dSnet = dSsystem + dSsurr

= Q

T
T0

T T0

since heat is transferred FROM surroundings, To > T therefore ...

dSnet Q

thus ...

0
T0

if T > To reverse signs and result

holds

principle of increase in entropy

dSnet = dSsystem + dSsurr 0

for all processes that a system and its surroundings can

undergo

dSisolated_system 0

9/25/2006

second law for a control volume

not developed but second law stated in terms of lost work LW
dS =

Q
T

LW
T

S2 S1

during t change in entropy is ...

1 Q
1 LW

+
t T
t T

(7.43)

St = entropy_in_c_v_at_time_t
St_t = entropy_in_c_v_at_time_t_plus_t

S1 = St + s mi = entropy_of_system_at_time_t
i

S2 = St_t + s me = entropy_of_system_at_time_t_plus_t
e

S2 S1 = St_t St + s me s mi
e
i

etc .....

second law for a control volume

d
Sc_v +
dt

(m_dotese) (m_dotisi)
n

Q_dot c_v

(m_dotese) (m_dotisi)
9/25/2006

= when reversible

c_v

d
Sc_v = 0
dt

steady state, steady flow process

(7.49)

(7.50)

Q_dot c_v
(7.51)

c_v

= when reversible

(7.44)

uniform state, uniform flow process

rewrite 7.49 as ...

d
(m s)
+
c_v
dt

(
m_dotese)
(
m_dotisi)

n

Q_dot c_v

(7.54)

= when reversible

c_v

d (m s)
dt = m2 s2 m1 s1
c_v
dt

and integrate ...

in control volume

(
m_dotese)
dt = (
mese)

(m_dotisi)
dt = (
misi)

therefore for time t

m2 s2 m1 s1 +

Q_dot c_v

dt
mi si
T
c_v

(
mese)
(
)
n

(7.55)

= when reversible

since the temperature over the control volume is uniform at any instant of time
t

Q_dot
Q_dot c_v
1
c_v

d
=
dt
t
=

Q_dot
d
t
c_v

T
T
T

c_v

c_v
0

in first integral T can be a function of

space (location in c. v.) U(niform) S(tate)
=> T only dependent on time

and second law for a uniform state, uniform process is ...

uniform state, uniform flow process

t

m2 s2 m1 s1 +

Q_dot
c_v

dt
mi si

(
mese)
(
)

(7.56)

= when reversible

steady state, steady flow process

assumptions ...
1. control volume does not move relative to the coordinate frame
2. the mass in the control volume does not vary with time
3. the mass flux and the state of mass at each discrete area of flow on the control surface do not vary with

time and .. the rates at which heat and work cross the control surface remain constant.

example: centrifugal air compressor, operating at constant mass rate of flow, constant rate of heat transfer to
the surroundings, and constant input power.

uniform state, uniform flow process USUF

assumptions:
1. control volume remains constant relative to the coordinate frame
2. state of mass within the control volume may change with time, but at any instant of time is uniform

throughout the entire control volume - I define this as f(t) but not of space

3. the state of mass crossing each of the areas of flow on the control surface is constant with time

although the mass flow rates may be changing

example: filling a closed tank with a gas or liquid, discharge from a closed vessel.
9/25/2006

10

B series z = 5

EAR = 0.75

P_over_D = ( 1.4 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 )

Kt, Kq*10, efficiency

Kt_over_J_sq = 1.111
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0

P/D = 1.4
P/D = 1.2

P/D = 1.2

P/D = 1.4

P/D = 1.0

P/D = 1.0

P/D = 0.8

P/D = 0.8
P/D = 0.6
P/D = 0.6

0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9

Advance Ratio J=VA/nD

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6

UNITS (Propulsors)

Quantity

SI

U.S.

Mass, m

kg

slug

Mass Flow Rate, m

kg/s

slug/s

Thrust, T

N ( or kN)

lbf

Torque, Q

Nm (or kNm)

lbf ft

Density ,

kg/m3

slugs/ft3
lb s2/ft4

Velocity , V

m/s

ft/s

Rotational speed,n

rps

rps

Useful Values: 1 knot = 1.688 ft/s = 0.5144 m/s

1 HP = 550 ft lbf/s = 0.7456 kW

density (p) for sea water (59 F) = 1.9905 slugs/ft3 = 1025.9 kg/m3
kinematic viscosity (v) for sea water (59F) = 1.18831xl0-6 m2/s = 1.2791xl05 ft2/s

Rankine cycle

rev 2 added s = constant interpolation

area to determine state 2 enthalpy and
corrected T2 calc

this file calculates reversible Rankine cycle with following parameters:

condenser 40 deg C
steam pressure 30 bars (3 MPa)
superheat 460 deg_C

kJ := 10 J

define some units

3

kN := 10 N

kPa := 10 Pa

MPa := 10 Pa

bar := 0.1MPa

Q_dotH
Boiler

Rankine
cycle

(Furnace
Reactor)

W-dotnet

conceptual Rankine cycle

1 - vacuum; saturated liquid

3 -Superheated vapor 3 MPa, 460 C

2 - sub cooled liquid at boiler

pressure

Boiler

Q_dotH

Wt

Turbine

3 - superheated vapor
4 - vapor + liquid @ saturation
temperature and pressure

4 - vapor + liquid at
saturation temperature and pressure
2 - subcooled liquid at
boiler pressure

Condenser
Q_dotL

Pump
Wp

1 - vacuum saturated liquid 40 C

refer to T-s and H-s diagrams at end of file

state 1: condenser outlet

T1 := 40

p 1 := 7.384kPa

v f_1 := 0.0010078

kg

v 1 := v f_1

Table 1 or Table A.1.1

kJ
sf_1 := 0.5725
kg K

kJ
sfg_1 := 7.6845
kg K

s1 := sf_1

10/24/2005

h f_1 := 167.57
h 1 := h f_1

kJ
kg

h fg_1 := 2406.7

kJ
kg

state 2: pump outlet

assume vf = v1 constant, isentropic, ds = 0 =>T*ds= 0 => h2 = h1+v1*dp from

relationships Tds = dh + v*dp integrated with constant v and Tds = 0
s2 := s1

p 2 := 30bar

h 2 := h 1 + v 1 p 2 p 1

wp := h 1 h 2

h 22 := 170.21

h 2 = 170.586

kg

using Cp

h 2 h 1 = Cp T2 T1

and ... eqn 5.18

p 2 = 3 MPa
kJ

kJ

h 2 = 170.586

kg

kJ
wp = 3.016
kg

calc of T in earlier version incorrect see VW&S

5.18 with C = 4.184 kJ/(kg*K) Table A.7
@ T = 40 C
p = 3 MPa

kJ

T22 := 40

kg

Cp := 4.184

kJ

kJ

kg

kg K

actual units

T2 := T22 +

h 2 h 22
Cp

T2 = 40.09

s = constant interpolation

h 2 = 170.586

kJ
kg

using

and then C p

T2 = 40.09

interpolation Table 2 page 7 subcooled region

T2a = 40.096

h2 = h1 + v1 p2 p1

interpolation results ...

h 2a = 170.609
h 2b = 170.598

h 2c = 170.6

kJ
kg
kJ
kg

kJ
kg

state 3: boiler outlet

interpolation K&K 40 - 60 T range but p= 2.5 and p = 5

MPa interpolation for p = 3 MPa required first

T2b = 40.093

interpolation VW&S Table A.1.4 40 - 60 T range but p= 10

and p = 5 MPa extrapolation for p = 3 MPa required first

T2c = 40.096

p 3 := p 2

T3 := 460

from table 2 handout:

p 3 = 3 MPa

h 3 := 3366.7

kJ
kg

kJ
s3 := 7.114
kg K

interpolation

from interpolation Table A.1.3 P=3MPa page 622

state 4: turbine outlet

h 3a = 3366.5

kJ
s3a = 7.113
kg K

kg
isentropic expansion to 40 deg C
s4 := s3
determine h4 from x
s4 sf_1
=>
s4 = sf_1 + x sfg_1
x :=
x = 0.851
sfg_1
h 4 := h f_1 + h fg_1x

h 4 = 2216
kJ
wt = 1150
kg

wt := h 3 h 4
10/24/2005

kJ

kJ
kg

thermal efficiency
th =

th :=

work_net
QH

(h3 h4) (h2 h1)

th_1 :=

QH + QL
QH

wt + wp
QH

th = 0.359

h3 h2
QH := h 3 h 2

QH + QL

QH

(h3 h4) + (h1 h2)

th :=

QL := h 1 h 4

th_1 = 0.359

data for saturation curve

data for T s and H s plots

10/24/2005

h3 h2
wt + wp
h3 h2

th = 0.359

T-s Plot

500

T degrees C

400

300

200

100

4
5
6
s entropy kJ/(kg*K)

10

h-s Plot

4000

h enthalpy kJ/kg

3000

2000

1000

10/24/2005

4
6
s entropy kJ/(kg*K)

10

close up of points 1 and 2

T - s plot
40.4

T degrees C

40.2

40

39.8

39.6
0.55

0.56

0.57
0.58
s entropy kJ/(kg*K)

0.59

180

175

h enthalpy kJ/kg

170

165

160

155

150
0.54

10/24/2005

0.56

0.58
0.6
s entropy kJ/(kg*K)

0.62

0.64

Properties of Water
a k a Thermodynamic Properties of Working Fluids with Phase change
discussion of water properties, T s diagram, stauration, phase change, h - s diagram critical pressure
~ figure 3.3 VW & S

T temperature deg C

600

400

200

4
6
s entropy kJ/(kg*K)

10

saturation - liquid

saturation - vapor

pressure = 22 MPa ~ critical

pressure = 50 MPa

pressure = 5 MPa

h enthalpy kJ/kg

3000

2000

1000

4
6
s entropy kJ/(kg*K)

saturated - liquid
saturated - vapor
T = constant = 100 C
p = constant = 5 MPa

10/12/2005

10

h - s diagram
120 < T < 140
0.35 < s < 0.45

h - s diagram
whole range
2500

140

2000
enthalpy h

enthalpy h

135

130

125

120

0.36

0.38

0.4
entropy s

0.42

0.44

2
3
entropy s

p = 5 MPa
p = 20 MPa
saturated liquid
trace 4

32

T - s diagram
28 < T < 32
0.4 < s < 0.45

31
T temperature C

1000
500

p = 5 MPa
p = 20 MPa
saturated liquid
trace 4

30

29

28

0.4

0.41

0.42
0.43
s entropy kJ/(kg*K)

0.44

p = 5 MPa

p = 10 MPa

p = 20 MPa

saturated liquid

trace 5

10/12/2005

1500

Rankine cycle at various steam pressure and temperature

3

kN := 10 N kPa := 10 Pa

define some units

MPa := 10 Pa

kJ := 10 J bar := 0.1MPa

We have seen the calculation of a Rankine steam cycle in rankine_class_example.mcd Repeating these
calculations for various combinations of boiler pressure and temperature allows us to investigate pressure and
temperature on ideal thermal efficiency. the calculations are done in the area by doing a matrix of combinations:

30

60
p 2 :=
bar
90

120

233.90

275.64
Tsat :=
303.4

324.75

Tsat

T3 := 460
540

(
Tsat

since Tsat varies with pressure this was

accomplished in a 4 x 3 array of temperatures

460 560

233.90
275.64
TT3 :=
303.4
324.75

efficiency calculations

460 560

30

460 560 60
bar
460 560
90

460 560
120

0.45
0.44

efficiency (reversible)

0.42
0.41
0.39
0.38
0.36
0.35
0.33
0.32
0.3

30

39

48

57

66

75
84
pressure bars

93

102

111

saturated
460 deg C superheat
560 deg C superheat

This plot shows the ideal efficiency at various combinations of pressure and temperature.
data for saturation curve

10/14/2005

120

select_pressure :=

this plot for

ip := select_pressure 1

p2

select_temperature :=

30
60
90
120

ip

= 6 MPa

saturated
superheat to 460 deg C
superheat to 560 deg C

iT := select_temperature 1

TT3

ip , iT

data for T s and H s plots

T-s Plot

500

400

T degrees C

300

200

100

4
5
6
s entropy kJ/(kg*K)

h-s Plot

4000

h enthalpy kJ/kg

3000

2000

1000

10/14/2005

4
6
s entropy kJ/(kg*K)

10

10

= 460

close up of points 1 and 2

T - s plot

46

T degrees C

44

42

40

38

0.5

0.55

0.6
s entropy kJ/(kg*K)

0.65

180

175

h enthalpy kJ/kg

170

165

160

155

150
0.54

10/14/2005

0.56

0.58
0.6
s entropy kJ/(kg*K)

0.62

0.64

enthalpy average temperature approach for efficiency

we defined the entropy average temperatures in class and showed that the thermal efficiency (ideal) could be
calculated ...
T_bar_L

=1

using this approach let's calculate the thermal efficiency and compare with above

T_bar_H

2804.2
2784.3
h3 =
2742.1
2684.9

3366.6 3591.7

3326.1 3564.2 kJ

3283.1 3535.7
kg
3237.2 3506.2

i := 0 .. 3

170.586

173.609
kJ

h2 =
K
176.633
kg K

179.656

6.187
5.889
s3 =
5.677
5.492

7.114 7.402

6.753 7.057 kJ

6.521 6.844
kg K

6.34

6.684

kJ
s2 = 0.572
kg K

j := 0 .. 2

calculate entropy average TH

QH = h 3 h 2
or ... in indicial
notation

QL = h 1 h 4

QH = h 3 h 2
i, j
i, j
i
QL = h 1 h 4

entropy average high temperature ...

T_bar_H

i, j

:=

h3

i, j

469.082
491.036
T_bar_H =
502.57
509.206

h2
i

s3 s2
i, j

488.545 500.917

510.095 522.852

K
522.253 535.608

530.17

544.309

entropy average low temperature ... is the constant condenser pressure - convert to K

T_bar_L := T1 + 273.15 K
i , j := 1

(
Tsat

T_bar_L
T_bar_H

from above; identical !! as

expected

i, j

460 560

0.332 0.359 0.375

0.362 0.386 0.401
=
0.377 0.4 0.415

0.385 0.409 0.425

10/14/2005

T1 = 40

(
Tsat
30

60 bar
90

120

460 560

0.332 0.359 0.375

0.362 0.386 0.401
th =
0.377 0.4 0.415

0.385 0.409 0.425

30

60 bar
90

120

Rankine cycle at various steam pressure and temperature

with reheating
this note calculates plot of vs steam plant pressure with fixed condenser pressure (Temperature) and max
temperature with reheating to saturation 460 deg C and 560 deg C. steam is extracted at 400kPa from hp turbine for
reheating to boiler outlet temperature.

1 - vacuum; saturated liquid T=40 C

hp
Turbine

Boiler

2 - sub cooled liquid at boiler

pressure P=3, 6, 9, 12 MPa

Wt1

Q_dotH

Wt2

lp
Turbine

3 - saturated vapor, superheated

vapor T=460 C, T=560 C, p = p 2

5
6

Feed
Pump

4 - extraction steam; superheated

vapor @ 400 kPa or ... vapor + liquid
@ saturation temperature and
pressure tbd

Condenser
Q_dotL
1

5 - superheated vapor @ saturation

temperasature for p 2 , T=460 C,
T=560 C, p = p4 = 400 kPa

Wfp

6 - vapor + liquid @ saturation

temperature (40 C) and pressure or
...superheated vapor @ saturation
pressure for 40 C; tbd
the results are shown below
in the details of calculation for state 4 - extraction steam; superheated vapor @ 400 kPa or ... vapor + liquid @
saturation temperature and pressure tbd - it can be seen that combinations of
p=3 MPa, T = 460 C
p=3 MPa, T = 560 C and ....
p=6 MPa, T = 460 C
result in superheated vapor extraction (x 6 calculated >1) while the other combinations result in x 6 < 1
also ... state 6 - lp turbine exhaust - is superheated vapor @ saturation pressure for 40 C when boiler temperature is
560 C
The approach will be as the regenerative example; calculate x; if > 1 use super heat interpolation for results.
calculations

10/26/2005

0.45
0.44
0.42

thermal efficiency

0.41
0.39
0.38
0.36
0.35
0.33
0.32
0.3

30

39

48

57

66

75
84
pressure bars

93

102

111

120

with reheat - saturated

with reheat - 460 deg C
with reheat - 560 deg C
no reheat - saturated
no reheat - 460 deg C
no reheat - 560 deg C

N.B. efficiency decreases at saturation reheat, and at 460 C reheat at 12 MPa. This is observable when looking at
the T - s plot below for saturation temperature. The effect is noticeable at all pressures, but most significant at 12
MPa. Recall the entropy average temperature concept and observe that the temperature where heat is being added
is lowered.
The benefit from reheat is the exhaust moisture in the turbine output (in the latter stages of the single turbine)
quality out of hp turbine

0.8615

0.8034
x4 =
0.7619
0.7258

1.0427 1.0989

0.972 1.0315

0.9267 0.9899

0.8913 0.9586

quality out of lp turbine

0.8773

0.8985
x6 =
0.9117
0.9214

0.9767 1.0124

0.9767 1.0124

0.9767 1.0124

0.9767 1.0124

quality out of pressure temperature file

0.731

0.692
x=
0.664
0.64

N.B. values of x > 1 are bogus and actual x = 1, i.e. steam is superheated vapor

data for saturation curve

10/26/2005

0.851 0.889

0.804 0.844

0.774 0.816

0.75

0.795

select_pressure :=

this plot for

ip := select_pressure 1

p2

select_temperature :=

30
60
90
120

ip

= 12 MPa

saturated
superheat to 460 deg C
superheat to 560 deg C

iT := select_temperature 1

TT3

data for T s and H s plots

T-s Plot

400

T degrees C

300

200

100

4
5
6
s entropy kJ/(kg*K)

10

h-s Plot

4000

h enthalpy kJ/kg

3000

2000

1000

10/26/2005

4
6
s entropy kJ/(kg*K)

10

ip , iT

= 324.75

Practical Rankine cycle

define some units
this file calculates irreversible Rankine cycle with following parameters:
condenser 40 deg C
steam pressure 30 bars (3 MPa)
superheat 460 deg_C
file derived from Rankine class example.mcd

kN := 10 N
6

MPa := 10 Pa

kJ := 10 J
3

kPa := 10 Pa
bar := 0.1MPa

differences/assumptions:

1-2 adiabatic irreversible compression

2-3 heat transfer - small pressure loss - ignore

3-4 adiabatic irreversible expansion

4-1 heat transfer to saturated liquid - small subcooling - ignored

states are the same

1 - vacuum; saturated liquid

3 -Superheated vapor 3 MPa, 460 C

Boiler

Q_dotH

2 - sub cooled liquid at boiler

pressure
3 - superheated vapor

Wt

Turbine

4 - vapor + liquid @ saturation

temperature and pressure

4 - vapor + liquid at
saturation temperature and pressure
2 - subcooled liquid at
boiler pressure

Condenser

xxs designates reversible

(isentropic) process where
different

Q_dotL

Pump
Wp

1 - vacuum saturated liquid 40 C

refer to T-s and H-s diagrams at end of file

state 1: condenser outlet

same as reversible
3

Table 1 or Table A.1.1

T1 := 40

kJ
sf_1 := 0.5725
kg K

p 1 := 7.384kPa
kJ
sfg_1 := 7.6845
kg K

s1 := sf_1

v f_1 := 0.0010078

h f_1 := 167.57

kJ
kg

kg

v 1 := v f_1

h fg_1 := 2406.7

h 1 := h f_1

properties p =3 Mpa

state 2: pump outlet - reversible

assume vf = v1 constant, isentropic, ds = 0 =>T*ds= 0 => h2 = h1+v1*dp from
relationships Tds = dh + v*dp integrated with constant v and Tds = 0
10/24/2005

s2s := s1

kJ
kg

p 2 := 30bar

h 2s := h 1 + v 1 p 2 p 1
kJ

wps = 3.016
kg

wps := h 1 h 2s
calc of T in earlier version
incorrect see VW&S 5.18
with C = 4.184 kJ/(kg*K)
Table A.7
@ T = 40 C
p = 3 MPa

using Cp

Cp := 4.184

kJ

h 2s = 170.586

kg

pump efficiency ...

T2 := T1 +

v1 p2 p1

kJ
kg

kJ

kg

actual units

h 2s h 22s

T2s := T22 +

T2s = 40.09

Cp

as above ...

h 1 h 2s

h 2s = h 1 + v 1 p 2 p 1

h1 h2

h 2 = 170.921

kJ
kg

wp := h 1 h 2

p := 0.9

kJ
wp = 3.351
kg

T2 = 40.801

h 2 h 1 = Cp T2 T1

h 2 = 170.921

kg

kJ

pressure same

actual_h

and ... eqn 5.18

p 2 = 3 MPa

@ T = 40 C
p = 3 MPa
h 22 := 170.21

Cp

kg K

T22 := 40

p
h 2 h 1

kJ

kg

reversible_h

p =

kJ

h 2 h 1 = Cp T2 T1
h 2 h 1 = Cp T2 T1

state 2: pump outlet - irreversible

h 2 := h 1 +

h 2s = 170.586

and ... eqn 5.18

and ... eqn 5.18

p 2 = 3 MPa

h 22s := 170.21

kJ

T22 := 40

kg

T2 := T22 +

h 2 h 22
Cp

T2 = 40.17

find s from p = p 2 , h = h 2 : interpolate from tbl_2_3MPa row 2 (index 1)

interpolation details

T
data =

40 0.571 170.21

80 1.073 337.26

interpolate for s 2 and T2

summary ..
reversible ...

irreversible ...

1 kJ
s2 = 0.573
K kg
h 2s = 170.586

h 2 = 170.921

state 3: boiler outlet

p 3 := p 2

w/o units

input = h 2

T3 := 460

kJ
kg

kJ

input = 170.921
T_int = 40.17

1 kJ
s2s = 0.572
K kg

T2s = 40.09

kg

N.B. different from T2 above ??

granularity; investigating

1 kJ
s2 = 0.573
K kg

T2 = 40.17

kJ
wp = 3.351
kg

same as reversible
p 3 = 3 MPa

h 3 := 3366.5

kJ
kg

kJ
s3 := 7.113
kg K

from interpolation Table A.1.3 P=3MPa page 622 interpolation_class_example.mcd

10/24/2005

kJ
wps = 3.016
kg

state 4: turbine outlet -reversible

s4 = sf_1 + x sfg_1
h 4s := h f_1 + h fg_1xs

kJ

h 4s = 2216

actual_enthalpy_change
reversible_enthalpy_change

h 4 := h 3 t h 3 h 4s

kg

s4 := sf_1 + x sfg_1
summary ..
reversible ...

T4s := 40

T4 := 40

t := 0.9

kJ
kg

kJ
wt = 1035.466
kg

kJ
wt = 1035.466
kg

wt := h 3 h 4

or ...

h 4 = h f_1 + h fg_1x

h 4 h f_1

x :=

h fg_1

x = 0.899

1 kJ

s4 = 7.48

K kg

h 4s = 2215.982
h 4 = 2331.034

irreversible ...

thermal efficiency - reversible

ths :=

kJ
wts = 1151
kg

h 4 = h 3 t h 3
h 4s

h 4 = 2331.034

now calculate x should be > xs

see plot below

xs = 0.851

sfg_1

same temperature

h 3 h 4s

s4s sf_1

wts := h 3 h 4s

h3 h4

wt := wts p

work of turbine

xs :=

=>

state 4: turbine outlet - irreversible

t =

s4s := s3

isentropic expansion to 40 deg C

determine h4 from x

(h3 h4s) + (h1 h2s)

h 3 h 2s

QHs := h 3 h 2s

kJ

1 kJ
s4s = 7.113
K kg

T4s = 40

kg
kJ

1 kJ
s4 = 7.48
K kg

T4 = 40

kg
th =

work_net
QH

QH + QL
QH

ths = 0.359

QLs := h 1 h 4s

wt + wp

QH

ths :=

th_1s :=

h 3 h 2s

QHs

kJ
wt = 1035.466
kg

(h3 h4) + (h1 h2)

wts + wps

QHs + QLs

kJ
wts = 1150.518
kg

h3 h2
ths = 0.359

th_1s = 0.359

thermal efficiency - irreversible

th :=

(h3 h4) + (h1 h2)

h 3 h 2

QH := h 3 h 2

th = 0.323

th :=

QL := h 1 h 4

th_1 :=

data for saturation curve

data for T s and H s plots

10/24/2005

wt + wp
h3 h2

QH + QL
QH

th = 0.323

th_1 = 0.323

T-s Plot

500

T degrees C

400

300

200

100

4
5
6
s entropy kJ/(kg*K)

10

irreversible cycle

reversible cycle

saturated liquid

saturated vapor

h-s Plot

4000

h enthalpy kJ/kg

3000

2000

1000

4
6
s entropy kJ/(kg*K)

irreversible cycle

reversible cycle

saturated liquid

saturated vapor

10/24/2005

10

close up of points 1 and 2

T - s plot
40.4

much expanded ref: class

example scale
39.5 < T < 40.5
0.57 < s < 0.58

T degrees C

40.2

40

39.8

39.6
0.57

0.572

0.574
0.576
s entropy kJ/(kg*K)

0.578

much expanded ref: class

example scale
165 < h < 175
0.56 < s < 0.6

174

h enthalpy kJ/kg

172

170

168

166
0.56

10/24/2005

0.57

0.58
s entropy kJ/(kg*K)

0.59

comparison of rankine with single regeneration

basic reference problem ...
Rankine_class_example.mcd

state 1: condenser outlet

kPa := 10 Pa

MPa := 10 Pa

kJ := 10 J bar := 0.1MPa

kN := 10 N

same as reference
3

T1 := 40

Table 1 or Table A.1.1

kJ
sf_1 := 0.5725
kg K

s1 := sf_1

p 1 := 7.384kPa

kJ
sfg_1 := 7.6845
kg K

v f_1 := 0.0010078

h f_1 := 167.57

kJ

v 1 := v f_1

kg

h fg_1 := 2406.7

kg

kJ

h 1 := h f_1

kg

assume vf = v1 constant, isentropic, ds = 0 =>T*ds= 0 => h2 = h1+v1*dp from

state 2: pump outlet

relationships Tds = dh + v*dp integrated with constant v and Tds = 0

p 2 := 30bar

s2 := s1

wp := h 1 h 2

Cp := 4.184

using Cp

kJ
wp = 3.016
kg

and ... eqn 5.18

state 3: boiler outlet

p 3 := p 2

h 2 := h 1 + v 1 p 2 p 1
kJ

kJ

kg

kg K

h 2 = 170.586

T2 := T1 +

h2 h1
Cp

interpolation

state 4: turbine outlet

h 3 = 3366.5

h 4 = 2216

kJ

th =

(h3 h4) (h2 h1)

h 3 h 2
QH := h 3 h 2

work_net
QH

QH + QL
QH

wt + wp
QH

th = 0.359

kJ
s3 = 7.113
kg K

kJ
wt = 1150

kg

(h3 h4) + (h1 h2)

h3 h2

th :=

QL := h 1 h 4
th_1 :=

10/17/2005

kg

wt := h 3 h 4

kg

thermal efficiency

th :=

kJ

isentropic expansion to 40 deg C

s4 := s3

determine h4 from x

s4 sf_1
=>
s4 = sf_1 + x sfg_1
x :=
x = 0.851
sfg_1

h 4 := h f_1 + h fg_1x

kg

T2 = 40.721

p 3 = 3 MPa

from interpolation Table A.1.3 P=3MPa page 622

kJ

actual units

h 2 h 1 = Cp T2 T1

T3 := 460

wt + wp
h3 h2

QH + QL
QH

th = 0.359

th_1 = 0.359

same cycle with regeneration

extract steam at 400kPa (4 bar) from turbine to mix

with condensate to become saturated liquid at 400kPa
1 - vacuum; (1-m 1 ) saturated liquid

T=40 C

Wt

Turbine

2 - sub cooled liquid at feed heater

pressure P=400 kPa

Boiler

Q_dotH

3 - saturated liquid at 400 kPa

4 - sub cooled liquid at boiler

pressure P=3 MPa

Feed
Pump

Condenser
Regenerative
3 feed heater 2

5 - superheated vapor T=460 C

Q_dotL

6 - (m1 ) superheated vapor @ 400

kPa or ... vapor + liquid @ saturation
temperature and pressure tbd

Wfp

Wcp
Condensate Pump

7 - (1-m1 ) vapor + liquid @ saturation

temperature and pressure

the state values are identical to the reference, however the fraction
of total mass flow is less = 1-m 1

state 1: condenser outlet (1-m1)

T1 := 40

Table 1 or Table A.1.1

kJ
sf_1 := 0.5725
kg K

s1 := sf_1

s2 := s1

h 2 := h f_1 + v f_1 p 2 p 1
kJ
wcp = 0.396
kg

state 3: regeneration out

kJ

kg

h fg_1 := 2406.7

kg

kJ
kg

h 1 := h f_1

T2 := T1 +

h 2 = 167.966
h2 h1
Cp

kJ
kg

T2 = 40.095

mass rate = 1; saturated liquid at p_feed = 4bar

T3 := 143.63

p 2 = 400 kPa
v 3 := 1.0836 10
10/17/2005

h f_1 := 167.57

relationships Tds = dh + v*dp integrated with constant v and Tds = 0

wcp := h f_1 h 2

p 3 := p 2

kJ
sfg_1 := 7.6845
kg K

v f_1 := 0.0010078

assume vf constant, isentropic, ds = 0 =>T*ds= 0 => h 2 = h1 +v1 *dp from

state 2: condensate
pump outlet (1-m1)
p 2 := 4bar

p 1 := 7.384kPa

h 3 := 604.74

3
3m

kJ
kg

h fg_3 := 2133.9

kg

kJ
s3 := 1.7766
kg K
kJ
kg

kJ
sfg_3 := 5.1193
kg K

state 4: feed pump out

h 4 := h 3 + v 3 p 4 p 3

kJ
wfp = 2.817
kg

wfp := h 3 h 4

state 5: boiler outlet

p 5 := p 4

p 4 := 3MPa

T5 := 460

state 6: turbine outlet

#1, partial flow (m1)

h 5 := 3366.6

h4 h3

x 6 :=

s6 s3

kJ

s4 := s3

kg

kJ
s5 := 7.1144

kg K

kg

x 6 = 1.043

sfg_3

T6 := T3
1 kJ
s6 = 7.114
K kg

kJ

T4 = 144.303

Cp

expansion to p3 with same s as regeneration heating

determine h4 from x

=>

p = 4bar = 400kPa

h 4 = 607.557

Table 2 or interpolate as above

p 5 = 3 MPa

s6 = s3 + x 6 sfg_3

T4 := T3 +

p 6 := p 3

s6 := s5

new!! ... mass fraction has to be > 1

for heat balance to work. this says
extraction steam is superheated. x
relationship doesn't apply. need to
interpolate in superheated region

find T and h by interpolation

interpolation

h 6 := 2834.491

kJ

T6 := 187.702

kg

state 7: turbine outlet

#2, partial flow (1-m1)

expansion to p3 with same s as regeneration

heating; determine h7 from x
s7 = s1 + x sfg_1

x 7 :=

=>

h 7 := h 1 + h fg_1x 7

s7 s1

T7 := T1

x 7 = 0.851

sfg_1

h 7 = 2216.42

s7 := s5

kJ
kg

now we can do the turbine flow through 6 = m1 treat like x; combination of m 1 at h6 and (1-m1) at h2 = h3
for heat balance out of feed heater

m1 h 6 + 1 m1 h 2 = h 3

h3 h2
m1 =
h6 h2

h3 h2
m1 :=
h6 h2

)(

wt := h 5 h 6 + 1 m1 h 6 h 7

thermal efficiency

th :=

kJ
wt = 1048.94
kg

)
(

wt + wcp 1 m1 + wfp

h 5 h 4

wfp = 2817.36 Sv

th = 0.379

th_1 = 0.359

data for plots

10/17/2005

m1 = 0.164

Thermal efficiency using entropy average temperature approach

T5 = 460
h 5 = 3366.6

kJ

h 4 = 607.557

kg

kJ
s6 = 7.114
kg K

kJ

T1 = 40

kg

kJ
s4 = 1.777
kg K

1 kJ
s1 = 0.572

K
kg

we need to redefine efficiency for t average calculations

th =

QH QL
QH

=1

QH = mH T ds

QL
QH

T_barH =
and ...

h5 h4
T_barH :=
s5 s4

QL = mL T ds

T constant

( ) = hH

mH ( sH)
mH ( sH)
sH
T_barHmH ( sH) = QH
QH

mH h H

T_barH = 516.888 K

T_barL := T1 + 273.15 K

mH := 1

T_barL = 313.15 K

( )

T_barLmL sL = QL

(sH = s5 s4) (sL = s7 s1)

but ...

as ...

and when inserting into Q relationship have to put in m 1 values ...

t_avg_1 := 1

)(

T_barL 1 m1 s7
s1

T_barH s6 s3

but ...

s5 = s6 = s7
th = 1

t_avg_1 = 0.379

QL
QH

=1

T_barL

T_barH

t_avg_2 = 0.394

precise T avg

estimated T avg

t_avg_1 = 0.379

t_avg_2 = 0.394

actual regenerative
th = 0.379

"perfect regeneration"
data for saturation curve

10/17/2005

( )
T_barHmH ( sH)
T_barLmL sL

matches as expected

suppose we didn't allow for the difference in s and mass flow and just said

t_avg_2 := 1

s4 s1

reference
th_1 = 0.359

T-s Plot

500

T degrees C

400

300

200

100

4
5
6
s entropy kJ/(kg*K)

10

h-s Plot

4000

h enthalpy kJ/kg

3000

2000

1000

10/17/2005

4
6
s entropy kJ/(kg*K)

10

close up of points 1 and 2

T - s plot

40

39
0.56

T - s plot

146

T degrees C

T degrees C

41

close up of points 3 and 4

144

142

1.7

0.565
0.57
0.575
s entropy kJ/(kg*K)

170

1.75
1.8
s entropy kJ/(kg*K)

620

h enthalpy kJ/kg

h enthalpy kJ/kg

615
168

605

166

0.56

600

0.57
0.58
0.59
s entropy kJ/(kg*K)

N.B. these scales are very exaggerated !!

10/17/2005

610

1.76
1.78
s entropy kJ/(kg*K)

Combustion

define some units

3

combustion of dodecane a parafin of type CnH2n

(represents diesel fuel) in stochiometric proportions:

kN := 10 N
6

MPa := 10 Pa

C12H26 + x O2 = y H2O + z CO2 + heat

kPa := 10 Pa
3

kJ := 10 J

kmol := 10 molebar := 0.1MPa

overkill in this case but general method represented by solution of simultaneous equations from elements involved
x := 1

Given
element:

C
z = 12

y := 1

z := 1

initial values for given

construct

x 2 = y + 2 z

26 = 2 y

x
y := Find( x, y , z)

x 18.5
y = 13

z 12

so combustion equation is
37
C12H26 + x O2 = y H2O + z CO2 + heat C12H26 +
O = 13 H2O + 12 CO2 + heat
2 2
O2 comes with nitrogen: 21% by volume and 23.3% by weight in air (79% N2 by volume and 76.7% N2 by
weight - ~ 1% Ar lumped with N2) so ... need 79/21 atoms (volume) N2 for each O2
18.5

79
21

= 69.6

and combustion is ...

C12H26 + 18.5 O2 + 69.6 N2 = 13 H2O + 12 CO2 + 69.6 N2 + heat

mw_O2 := 32

kg

mw_C12_H26 := (144 + 26)

kmol

mw_H2_O := (2 + 16)

kg
kmol

mw_C_O2 := (12 + 32)

kg
kmol

mw_N2 := 28

kg

this is on a stochiometric basis

(mole basis- i.e. 1 mole of
C12H26 combines with 18.5
moles of O2 etc.) or volume basis
to convert to weight use molecular
weights

kmol

kg
kmol

1kmolC12H26 + 18.5 kmolO2 + 69.6 kmolN2 = 13 kmolH2O + 12kmol CO2 + 69.6kmol N2 + LHV

1kmol mw_C12_H26 C H ... = 13 mw_H2_O kmolH O ... + LHV

12 26
2

170
170
18.5 kmol.mw_O2
12kmol mw_C_O2

O2 ...
CO2 ...
+
+
170
170
69.6 kmolmw_N2
69.6kmol

mw_N2
+
N2
+
N2
170
170

10/11/2004

this is divided by 170 - the

molecular weight of C12H26 to
express on a per 1 kg fuel basis
(1kmol) mw_C12_H26 = 170 kg

for symbolic calculation

result is ... combustion of C12H26 by weight ...

1kg C12 H26 + 3.48 kg O2 + 11.46 kg N2 = 1.38 kg H2O + 3.11 k C O2 + 11.46 kg N2 + heat
weight of air : weight of fuel = air-fuel ratio

air_fuel_ratio := 3.48 + 11.46

air_fuel_ratio = 14.94

In order to insure complete combustion,air is usually supplied in excess, see example below. Products would
include air i.e. O2 and N2
to analyze combustion process use first law ...

steady state, steady flow process ...

d
Qc_v +
dt

Vi
m_doti hi +
+ g zi =
n

work, KE and PE = 0 ..
conservation of mass ...
Q_dotc_v
m_dotf

m_dot = flow_rate (5.46)

2

Ve
d
m_dote he +
+ g ze + Wc_v
n

dt

Q_dotc_v + m_dotf hf + m_dota ha = m_dotp hp

(5.47)

p = products

m_dotp = m_dotf + m_dota

m_dota

m_dota

m_dota

hp hf +
ha = 1 +
hp hf +
h
m_dotf
m_dotf a
m_dotf
m_dotf

m_dotp

or per unit mass ...

Qc_v = HP HR

R = reactants

To quantitatively calculate this equation the basic approach would include accounting for the enthalpy of formation
of each of the entities in the process. To avoid repeatedly accounting for the enthalpy of formation of various fuels
a calculation (measurement) is done at a standard condition and then specific processes need only account for
the deviation from this standard. The standard chosen was 25 deg C and atmospheric pressure (100 kPa) designated the zero (0) subscript. e.g. the enthalpy of formation of C -> CO2 such that 1 kmol C combines with 1
kmol O2 to yield 1 kmol CO2 gives off 393,522 kJ/kmol. This measurement for fuels is accomplished and the net
result is tabulated as the heating value. If the H2O in the products is liquid it is the higher heating value (HHV), if
the H2) is vapor - the heating value is the lower heating vaue (LHV). The difference is due to the heat of
vaporization being extracted as heat.
negative as heating value usually
expressed as positive negative Q in
first law indicates heat given off

Qc_v_0 = HP0 HR0 = heating_value

some typical values ...

10/11/2004

distillate

heavy_bunker
dodecane = diesel
octane = gasoline

HHV LHV sp_gr

kJ

kJ

kg

kg

45900 43000 0.825

42900 40600 1.014

47470 44109 _
47893 44425

from Prof. Carmichael's notes

and Table 12.3 in Van Wylen
and Sonntag. dodecane and
octane are in liquid form. Vapor
form has slightly higher value same concept as HHV vs LHV

that is ...
kJ
Qc_v_0_octane = HP0 HR0 = heating_value = 47893
kg

fuel as liquid, water in preoduct as liquid

this enables us to write ...

) (

Qc_v = HP HR = HP HP0 HR HR0 + HP0 HR0 = HP HP0 HR HR0 heating_value

or ... writing for boiler, ...

Qc_v = QB = HR HR0 HP HP0 + heating_value

QB on unit mass basis

or on a specific enthalpy basis ...

m_dota
m_dota

= QB = hf hf0 +
ha ha0 1 +
hp hp0 + heating_value
m_dotf
m_dotf
m_dotf

Q_dotc_v

so ... in calculation of boiler process, need only to look up heating value for fuel - appropriate to its state as gas or

liquid and water product state as gas or liguid (HHV or LHV) then "correct" heat for deviation from standard state

using gas tables or other estimates.

With this result can calculate boiler efficiency ...

m_dota
m_air_dot
HV + hf hf0 +
ha ha0 1 +
h hp0
Q_dotc_v
QB
m_dotf
m_fuel_dot
p

B =
=
=

m_dotfHHV
HHV
HHV

if for example, the fuel and air entering the boiler are at standard conditions (25 deg C, atmospheric pressure) and
the H2O in the exhaust is vapor, the boiler efficiency becomes ...
ha ha0 = 0

m_air_dot
LHV 1 +
( h hp0)
m_fuel_dot p

B =
HHV

hf hf0 = 0

As an example, let's consider the effect of exhaust (stack) temperature on efficiency ... the calculations are

straight-forward but extensive. We will specify combustion with 15 % excess air of dodecane ...

The calculation of enthelpy of the products is the challenge. Either it can be done by "unlumping" the participants

or forming a weighted average of the product enthalpies.

10/11/2004

example ... combustion of dodecane with 15 % excess air, fuel and air entering at
standard conditions, H2O exhaust as vapor, estimate efficiency of the combustion
process with exhaust temperature of 120, 230, and 340 deg C. An additional calculation
at 226.85 deg C will be done to check the calculations. Assume also 1.5 % heat loss to
environment.
from above ..result is ... combustion of C12H26 by weight ... adjusted for 15 % excess air ... and using the LHV

1kg C12H26 + 3.48 kgO2 + 11.46 kgN2 1.15 = 1.38 kgH2O + 3.11 kgCO2 + 11.46 kg
N2 ... + LHV

+ 3.48 kg O + 11.46 kgN 0.15

2
2)
(

which is same as ... athough we will use elemental expression for enthalpy calculation - probably could use
air parameters

C12H26 + (3.48 + 11.46) 1.15air = 1.38 H2O + 3.1 C O2 + 11.46 N2 + (3.48 + 11.46) 0.15air + LHV
weighted average statement ....
where m_xx is mass of the
entity

m_H2_O hH O hH O0 + m_C_O2 hC O hC O 0 ...

2
2
2

+ m_N2 hN hN 0 + (m_O2 + m_N2) 0.15 ( hair hair 0)

hp hp0 =
m_H2_O + m_C_O2 + m_N2 + (m_O2 + m_N2) 0.15

to calculate enthalpies at non-standard conditions use constant-pressure specific heats from Table A.9 of Van
Wylen and Sonntag ...

O2

Cpo_O2( ) := 37.432 + 0.020102

C_O2

Cpo_C_O2( ) := 3.7357 + 30.529

N2

Cpo_N2( ) := 39.060 512.79

H2_O

Cpo_H2_0( ) := 143.05 183.54

120

230
+ 273.15 K T := T
T :=

340
100K
500 273.15

10/11/2004

1.5

178.57

0.5

1.5

+ 236.88

4.1034 + 0.024198

+ 1072.7

0.25

1.5

+ 82.751

3.93
5.03
T =
6.13
5

820.40

0.5

3.6989

kJ

T
100

kmol K
kJ
kmol K

given in
kJ/kmole*K so
divide by
molecular weight
to get kJ/kg*K

kJ

kmol K

kJ
kmol K

393.15
503.15
T=
K
613.15
500

T0 := (25 + 273.15)K

500 273.15 = 226.85

integrate

dh = CpdT

with variable change to .

hH_2OT = h
h

H2O H2O0

i := 0 .. 3

H2_O

Ti

K 100

kJ
Cpo_H2_0( ) 100 d

kmol

T0

K 100

hH_2OT :=
i
mw_H2_O

C_O2

Ti

K 100

kJ
Cpo_C_O2( ) 100 d

kmol

T0

K 100

hC_O2T :=
i
mw_C_O2

178.81

390.4 kJ
hH_2OT =
609.19
kg
384.25

84.39

191.77 kJ
hC_O2T =
307.3
kg
188.57

N2

Ti

kJ
K 100
Cpo_N2( ) 100 d

kmol

T0

K 100

hN2T :=
i
mw_N2

99.01

214.22 kJ
hN2T =
331.66
kg
210.9

O2

Ti

kJ
K 100
Cpo_O2( ) 100 d

kmol

T0

K 100

hO2T :=
i
mw_O2

10/11/2004

88.02

193.2 kJ
hO2T =
302.34
kg
190.13

etc....

these data could also have been obtained from gas tables. as a check the values for the reference temperature
were obtained fromTable A.11 of VW &S - taken from the gas tables
kJ
hH_2OT mw_H2_O = 6916.45
3
kmol

6920 in table A.11

kJ
hC_O2T mw_C_O2 = 8297.06
3
kmol

8314 in table A.11

kJ
hN2T mw_N2 = 5905.1
3
kmol

5912 in table A.11

kJ
hO2T mw_O2 = 6084.08
3
kmol

6088 in table A.11

now calculate weighted average ... separating air into N2 and O2

m_H2_O := 1.38

hprod :=

m_C_O2 := 3.1

m_N2 := 11.46 1.15

h.prod is weighted average of products

m_O2 := 3.48 0.15

102.26
223.16 kJ
hprod =
347.73 kg
219.65

hH_2OTm_H2_O + hC_O2Tm_C_O2 + hN2Tm_N2 + hO2Tm_O2

m_H2_O + m_C_O2 + m_N2 + m_O2

LHV := 44109

LHV
B
=

HHV := 47470

kg

kJ
kg

1 + m_air_dot h h

(
p0)
m_fuel_dot
p

HHV

air_fuel_ratio =
in this case

B :=

kJ

m_air_dot
m_fuel_dot

in stochiometric combustion

= 14.94

air_fuel_ratio := 14.94 1.15

LHV (1 + air_fuel_ratio) hprod

HHV

0.985

if we had just calculated the products individually, instead of

the weighted average ...

0.877
0.831

B =
0.784

0.832

heat loss accounted for

by reucing net heat from
combustion * 0.985

C12H26 + (3.48 + 11.46) 1.15air = 1.38 H2O + 3.1 CO2 + 11.46 N2 + (3.48 + 11.46) 0.15air + LHV

B :=

LHV 1.38 hH_2OT + 3.1 hC_O2T + 11.46 1.15 hN2T + 3.48 0.15 hO2T

10/11/2004

HHV

0.985

0.877
0.831
B =
0.784
0.832

effect of excess air

air_fuel_ratio =

m_air_dot

in stochiometric combustion

= 14.94

m_fuel_dot

0.1
exc_air := 0.15

0.25
m_H2_O := 1.38

j := 0 .. 2

m_C_O2 := 3.1

m_N2 := 11.46 1 + exc_air

j

m_O2 := 3.48 exc_air

hH_2OT m_H2_O + hC_O2T m_C_O2 + hN2T m_N2 + hO2T m_O2

j
j
i
i
i
i

hprod :=
i, j

m_H2_O + m_C_O2 + m_N2 + m_O2

j

102.51
223.75
hprod =
348.71
220.23

in this case

i, j

i,0

:=

LHV 1 + air_fuel_ratio hprod

j
i, j
HHV

223.16 222.11 kJ

347.73 345.99 kg
219.65 218.62

heat loss accounted for

by reucing net heat from
combustion * 0.985

air_fuel_ratio := 14.94 (1 + exc_air)

j

102.26 101.82

0.878
0.834
0.985
B =
0.789
0.836

0.877 0.874

0.831 0.825

0.784 0.774

0.832 0.826

0.85

i,1

i,2

0.8

0.75
120

140

160

180

200

220

240

Ti273.15

10/11/2004

260

280

300

320

340

define some units

Some Relationships for Gases

these are extracted from Van Wylen & Sonntag, Fudamentals of Classical
Thermodynamics, Third Edition to which page numbers and equation numbers apply

2006: included reference to text: Woud section 2.23 in [W n.nn]

kJ := 10 J
3

kmol := 10 mole

section 3.4 Equations of state for the vapor phase

of a simple compressile substance - page 41

(Woud page 20)

p v = RT

gas at low density (experiment)

R_bar := 8.3144
R=

kJ

p V = m RT

or ...

p v = R T

for R_bar above

p 1 v 1

(3.2)

(3.1)
kJ

units sometimes ...

kmol K

mw = molecular_weight

mw

R = universal_gas_constant

xxx = mole_basis

T1

mw =

p 2 v 2

kg_mol K

kg

kmol

[W 2.32, 2.33[

(3.5)

T2

section 4.3 Work done at moveable boundary of

simple compressible system - page 63
V

if ...

p V = constant

2 1
2
V2
dV = p 1 V1 ln
W1_2 =
p dV = p 1 V1

V
V1
1
V

n=1

(4.5)

section 5.6 The Constant-Volume and

Constant-Pressure Specific Heats - page 98
specific heat = increment of heat Q to change T by 1 deg

two cases: 1) constant volume

Q = dU + pV

cp =
10/23/2006

cv =

Q = dU + pV = H

1 Q
1 H
h

=
=
m T
m T
T

cp =

1
m

= specfic

constant volume
(5.4)

W = pV = 0

dKE = dPE = 0

1 Q
1 U
u

=
=
m T
m T
T

2) constant pressure

1 Q

m T

1 Q

m T

Q = dE + W = dU + dKE + dPE + W

1st law ...

cv =

cv =

c=

u
T
as ....

h
T

constant volume

(5.14)

[W 2.36]

dH = d ( U + p V) = dU + p dV + V dp dp = 0

constant pressure

(5.15)

[W 2.37]

section 5.7 The Internal Energy, Enthalpy

and Specific Heats of Ideal Gases - page 100

p v = R T

ideal gas

cv =

also ...

experiment (Joule)

u = f( T)

du = cvodT

u not a function of v =>

h = u + p v = u ( T) + R T = h ( T)

cp =

h
T

po

cpo = cvo + R

du
dT

+R

differentiate w.r.t T

(5.27)

section 7.10 Entropy Change of an

Ideal Gas - page 206

du = cvodT

p v = R T

and ...

dT
dv
ds = cvo
+ R
T
v

(7.19)

T ds = dh v dp
dh = cpodT

dp

T ds = du + p dv

(7.21)

=>

T
p = R
v

=>

(7.7)

p v = R T

=>

(5.29)

[W 2.38]

[W 2.18]

T
T ds = cvodT + R dv
v

T2
v2
s2 s1 = cvoln
+ R ln (7.24)
T1
v1

(7.7)
and ...

ds = cpo
R
T
p

10/23/2006

h 2 h 1 = cpo T2 T1
otherwise integrate if c(T) known or tables

with constant c

dT

dT

cpo cvo = R

or ...

(5.24)

=> constant pressure

ideal gas
dh

h = u + pv = u + R T

relation between c vo and c po ...

(5.20)

i.e. h = F(T) only

dh = cpodT

=>

=> constant volume

ideal gas

vo

cvo = constant
otherwise integrate or use
tables

[W 2.21]
=>

v = R

=>

T2
p2
s2 s1 = cpoln
R ln
T1
p1

T
T ds = cpodT R dp
p
(7.23)

cpo = constant
otherwise integrate or use
tables

page 211 introduce specific heat

ratio

cpo

cpo cvo = R

from above

(7.30)

cvo = cpo R = cvo R

changing signs ...

cvo =

similarly ...

= ( T)

[W 2.44]

cvo

cpo cvo = R

c = c ( T)

cvo ( 1 ) = R

=>

(7.31)

cpo = R + cvo = R +

cpo = R

as ...

cpo

cpo 1

=>

= R = cpo

(7.31)

for constant specific heat = perfect gas

T ds = du + p dv = 0

reversible, adiabatic process ...

du + p dv = cvodT + p dv

reversible, adiabatic ...

p v = R T

=>

dT =

1
R

( p dv + v dp)

cvo
cvo
R 1
0 = cvodT + p dv =
(p dv + v dp) + p dv =
(p dv + v dp) + p dv =
( p dv + v dp) + p dv
R
R
1 R
( p dv + v dp) + p dv( 1 ) = v dp + pdv = 0

=>

ln( p ) + ln( v ) = constant

integrating ...

p1 v1
T1

dv
v

or ...

dividing by pv

= 0

(7.32)

p v = constant

[W 2.49]

p2 v2

v1

=>

T2

v2

v 1 T1 p 2 T1 p 2
= =
=

p1
v 2 T2 p 1 T2 p 1
p2

v 1

p1
v 2

p2

rearranging ...

for ideal gas

dp

=>

p 2 T1
T1 p 2

T2 p 1
T2 p 1

=>

p2

p1

=>

T1
=

T2

T1
=

p1
T2
p2

T2

T1

and ... for reversible adiabatic process constant specific heat (ideal gas)

p2
=
T1
p1
T2

10/23/2006

v 1

v 2

(7.35)

or ...

T p
T v

= T p

= constant

= constant

[W 2.47]

[W 2.48]

to explore the effect of temperature on the coefficients of specific heat the following is
provided
to calculate enthalpies at non-standard conditions one approach is to use constant-pressure specific heats from
Table A.9 of Van Wylen and Sonntag ... The applicable temperature range for these materials is 300 - 3500 deg K
with less than approximately 0.5 % maximum error to experimental values. see also figure 5.10 on page 103.

O2

Cpo_O2 ( ) := 37.432 + 0.020102

C_O2

Cpo_C_O2 ( ) := 3.7357 + 30.529

N2

Cpo_N2 ( ) := 39.060 512.79

H2_O

Cpo_H2_0 ( ) := 143.05 183.54

1.5

178.57

0.5

1.5

+ 236.88

4.1034 + 0.024198

+ 1072.7

0.25

1.5

+ 82.751

820.40

0.5

kJ

T
100

kmol K
given in
kJ/kmole*K so
divide by
molecular weight
to get kJ/kg*K

kJ

kmol K

kJ
kmol K
kJ

3.6989

kmol K

air based on volumetric average as these are on mole basis ...

air

Cpo_air( ) := 0.21 Cpo_O2 ( ) + 0.79 Cpo_N2 ( )

T := 300 .. 3500
Specific Heat (Constant Pressure) Cp

Specific Heat (Constant Pressure) Cp

70

70

60

specific heat

specific heat

60

O2
CO2
N2
H2O
air

50

40

20
200

400

600

800

50

40

20

1000

1000

2000

Temperature deg K

Temperature deg K

relatively constant at reasonably low temperatures

10/23/2006

O2
CO2
N2
H2O
air

30

30

T in deg
K

3000

the next section was added Nov 2005 to organize plots for Brayton and dual (Seiliger) cycles

applications of above relationships to processes

R := 0.287

:= 1.4

kJ

cpo := 1.0035

cvo :=

kg
K

cpo

cvo = 0.717

units assumed are p = bar, v = m 3 /kg, T = K, s = kJ/kg*K

100 necesary for consistency in numerical calculations without units.

isentropic adiabatic compression (expansion) _______________________________

pressure ratio known
p initial := 1

Tinitial := 400

sinitial := 1

v initial :=

R Tinitial

v initial = 1.148

p initial100

p final
Tfinal := Tinitial

pinitial

p final := 10

pinitial
v final := v initial

p final

sfinal := sinitial

Tfinal = 772.279

v final = 0.222

sfinal = 1

p - v plot parameterized on either p or v say p

p :=

p final p initial

to plot 20 points and accomodate increases and decreases

20

pp := p initial , p initial + p .. p final

T - s is straight line, need 2 points

p initial
v_plot( pp) := v initial

pp

Ts_plot :=

Tinitial sinitial
Tfinal sfinal

p-v isentropic compression (expansion)

800

600

400
0.99
0.4

0.6

0.8

1.2

0.995

1
s

10/23/2006

400 1

772.279 1

T-s isentropic compression (expansion)

10

0
0.2

Ts_plot =

1.005

isentropic adiabatic compression (expansion) _______________________________

volume ratio known
v initial := 1

Tinitial := 400

sinitial := 1
1

vinitial
Tfinal := Tinitial

v final

v final :=

10

Tfinal = 1.005 10

R Tinitial

p initial :=

p initial = 1.148

v initial100

vinitial
p final := p initial

v final

sfinal := sinitial

p final = 28.836

sfinal = 1

p - v plot parameterized on either p or v say p

p :=

p final p initial

to plot 20 points and accomodate increases and decreases

20

pp := p initial , p initial + p .. p final

T - s is straight line, need 2 points

pinitial
pv_plot( pp) := v initial

pp

Ts_plot :=

Tinitial sinitial

Tfinal sfinal

p-v isentropic compression (expansion)

Ts_plot =

1
400

1.005 10 1

T-s isentropic compression (expansion)

40

1500

1000
20

500
0
0.99

0.2

0.4

0.6

or ....

1
s

0.8

v :=

v final v initial

to plot 20 points and accomodate increases and decreases

20

vv := v initial , v initial + v .. v final

vinitial
pv_plot( vv) := p initial

vv

p-v isentropic compression (expansion)

40

0.995

20

same plot as above

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

v
10/23/2006

1.005

heat transfer at constant pressure .... ________________________________________

set up to go from T initial to Tfinal at p = constant, sinitial assumed = 1
Tinitial := 298

sinitial := 1

Tfinal := 500

p constant := 3 bar

v initial = 1

final end state calculation

Tfinal
sfinal := sinitial + cpo ln

Tinitial

sfinal = 1.519

v final = 0.1

inbetween states for plotting .......

p - v is a straight line
needing only end
points to plot

pv_plot :=

if desired for a simulation where interim p v points are

required, choose one parameter, e.g. T or v and
calculate v or T using pv/T = R for the other

p constant vinitial

p constant v final

pv_plot =

TT := Tinitial .. Tfinal

3 1

3 0.1

splot(TT) := sinitial + cpo ln

T

initial

heat transfer constant pressure

TT

heat transfer constant pressure

3.004

500

3.002
400
T

300

2.998

2.996

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

200

1.2

1.4

v
s

10/23/2006

1.6

heat transfer at constant volume .... ________________________________________

set up to go from T initial to Tfinal at v = constant, s initial assumed = 1

Tinitial := 450

sinitial := 1

Tfinal := 298

v constant := 0.3

p initial :=

R Tinitial

p initial = 4.305

v constant100

final end state calculation

Tfinal
sfinal := sinitial + cvo ln

Tinitial

sfinal = 0.705

p final :=

R Tfinal

p final = 2.851

v constant100

inbetween states for plotting .......

p - v is a straight line
needing only end
points to plot

pv_plot :=

p initial

pfinal

pv_plot =

if desired for a simulation where interim p v points are

required, choose one parameter, e.g. T or v and
calculate v or T using pv/T = R for the other
v constant

TT := Tinitial .. Tfinal

v constant

4.305 0.3

2.851 0.3

splot(TT) := sinitial + cvo ln

T

heat transfer constant volume

4.5

450

400

3.5
T

heat transfer constant volume

initial
TT

350

3
300
2.5
0.2996

0.2998

0.3

0.3002

0.3004
250
0.7

0.8

0.9
s

10/23/2006

PROPERTIES OF GASES

Equation of State
For a perfect gas:
pv = RT
where p is pressure, N/m2, Pa, or kPa
v is specific volume, m3/kg
T is absolute temperature, K
R is the gas constant, J/kgK or kJ/kgK and R = R /M
where R is the Universal Gas Constant = 8.3144 kJ/kmole K
M is the molecular weight, e.g. for air Mair = 28.96 kg/kmol, Rair = 0.2871 kJ/kgK.
Other Properties
At moderate temperatures and pressures the properties internal energy and enthaply are assumed
to be independent of pressure.
u = u(T ,M) or for a particular gas u = u(T)
and
h = h(T ,M) or h = h(T)
specific heats:
cv = du/dT, cp = dh/dt, and cp / cv =
since h = u + pv = u + RT, then dh/dT = du/dT + R. Thus cp = cv + R and
cp - cv = R, or R = cp( -1)/ .
Second Law
Tds = dh -v dp
ds = dh/T -v dp/T = dh/T - R dp/p
for an isentropic process ds = 0
dh/T = R dp/p.
This expression may be integrated to give
T2 s

T1

p
dT
= R * ln 2
T
p1

For the special case where the specific heats remain constant this equation may be written as:
R

T2 s p 2 c p p 2
= =
T1 p1
p1

DVB modified from Prof. Carmichael version: Page 1

10/12/2004

Basic Practical diesel cycle

define some units

3

kN := 10 N
The textbook Diesel cycle is represented by all heat addition at constant
pressure. The Otto cycle which is implemented by the spark ignition internal
combustion engine adds all heat at constant volume. We will model a combined
or dual (Seiliger) cycle with a portion of the heat added at constant volume, the
remainder at constant pressure. Setting some parameters to be defined = 1 will
reduce to either the Otto or Diesel cycle.

kPa := 10 Pa
3

MPa := 10 Pa kJ := 10 J
3

kmol := 10 molebar := 0.1MPa

This model will use an ideal air standard cycle with air as an ideal gas with constant specific heats and reversible
processes to represent the behavior. The gas relationships are useful.
air-standard cycles ...
1. air as ideal gas is working fluid throughout cycle - no inlet or exhaust process
2. combustion process replaced by heat transfer process
3. cycle is completed by heat transfer to surroundings
4. all processes internally reversible
5. usually constant specific heat
(page 311)

basic practical diesel cycle

Assumptions for analysis ...
1. reversible cycle with all reversible processes
2. working fluid is air assumed to be a perfect gas with constant specific heats, = cp /cv = 1.4
3. mass of air in cylinder remains constant
4. combustion processes are represented by heat transfer from an external source. Constant volume or constant
pressure pocesses are done.
5. cycle is completed by cooling heat transfer to the surroundings until the air temperature and pressure return to
the initial conditions of the cycle (constant volume process).
1-2 isentropic compression
2-3 constant volume heat addition
3-4 constant pressure heat addition
4-5 isentropic expansion
5-1 constant volume cooling
data for plot

this is the shape ...

p-v Dual Cycle

Temperature (K)

pressure (bar)

T-s Dual Cycle

entropy (relative to s1)

volume (m^3/kg)

next we will put numbers on the plots => themodynamic analysis of dual (Seiliger) cycle

10/24/2006

The original notes are sourced from VanWylen and Sonntag. They could be revised to use the form of some of the
relationships from Woud, but at considerable effort. Rather what follows is the application of the equations developed
in the gas relationships lecture applied to the combined air-standard cycle deriving the relationships summarized in
Table 7.3 Analytical prediction of the Selinger process on page 245 of the text.
rc , a, b

v1
rc =
v2

a=

p3

b =

p2

v 4

v 3

stage 1-2

isentropic adiabatic compression (expansion) _______________________________

volume ratio known

v initial v1

rc =
=
p final = p initial
= = rc

v final
v2

vfinal

v2

v initial

v1

v1

p final

= rc

v2

p initial

= rc

v initial
Tfinal = Tinitial

vfinal

Tfinal

Tinitial

= rc

v1
=

v 2

= rc

stage 2-3

heat transfer at constant volume .... ________________________________________

p3
p2

=a

v1

p initial =

R Tinitial
v constant100
p3

=1

v2

p final =

R Tfinal

Tfinal

v constant100

Tinitial

Tfinal

=a

p2

Tinitial

p final
p initial

p3
p2

=a

= a

stage 3-4

heat transfer at constant pressure .... ________________________________________

b=

v4
v3

v final
v initial

v4
v3

v initial =

R Tinitial
p constant100
p4

=b

v final =

p3

R Tfinal

T4

p constant100
T4

=1

T3

T3

Tfinal
Tinitial

v final
v initial

=b

=b

stage 4-5
isentropic adiabatic compression (expansion) _______________________________
volume ratio known
v5
v4

v5 v3
v5 v3
v1 v3
rc

=
v3 v4
v3 v4
v2 v4
b

as v5 = v1 and v 2 = v3

v initial v 4
1
p final = p initial

= p 4 = p 4

vfinal

v 5
c

10/24/2006

=p
5

[W 7.68 & 7.69]

v initial
Tfinal = Tinitial

vfinal

v5

v4

v4
= T4

v5

1
= T4
r
c

= T5

rc
=
p 5
b

rc

p4

rc
=
T5
b

T4

N.B. ratios are

inconsistent 5/4 ... 4/5

stage 5-1

heat transfer at constant volume .... ________________________________________

v5
v1

=1
p5

v1

v constant100

p4 = p3
=
p1
p4

p5

p1

v5

R Tinitial

p initial =

p final =

p5 p3 p2

=
p4 p2 p1

p5
=1

p1

= a b

R Tfinal
v constant100

rc

arc = a b

T5

T1

p initial

so ...

p final

Tinitial
Tfinal

p5
p1

T5

T1

= a b

this one is initial/final

Now, applying the gas relationships to the calculation of states around the air-standard
combined cycle
:= 1.4

constants ...

cv := 0.7165

kJ

cp := 1.0035

kg K

kJ

R := 0.287

kg K

kJ
kg K

given ... T1 , v 1 (calc) , s1 , p 1 , rv , rp , rc

kJ
s1 := 1
kg

T1 := 295K

p 1 := 1bar

rv := 12.5 rp := 1.38 rc := 1.86 v 1 :=

R T1

v 1 = 0.847

p1

kg

rv = compression ratio rc in text

rp = pressure ratio during constant volume heat addition = a in text
rc = cut-off ratio. portion of stroke during which constant pressure heat addition occurs = b in text
v1
rv =
= rc
v2

p3
rp =
=a
p2

v 4

rc =
= b

v3

1-2 isentropic compression of air

1

p2
=
T1

p1

T2

v1
=
v2

s2 := s1

v 2 :=

v1
rv

(7.35)

this .. for reversible

adiabatic process
1

v1
T2 := T1

v2

p 2 :=

v 2 = 0.068
10/24/2006

kg

T2 = 810.188 K

p 2 = 34.33 bar

R T2
v2

v1
=
T1

v2

T2

v1
p2 = p1

v 2

later we will plot on T-s and p-v so the relationships for intermediate states is shown. Any state value can serve as
the plot parameter, but we will use temperature.
T1 T_plot T2

T2
T1

s = s1 = s2 = constant

v1

v2

T2
and ...

T1

p2

p1

so ...

T1
v_plot = v 1

T_plot

and ...

T_plot
p_plot = p 1

T1

2-3 constant volume heat addition using rp during constant volume portion of heat addition ...
v 3 := v 2

p 3 := p 2 rp

p v = R T

(3.2)

p 3 = 47.375 bar
p1 v1
T1

T2
v2
s2 s1 = cvo ln
+
R

ln

T1
v1

p2 v2

p3

(3.5)

T2

(7.21)

v2 = v3

need to calculate T3

T3

p3
T3 := T2
p2

p2
T2

T3
s3 := s2 + cv ln
K

T2

cvo = constant

T3 = 1.118 10 K
kJ
s3 = 1.231
kg

for later plotting

T2 T_plot T3

T_plot
s_plot = s2 + cv ln
K
T2

p-v are end points v = constant

(straight lines) although intermediate
states would be determined from the
state equation ...

p_plot =

R T_plot
v2

3-4 heat added at constant pressure with rc

v 4 := v 3 rc

p 4 := p 3

T4 :=

p4 v4
R

v 4 = 0.126

kg

p 4 = 47.375 bar

T2
p2
s2 s1 = cpo ln
R ln
T1
p1
for later plotting
T3 T_plot T4

v5
=
T5

v4

cpo = constant

T_plot
s_plot = s3 + cp ln
K
T2

4-5 isentropic expansion

T4

(7.23)

T4 = 2.08 10 K

v 5 := v 1

T4
s4 := s3 + cp ln
K
T3

p-v are end points v = constant

(straight lines) although
intermediate states would be
determined from the state
equation ...

s5 := s4

T5 = 970.553 K

p 5 :=

as with isentropic compression above using T as the plot parameter ...

T4 T_plot T5

10/24/2006

decreasing ...

s = s4 = s5 = constant

v_plot =

kJ
s5 = 1.854
kg

v4
T5 := T4

v5

kJ
s4 = 1.854
kg

R T5
v5

p 5 = 3.29 bar

R T_plot
p2

T5
T4

v4

v5

T5
and ...

T4

p5

p4

5-1 constant volume cooling

so ...

T4

T_plot

v_plot = v 4

T1
s1 := s5 + cv ln
K

T5

and for later plotting ...

T5 T_plot T1

T_plot
s_plot = s5 + cv ln
K
T5

295
810

1118 K
2080
971

295

s1

s2
s
3 =
s4

s5
s

1.231 kJ
1.854 kg
1.854

check
closure
of s1

p1

p2
p
3 =
p4

p5
p

34.33

47.375 bar
47.375
3.29

T_plot

T4

kJ
s1 = 1
kg

p-v are end points v = constant

(straight lines) although
intermediate states would be
determined from the state
equation ...

decreasing ...

T1

T2
T
3 =
T4

T5
T

p_plot = p 4

and ...

v1

v2
v
3 =
v4

v5
v

p_plot =

0.847
0.068

3
0.068 m
0.126 kg
0.847

0.847

now for plotting, including the intermediate values ... details in area below, relationships developed above
parameterization of T-s, p-v

T-s Dual Cycle T3 -s3 shown

p-v Dual Cycle p2 v2 shown

60
pressure (bar)

Temperature (K)

3000
2000
1000

1.5

entropy (relative to s1)

10/24/2006

40
20
0

0.5
volume (m^3/kg)

R T_plot

v2

now for calculations of efficiency

v 1

r = compression ratio rv =

v 2

v
p3
T3
r = pressure ratio during constant volume heat addition rp =
at constant volume (ideal gas law pv=RT)
=
p2
T2
p
v4
T4

at constant

r = cut-off ratio. portion of stroke during which constant pressure heat addition occurs rc =
=
v3
T3

c
pressure (ideal gas law pv=RT)

1-2 isentropic compression of air

1
1

p2
=
T1
p1
T2

v 1

=
v2

v1
=
T1
v2
T2

this .. for reversible

adiabatic process

(7.35)

= rv

v1

p 2 = p 1 = p 1 rv
v2

2-3 constant volume heat addition using rp during constant volume portion of heat addition ...
T3

QH1 = m cv T3 T2 = m cv T2
1 = m
cv T2 rp 1
T2

3-4 heat added at constant pressure with rc

T3
T4

QH2 = m cp T4 T3 = m cp T3
1 = m cp T3 rc 1 = m
cp T2
r 1 = mcv.T2 rp rc 1
T2 c
T3

substituting = cp /cv and rp = T3 /T 2

5-1 constant volume cooling

T5
QL = mcv T5 T1 = mcv T1
1
T1

T5

p5

p5 p4 p3 p2
=
=

=
T1
p1
p4 p3 p2 p1

v4
v1 v4

1r

p v = v rp = rp rc
v5

2 3

QL = mcv T1 rp rc 1

=>

/\
as v5 = v1 and v 2 = v3
combining these for thermal efficiency of the cycle ...
th = 1 +

QL
QH

=1

T1 rp rc 1

T2 rp 1 + rp rc 1

rp rc 1

= 1

rv

rv
10/24/2006

rv = 12.5
rp = 1.38

rp rc 1

th := 1

rp 1 + rp rc 1

rp 1 + rp rc 1

th = 0.592

rc = 1.86

and we could calculate the work per cycle

W = QH1 + QH2 + QL = m cv T3 T2 + m cp T4 T3 m cv T5 T1
m := 1

for per unit mass calculation in mcd

QH1 := m cv T3 T2

kJ
QH1 = 220.59
kg

kJ
QH2 = 964.897
kg

kJ
QL = 484.034
kg

QH2 := m cp T4 T3
QL := mcv T5 T1
W := QH1 + QH2 + QL

W = 701.453

can also express as ...

kJ

W = 701.453

kg

N.B. this specific power is more than double LM 2500

swept_volume
W

Imep =

W m
V1 V2

work

m=

V1 V2

p 1 V1
R T1

V1 V2

W
=

p1
R T1

V2

Imep :=

in this example ...

unit_time

2-stroke ne = # power
strokes/time

W
=

Sulzer RT-flex96C, Sulzer RTA96C (two

stroke)

p1
R T1

rv

R
T1
1

Imep = 9.005 bar

n e = engine_rpm

time is period of power strokes = 1/freq = 1/(n e =engine_rpm)

Wi
Pi =
=
period_power_stroke

Wi
1
freq

4-stroke ne = 2*# power

strokes/time
with ...

i = number_of_cylinders

wartsila 64 (four stroke)

R
T1

rv
consider indicated power, ref: Woud 7.4.2-3
work_per_cycle

kg

p1

power_per_cyl =

kg

n e

Pi = Wi
2

= Win e

n e = engine_rpm

k = if ( stroke = 2 , 1 , 2)

engine power is ...

n ei
n ei

Pi = Wi
= Imep
VS
k
k

brake power PB, power at engine drive flange, after mechanical losses in engine see Woud (7.12) and 7.4.1

10/24/2006

wartsila 32 (four stroke)

p 1 V1

V1
W

kW

some diesel examples ...

Indicated Mean Effective Pressure; Imep

work_per_stroke

W1 := th QH1 + QH2
kW
W1 = 701.296

another parameter describing diesel engines

Imep =

We =

effective_work
unit_mass

Wi
mass

mechanical

n ei
n ei

Pe = We
= mepeVS
k
k

Pe = constant mepe n e

for later discussion

mepe = mean_effective_pressure = brake_mean_effective_pressure = BMEP

Pek
mepe =
=
VSn ei

Pe
ne
VS i
k

power_per_cyl
n e

VS

COLT-PIELSTICK PC4.2B DATA

Configuration Vee Only

Bore 570 mm

Stroke 660 mm

Engine Version 60 Hz Propulsion

Cylinder (nos) 10-12-16-18

Output Range (kW) 12,500-22,500 13,250-23,850

Speed (rpm) 400 400/430

Mean Eff. Pressure (bar) 22.3 22.3/22.0

Mean Piston Speed (m/s) 8.8 8.8/9.5

Output/cyl kW (hp) 1250 (1676) 1250 (1676)/1325 (1777)

from: page 16 of Fairbanks Morse medium speed diesel handbook

power_per_cyl := 1250kW

2
VS := bore stroke
4

n e :=

400

n_stroke := 4

min

VS = 5.948 ft

mepe :=

k := if ( n_stroke = 2 , 1 , 2) bore := 570mm

power_per_cyl

as stated in data
above

mepe = 22.266 bar

ne
VS
k

stroke := 660mm

two special cases (can be calculated above setting r p and rc appropriately ...

Otto cycle - spark ignition engine heat added at TDC (constant volume) only

extra subscript added

for special designation

air-standard Otto cycle: spark ignition internal-combustion engine

1-2 isentropic compression of air

2-3(=4) heat added at constant volume (piston momentarily at rest at tdc

4-5 isentropic expansion

5-1 heat rejection at constant volume (piston at crank-end dead center)

from air standard dual cycle above

th = 1 +

10/24/2006

QL
QH

=1

T1 rp rc 1

T2 rp 1 + rp rc 1

rp rc 1

=1
rv

rp 1 + rp rc 1

rco := 1

rporco

th_otto := 1

o 1

rc := 1.0

th_otto := 1
rv

o 1

rvo

0.475

th_otto = 0.602

0.661

removing o
designation

th_otto 1

rpo 1 + o rpo rco 1

rvo

5
rp := 5 rv := 10

15

and ... Diesel cycle ... all heat added at constant pressure
air-standard Diesel cycle: compression ignition internal-combustion engine
1-2(=3) isentropic compression of air
3-4 heat added at constant pressure (gas expanding during heat addition)
4-5 isentropic expansion
5-1 heat rejection at constant volume (piston at crank-end dead center)
d

rpd := 1

rpdrrcd

th_diesel := 1

d 1

rvd

th_diesel 1

rpd 1 + d rpd rcd 1

10
rp := 1 rv := 15

20

rc := 2.5

rv

d 1

rc 1

d rcd 1

rvd
rc 1

th_diesel := 1

rcd

0.506
th_diesel = 0.58

0.625

Relate rc, a, b to efficiency

v1
rv =
= rc
v2

p3
rp =
=a
p2

v 4

rc =
= b

v 3

reset variables

rp rc
1

th := 1
rv

rp 1 + rp rc 1

substitute, var1 = var2, where var1 is to be replaced

th substitute , rv = rcc , rp = a, rc = b , = 1

10/24/2006

a b 1
.4

rcc a 1 + a( b 1)

[W 7.87]

Diesel Engine continued

units definition

kJ := 1000J

Limitations of air standard cycle

Features of real engine:
real gas properties
combustion parameters modify rate of pressure change
heat transfer occurs during process & cylinder cooling
intake and exhaust processes modify parts of the p-v diagram
valve losses
friction between piston rings and cylinder walls => reduced power output
turbocharging modifies some of process
data for plot

ftr := 1

ftr = 1 for model

p-v Dual Cycle

pressure (bar)

60

fuel
injected

40

20

exhaust valve opens

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

exhaust valve closes

volume (m^3/kg)
indicator diagram

theoretical model for analysis

supercharging or turbocharging
mf_dot fuel

intake

engine

exhaust

inlet pressure increased + increased mass of air;

need more fuel; power ~ mass
but .. pressure + => increased loads
mass further increased by cooler
normally driven by exhaust turbine

stack

ma_dot air
compressor

10/25/2006

see Woud 7.6

turbine

Designation of diesels (somewhat arbitrary)

slow speed
70 -250 rpm
76-250 rpm (2 stroke)

RPM

piston ft/min
speed m/sec
BMEP psi
bar

1200-1600
6.1 - 8.1
190-300
13-21

medium speed
350-1200 rpm
400-1000 rpm

high speed
>1200 rpm A.D.C.
750-1000 rpm Manbw.com marine
engine programmes

1200-1800
6.1-9.1
190-350
13-24

1600-2000

8.1-10.2

100-300

7 - 21

2 stroke; 4 stroke

turbocharged vs. normal aspiration

fuel grade

1.3.1 Slow-, Medium-, High-Speed Diesel Engines

Slow-Speed Engines means diesel engines having a rated speed of less than 400
rpm.
Medium Speed Engines diesel engines having a rated speed of 400 rpm or more;
but, approximately less than 1200 rpm.
High-Speed Engines means diesel engines having a rated speed of approximately
1200 rpm or more.

Operating Characteristics
MCR = maximum_continuous_rating

continuous_service_rating = MCR(1 engine_margin%)

mean_indicated_pressure mechanical = mean_effective_pressure

MEP rpm = brake_power_output

10/25/2006

rated_MEP rated_rpm = MCR

MIP mech = MEP

MEP limits engine power

example 11.7 calculations

Engine Layout (ship power with engine design limits, MCR minimum determined

data sourced from text example 11.7 page 462. Ship has attached generator. Design condition (propulsion specified (

and power) - plotted, plus generator - plotted) shown with two additional off design plots:

light load (lower resistance with half load on generator)

heavy - weather, heavily fouled etc

Engine margin (EM) = 0.85, engine is limited to 103% rpm at MCR and constant Bmep below MCR.

100

P B_mcr

103

100

100

P B_mcr

power (% of MCR)

95

90
PB

85

100

P B_mcr
80

75

70
90

92

94

96

98

100

rpm (% of MCR)
design (service)
design propulsion point
engine design point (+ generator)

engine design (propulsion + generator)

light ship

heavy condition

bmep limit

This is a busy curve and will be explained in lecture.

10/25/2006

102

104

106

108

fuel consumption see handout and PA6B chart also typical operating zone

Improvements to Diesels
- fuel efficiency increased 15-25% over two decades
- use of lower quality fuel

waste heat recovery

mf_dot fuel

intake

engine

exhaust

stack

ma_dot air
compressor

turbine

energy balance typical large 2 stroke diesel

Input:
Outputs:
Wx

0.45 mf_dot LHV

45 %

mprod_dot cp_prod ( 560 298.15)

exhaust @ 560 K
cooled to 25 C

29 %

charge air cooler

cooled to 450 -> 30 C

14 %

ma_dot cp_air ( 450 303.15)

cooling 360 K -> 340 K

11 %

mwater_dot cwater ( 360 340 )

oil cooler

10/25/2006

mf_dot LHV

100 %

~1%

Diesel Engine Pollution Control

Ref: Low Emission Medium-Speed Diesel Engines ,
Horst W. Koehler and Claus Windlev, Marine Technology,
Vol. 38, No. 4, October 2001, pp. 261-267
Typical engine:
volume
air (7.5 kg/kW*hr)

71 % N2
19 % O2

fuel (180 gm/kW*hr)

97 % HC
3 %S

lube oil (0.8 gm/kW*hr

Ca=calcium

97.5 % HC
1.5 % Ca
1%S

18 cyl 4 stroke 26,000 hp @ 500 rpm

=> 82 tonnes (1000 kg) fuel per day
3400 tonnes induced air
1/2 tonne lube oil
=> ~ 3500 tonnes combustion products

combustion products
99.7 % N 2 , O2 , CO2 , H2 0 typical:

N2 , 74.3 %
O2 , 11.3 %
CO 2 , 6 %
H2 0

0.3 % pollutants: NO x, SOx,

HC, CO, particles

8.1 %

gm/KW-hr
NO x, 17
SOx, 10
HC, 1
CO, 0.8
particles 0.25

CO 2 => greenhouse effect, coastal areas may require low sulpher fuel
most serious NOx
10/25/2006

NOx Control

see NVR emissions

- strongly dependent on peak temperature during burning

Control

1) reduce amounts formed

a. reduce maximum pressure by delaying injection

b. recirculating part of exhaust
c. reduce amount of scavenging air
d. spray water during combustion
e. use emulsion of oil and water - reduces NO x by ~ 25 %
2) remove from exhaust
- catalytic converters not practical - too much air
a. Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCTR)
mix exhaust gases (300-400 C) with correct amount
of amonia - pass through catalyst
4 NO + 4 NH3 + O2 = 4N2 + 6H O2
6 NO2 + 8 NH3 = 7N2 + 12H O2
urea - organic compoound of Carbon, N 2 , O2 , & H2 used more widely
90 % reduction can be achieved
In use today - typically during entry to port
see ASNE presentation re: emissions
and ... New rules to reduce emissions from ships enter into force
http://www.imo.org/Newsroom/mainframe.asp?topic_id=1018&doc_id=4884
The Annex VI regulations set limits on sulphur oxide (SO x) and nitrogen oxide (NO x) emissions from
ship exhausts and prohibit deliberate emissions of ozone-depleting substances
and ... Shipping Emissions Abatement and Training (SEAaT) paper
http://www.seaat.org/media/EmissionControlv052.doc on emissions
This international legislation covering all shipping activity establishes Sulphur Emissions Control Areas
(SECAs) which are geographically defined areas where ships must limit their SOx emissions
The first of these, the Baltic Sea, will come into effect on May 20, 2006, with the North Sea and English
Channel becoming SECAs in 2007

Shipping Emissions Abatement and Training (SEAaT)

SEAaT is a cross-industry, unique, pro-active and self funding group, whose mission is to encourage and facilitate
efficient reduction of harmful emissions to air from shipping
N.B. these links do not work in the pdf format. It is necessary that the linked files be located and connected - they
can be made to work but it take some time. the ASNE presentation, PA6B chart and Marine Technology paper
(documents) are on the web. The other links are on the web

10/25/2006

Brayton Cycle Summary

define some units

3

kJ := 10 J
QH_dot
3

Gas Turbine represented by air standard

Brayton cycle

ma_dot air

compressor

turbine

W_dotnet=
Wt_dot+Wc_dot

QL_dot

Brayton cycle consists of:

1-2 adiabatic compression
2-3 heat addition ~ constant pressure
3-4 adiabatic expansion in turbine
4-1 heat rejection ~ constant pressure
p-v and T - s plots for Brayton cycle shown below for reversible cycle. in

irreversible cycle, p 2 > p3 and p4 > p1 , s2 > s1 , s4 > s3

starting conditions

p 1_plot := 1

T1_plot := 25 + 273.15

after compression

p 2_plot := 10

max temperature after heat addition

T3_plot := 1000 + 273.15

calculations

11/14/2005

s1_plot := 1

p-v plot of Brayton cycle

adiabatic compression
heat addition
adiabatic expansion in turbine
heat rejection

{3}

10

pressure

{2}

{1}
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

{4}

0.8

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

volume

T-s plot of Brayton cycle (reversible)

1400

adiabatic compression
heat addition
adiabatic expansion in turbine
heat rejection

1200

{3}

temperature

1000

800

{4}
{2}

600

400

{1}
200

0.9

1.1

1.2

1.3

1.4

1.5

entropy

11/14/2005

1.6

1.7

1.8

1.9

Ideal (reversible) basic Brayton cycle

compressor work

wc = h 2 h 1

turbine work

wt = h 3 h 4

th =

qH + qL
qH

qL

=1+

qH

q H = h 3 h 2

heat addition

qL = h4 h1

heat rejection

wt + wc

q H

h 4s := Cp T4s T1 + h 1
(2)

assuming perfect gas, constant specific heat.

h only a function of temperature; (5.23) VW &S, Joule's

experiment shows u is f(T) only, pv = RT => h=f(T).

h 3 := Cp T3 T2s + h 2s

factor out T1 / T2s

th := 1

(1)

h 4s h 1

T4s T1

th 1

h 3 h 2s

T4s
th := 1

T3 T2s

T1

T2s T3

T2s

isentropic compression (and expansion) ...

p 2s
=
T1
p1

T2s
1

p 2s

since

p1

p 2s
=
T1
p1

p3

T2s

p 4s

T1

this is reversible adiabatic

process with ideal gas and
constant specific heat

p3
=
p 4s

T3
T4s

=>

T4s
T1

T3
T2s

p1
th = 1
=1
T2s
p2s
T1

=1

1
1

p 2s

p1

=1

r = pressure_ratio

example; for 50 % efficiency, and some typical gas constants ...

1.29
:=

1.4

1.67

th := 0.5

th = 1

CO2
air

1
1

= 1 th

) 1

r = 1 th

monotonic gasses, He, Ar, Ne, He

i := 0 .. 2

i1

r := 1 th
i

11/14/2005

1
1

21.83
r = 11.31

5.63

so for air as the working fluid,

a pressure ratio of 11.3 will
provide 0.5 isentropic
efficiency

effect of pressure ratio on isentropic efficiency

th( r, ) := 1
r

1.29
= 1.4

1.67

r := 0 .. 25

efficiency vs pressure ratio

0.8

efficiency

0.6
0.5
0.4

CO2 - gamma = 1.29

air - gamma = 1.4
monotonic - gamma = 1.67

0.2

10

15

pressure ratio

11/14/2005

20

25

regeneration ...

T-s plot of Brayton cycle (reversible)

1400

QH_dot
2

1200
ma_dot air

temperature

1000
compressor

turbine
W_dotnet=
Wt_dot+Wc_dot

1
4

QL_dot

regenerator

800

600

th =

wnet
qH

400

wt + wc

q H

q H = c p T3 Tx
wt = cp T3 T4

200

th = 1 +

wc
wt

1.2

1.6

1.8

adiabatic compression
heat addition

adiabatic expansion in turbine

heat rejection

T2
T4

wt = q H

T2
p2
T1
T1
1
1

c p ( T2 T1 )
T1
=
p1

=1
=1
1
c p ( T3 T4 )
T4

T3 1

T3
p1

T3 1

p2
b

a 1
form is ...

1.4

entropy

Tx = temperature into regenerator

out of regenerator = T2

max when Tx = T4 then

1
a

a 1
b

a 1
b

=a

as ... p1/p2 = p4/p3

p2
th = 1

T3 p 1

T1

Q.E.D.

for example, plot th vs pr for = 1.4 (air) with regeneration and T1/T3 = 0.25 figure 9.27
1

:= 1.4

11/14/2005

r := 1 .. 14

T1_over_T3 := 0.25

th_reg( r, , T1_over_T3) := 1 T1_over_T3 r

r := 2

efficiency vs pressure ratio

Given

efficiency

solve for pressure ratio

at intersection

th_reg( r, , T1_over_T3) = th( r, )

r_intersect := Find( r)

0.5

r_intersect = 11.314

T1 := 300

say ...

T3 := 1200

at this pressure ratio

0

10

15

T2_intersect := T1 r_intersect

pressure ratio
air - gamma = 1.4

air - gamma = 1.4 with regen. T3/T1=4

T2_intersect = 600

T4_intersect := T3
r_intersect

T4_intersect = 600

at the r_intersect the temperature out of the turbine matches the temperature out of the compressor,
hence regeneration is infeasible
air-standard cycles ...
1. air as ideal gas is working fluid throughout cycle -no inlet or exhaust process
2. combustion process replaced by heat transfer process
3. cycle is completed by heat transfer to surroundings
4. all processes internally reversible
5. usually constant specific heat
(page 311)

these are our

assumptions for this
analysis

reset variables

Intercooled Brayton cycle

QH_dot

figure later
T3 = low temperature from first
intercooler, T4 second
compressor. additional stages
replicated at T3 and T4 which =
T1 and T2 respectively. T5 is
turbine inlet

QL_dot
compressor

ma_dot air
3

compressor

2
1

turbine
6

W_dotnet=
Wt_dot+Wc_dot

QL_dot

example plot of intercooled Brayton cycle

parameters for plot. to retain states 2, 3 & 4 as previously defined two points 1a and 1b are inserted rather than
renumbering. for intercooling, T 1 => T1a => T1b =>T2
11/14/2005

p1 => p1a => p1b =>p2

s 1 => s1a => s1b =>s2
starting conditions

p 1_plot := 1

after first stage compression

p 1a_plot :=

intercooler final temperature

T1b_plot := T1_plot

after second stage compression

p 2_plot := 10

max temperature after heat addition

T3_plot := 1000 + 273.15

T1_plot := 25 + 273.15
10

calculations

p-v Brayton cycle (rev.) 1 stg interclg

adiabatic compression 1st stage
intercooling
adiabatic compression 2nd stage
heat addition
adiabatic expansion in turbine
heat rejection

pressure

10

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

volume

T-s Brayton cycle (rev.) 1 stg interclg

1400

adiabatic compression
intercooling heat rejection
adiabatic compression second stage
heat addition
adiabatic expansion in turbine
heat rejection

temperature

1200
1000
800
600
400
200

0.6

0.8

1.2

1.4

entropy
11/14/2005

1.6

1.8

s1_plot := 1

for these calculations

:= 1.667

th_ic = 1 +

T1 := 300

QL

assume ...
observe ..

T3 := T1

for all intercooled stages

taking advantage of constant c po

th_ic = 1

T6 T1 + N T2 T1

power :=

N := 1

1
T6 ( pr) := T5
pr

power

T1

th_ic( pr , N) := 1

stages of intercooling

power

rc(pr , N)
:= pr

T6 ( pr) T1 + N T2 (pr , N)
T1

0.6

efficiency

0.4

1 stage intercooling
basic Brayton cycle
4 stages intercooling

0.2

0.2
0
2

= 1.667

intercooled and basic Brayton cycle

0.4

1 and 4 stages of intercooling

= 1.667

0.6

N+ 1

T5 T2 (pr
)

efficiency with intercooling

thermal efficiency (ideal)

pr := 1 .. 5

T5 T2

T2 (pr , N) := rc(pr , N)

N= 1

T4 := T2

as ...

QH

maximum

T5 := 1200

pressure ratio (overall)

pressure ratio

as we observed in class both T H and TL are lowered by intercooling. Intercooling (by itself) slightly reduces
ideal efficiency. Increased number of stages doesn't reduce efficiency significantly further.
reset variables

11/14/2005

Intercooled Regenerative Brayton cycle

QH_dot
5

T3 = low temperature from first

intercooler, T4 second

compressor. additional stages

replicated at T3 and T4 which =

T1 and T2 respectively. T5 is

turbine inlet

ma_dot air

QL_dot
compressor

compressor

W_dotnet=
Wt_dot+Wc_dot

T1 := 300

for these calculations

th_ic = 1 +

QL

as ...

QH

T2 (pr , N) := rc( pr , N)

power

T1

maximum

th_ic_reg = 1
1
T6 ( pr) := T5
pr

start with 1+ as
pr := 1.01 .. 5.01 = 1
mathematically

and ...initial
stage of qL is ...

T2 T1 + N T2 T1
T5 T6

= 1

T2 T1

(N + 1) T2 T1
T5 T6

power

rc(pr , N)
:= pr

th_ic_reg( pr , N) := 1

T3 := T1

observe ..

QH = T5 T6

with
regeneration

N := 2

regenerator

for all intercooled stages

so thermal efficiency becomes

power :=

T4 := T2

T5 := 1200

assume ...

taking advantage of constant c po

intercooled only from above
T6 T1 + N T2 T1
th_ic = 1
T5 T2

turbine

QL_dot

:= 1.667

N+ 1

( N + 1) T2 ( pr , )
T1

T5 T6 ( pr)

ideal efficiency Brayton cycles

thermal efficiency (ideal)

0.8

0.6

regeration was derived

above leaving T1/T3 now
renumbered to T1/T5
explicit. so variable T1/T5
inserted in arguments

0.4

intercooled with regeneration

regeration only
basic Brauton cycle
intercooling only

0.2

1.5

2.5

3.5

4.5

pressure ratio
11/14/2005

5.5

reset variables

intercooling, reheating and regenerative

QH_dot
5

ma_dot air

QL_dot
compressor

QH_dot

compressor

reheater

turbine

W_dotnet=
Wt_dot+Wc_dot

turbine

1
9

QL_dot 10

regenerator

example plot of intercooled Brayton cycle with reheat (and regeneration)

parameters for plot. to retain states 2, 3 & 4 as previously defined two points 1a and 1b are inserted rather than
renumbering. for intercooling, T 1 => T1a => T1b =>T2
p1 => p1a => p1b =>p2
s 1 => s1a => s1b =>s2
for reheat return to T 3; T3 => T3a => T3b =>T4
p3 => p3a => p3b =>p4
s 3 => s3a => s3b =>s4
starting conditions

p 1_plot := 1

after first stage compression

p 1a_plot :=

intercooler final temperature

T1b_plot := T1_plot

after second stage compression

p 2_plot := 10

max temperature after heat addition

T3_plot := 1000 + 273.15

after first turbine expansion

p 3a_plot :=

max temperature after reheat addition

T3b_plot := 1000 + 273.15

T1_plot := 25 + 273.15
10

10

calculations

11/14/2005

10

s1_plot := 1

p-v Brayton cycle (rev.) interclg & rht

adiabatic compression 1st stage
intercooling
adiabatic compression 2nd stage
heat addition
adiabatic expansion in 1st turbine
reheat
adiabatic expansion in 2nd turbine
heat rejection

10

pressure

0.5

1.5

2.5

volume

T-s Brayton cycle (rev.) interclg & rht

1400

adiabatic compression 1st stage

intercooling heat rejection
adiabatic compression 2nd stage
heat addition
adiabatic expansion in 1st turbine
reheat
adiabatic expansion in 2nd turbine
heat rejection

1200

temperature

1000

800

600

400

200

0.6

0.8

1.2

1.4

entropy

11/14/2005

11

1.6

1.8

2.2

 th_ic_reh_reg = 1 +

QL

:= 1.667

for these calculations

QH

T1 := 300

T5 := 1200

maximum

assume ...
as ...

taking advantage of constant c po

T4 := T2

T3 := T1
for all intercooled stages

observe ..

figure later
T5 inlet to turbine, stages of
turbine are at T5 - T6 for all,
for ease of calculations
number of reheat and
intercooling are the same so
pressure ratios are identical

and upper and lower temperature for reheat are at T5 and T6

th_ic_reh_reg = 1

(
)
(N + 1) ( T5 T6 )

(N + 1) T2 T1

N := 2

pr := 1.01 .. 5.01

power :=

rc(pr , N) := pr

th_ic_reh_reg( pr , N) := 1

N+ 1

T2 (pr , N) := rc(pr , N )

power

T6 (pr , N) := T5
rc(pr , )

T1

(
)
(N + 1 ) ( T5 T6 (pr , N) )

(N + 1) T2 (pr , N) T1

Brayton cycle efficiency

thermal efficiency (ideal)

0.8

0.6

0.4

intercld - reheat - regen

intercld - regen
regen
basic Brayton cycle
intercld

0.2

1.5

2.5

3.5

pressure ratio overall

11/14/2005

12

4.5

5.5

power

example plot of multiple intercooled Brayton cycle with multiple reheat (and regeneration
parameters for plot. to retain states 2, 3 & 4 as previously defined two points 1a and 1b are inserted rather than
renumbering. for intercooling, T 1 => T1a => T1b =>T2
p1 => p1a => p1b =>p2
s 1 => s1a => s1b =>s2
for reheat return to T 3; T3 => T3a => T3b =>T4
p3 => p3a => p3b =>p4
s 3 => s3a => s3b =>s4
starting conditions

p 1_plot := 1

pressure ratio

pr_plot := 20

number of compression stages ...

T1_plot := 25 + 273.15

n_comp := 4

intercooler final temperature

T1_plot

max temperature after heat addition

T3_plot := 1000 + 273.15

number of expansion stages ...

max temperature after reheat addition

n_exp := 4
T3_plot

calculations

11/14/2005

13

s1_plot := 1

p-v Brayton cycle (rev.) interclg & rht

20

adiabatic compression 1st stage

intercooling and compression stages
heat addition first stage
adiabatic expansion and reheat
adiabatic expansion in last turbine
heat rejection

pressure

15

10

0.5

1.5

2.5

volume

T-s Brayton cycle (rev.) interclg & rht

adiabatic compression 1st stage
intercooling and compression stages
heat addition first stage
adiabatic expansion and reheat
adiabatic expansion in last turbine
heat rejection

1200

temperature

1000

800

600

400
0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.2

entropy

11/14/2005

14

1.4

1.6

1.8

2.2

as number of reheat and intercooled stages increases, ideal efficiency should approach Carnot
th_carnot := 1

T1
T5

N := 1 .. 20

pr := 5

this calculation fixes pressure ratio overall = 5 and

looks at variation with number of stages of
intercooling and reheat (same)

Intercooled, Reheat, Regen Brayton cycle

thermal efficiency (ideal)

0.85

0.8

th_carnot

0.75

0.7

0.65

10

15

number of intercool and reheat stages

11/14/2005

15

20

Polytropic Efficiency

kJ := 1000J

consider a two stage compressor with a stage efficiency = 0.9

p 1 := 1bar

p 2 := 5bar

kJ
s1 := 1
kg K

p 3 := 20bar

stage := 0.9

calculations

the states resulting are plotted ...

Temperature

800

600

400

200
0.95

1.05

1.1

1.15

entropy

using the gas laws and stage effiiciency = stage , after the first stage the states will be
kJ
s2 = 1.04
kg K

T2 = 491.556 K

p 2 = 5 bar

after the second stage the states will be

T3 = 756.994 K

kJ
s3 = 1.076
kg K

p 3 = 20 bar

now if we calculate efficiency of the compressor

comp =

Ts
T

T3s T1

T3s T1

T3 T1

T3 T1

= 0.88

as a check ...

T33s T2
T3 T2

= 0.9

This effect can be accounted for by using polytropic efficiency - or small stage efficiency.

reset variables T, s, p

c =

h 2s h 1
h2 h1

T2s T1
T2 T1

Ts
T

compressor

11/9/2005

T2s T1
T2 T1

= 0.9

as the pressure ratio approaches unity

Ts
T
=>
ds =

dh
T

d
Ts
dT

for simple compressible substance

dT
dp
dp = cpo
R
T
T
p

ideal gas and definition of c po

isentropic ds = 0

substitute

d
Ts

dT

dT s = pcdT
v

pc =

define ...

cpo

dT s = pcdT

cpo

cvo :=

cvo

dT s
T

= R

cpo pc
cpo

dp

dT
T

= R

dp

T2

rearrange and
integrate .....

R := cpo cvo

ln

T1

simplify

pccpo

T2
T1

p2
p
1

use in definition
of c

c =

cpo pc

ln

p1

pc
T2s

pc

p2

raise to exponents

(7.7)

T ds = dh v dp

T2s T1
T2 T1

T1
T2
T1

1
r

pc

example polytropic efficiency = 0.9; calculate isentropic efficiency for p 2 /p1 = 2, 16, 30; use air as working fluid
1

i := 0 .. 2
pc := 0.9

if T1 were 25 deg C

:= 1.4

2
r := 16

30

p2
=
T1
p1

T2 := T1 r

11/9/2005

T2 := T1 +

c =

T2s T1

pc

T2 = T1 +

T2 T1

T2s T1
pc

0.89
c = 0.856

0.845

371.535
T2 = 718.944

877.733

pc

whereas T2 calculated using

pc as c

363.449
T2s = 658.369

787.897

(ri)

pc

T1 := 25 + 273.15

T2

c :=

(ri)

370.704
T2 = 698.393

842.313
2

T2s T1
c

T2s := T1 r

temperature above is
higher indicating more
energy required for
compressor
consistent with lower
efficiency

another observation ... if we say the two stages have a polytropic efficiency of 0.9 then using ...
1

p2
=
T1
p1
T2

pc

and ...

T3
T1

p3

p3
=
T2
p2
T3

pc

T2 T3
T3
=
=

T1 T2
T1

=>

p2

p1

pc

p3

p2

pc

pc

p3
=

p1

the polytropic efficiency of the compressor is identical, i.e T 3 is determined from

pc

the polytropic efficiency that is the same as the two stages

since polytropic efficiency approaches isentropic efficiency for pressure ratio ~
1, this is the same as saying that for a compressor with a large number of
stages each with pressure ration near 1, the polytropic efficiency of the
compressosor is isentropic efficiency of the individual stages

p1

turbine would be similar with exception of inversion of relationship

t =

T3 T4

pt =

=>

T3 T4s

dT

dT s =

dT s

dT
pt

turbine
cpo

dT s
T

= R

dp
p

cpo dT
dp

= R
p
pt T

=>

=>

R pt dp
=

T
cpo p

dT

pc

p3
=

T4
p4

T3

could do by direct analogy if write

4=2

T4s T3

=>

T4 T3

and ...

T4
T3

3=1

pt

p2
=
T1
p1
T2

pc

pt

morphs to ...

T4
T3

p4

p3

same example polytropic efficiency = 0.9; calculate isentropic efficiency for p 3 /p4 = 2, 16, 30; use air as
working fluid
i := 0 ..
2
pt := 0.9

if T3 were 700 deg C

11/9/2005

:= 1.4

1
1
r
i
t :=
i

2
r := 16

30

T3 := 700 + 273.15

pt

r
i

0.909

t = 0.932

0.938

T4

1
=

T3 r

pt

1
T4 := T3
r

whereas T4 calculated using

pt as t

798.309
T4s = 440.702

368.252

t =

pt

814.277
T4 = 477.034

405.834

T3 T4
T3 T4s

T4 T3

T4 := T3 + pt T4s T3

T4 = T3 + pt T4s T3

T4s T3

815.793
T4 = 493.947

428.742

1
T4s := T3
r

above temperature is lower indicating

more energy extracted from fluid,
consistent with higher efficiency

direct approach for calculating T 2 modeling as discrete multiple stages. increasing number_of_stages should
make c_1 approach c (back to compressor for calculations)
number_of_stages := 4

j := 0 .. 2

TT

r_per_stage := r

number_of_stages

0, j

:= 25 + 273.15

power :=

r_per_stage = ( 1.189 2 2.34 )

2
r = 16

30

:= 1.4
1

temperature after each stage

TT

1 , ns

= TT

0 , ns

(r_per_stage j)
+

n := 0 .. number_of_stages

power

TT

0, j

TT

power

T2s = T r

TT

c_1 :=
j

0.892
c_1 = 0.869

0.862

c =

pc

TT

number_of_stages = 4

0, j

TT

isentropic
continuous model

0.89
c = 0.856

0.845

( j)

0, j

power

n+ 1, j

TT

number_of_stages , j

0.891
c_1 = 0.862

0.852

T2 T1

:= TT

n, j

T2 = T1 +

(r_per_stage j)
+

T2s T1
c

power

TT

n, j

pc

0, j

20 stages

0.89

c_1 = 0.859

0.849

50 stages

0.89

c_1 = 0.857

0.846

further evidence that for a compressor with a large number of stages each with pressure ration

near 1, the polytropic efficiency of the compressosor is isentropic efficiency of the individual

stages. this follows through to determine isentropic efficiency for the compressor based on

equating polytropic efficiency of small stages to the isentropic efficiency of the (small) stage.

11/9/2005

TT

0, j

TT

10 stages

T2s T1

n, j

Regeneration Brayton cycle - irreversible

An actual gas turbine differs from the ideal due to inefficiencies in the turbines and compressors and pressure
losses in the flow passages (heat exchangers in closed cycle). The T - s diagram may be as shown:
static data for plot

T-s diagram

1200

temperature

1000

800

600

400

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

2.2

entropy
reversible cycle
irreversible cycle
regeneration inlet temperature reversible
irreversible, heat exchanger maximum
regeneration inlet temperature irreversible

T
7ss

5
5s

2
2s

7s

4 - outlet of turbine
5s - inlet to regenerator T5s = T4

irreversible
1 - start
2 - irreversible compressor outlet
6 - outlet of heat addition T6 = Tmax
4 - outlet of turbine
5 - inlet to regenerator T5 = T7

11/21/2005

state - reversible process

1 - start
2s - reversible compressor outlet
3 - outlet of heat addition T3 = Tmax

irreversible processes can be described by some efficiencies and heat transfer effectiveness:
N.B. the efficiencies are defined wrt irreversible overall cycle
h6 h7

t =

turbine efficiency
compressor efficiency

h 6 h 7s

c =

h 2s h 1
h2 h1
T5 T2

T6 T7

t := 0.8

T6 T7s
T2s T1

c := 0.78

T2 T1

heat exchanger effectiveness

pressure loss in heater

p H

p 6 = p 3 p H = p 3 1
p3

delta_p_over_p_H := 5%

p L

p 7 = p 1 + p L = p 1 1 +
p1

delta_p_over_p_L := 3%

pressure loss (increase)

in cooler, relative to p 1

:= 94%

T7ss T2

we will combine these as follows as for efficiency only p across turbine matters:

p6
p7

p 3 1

p H

p3

=
p L

p 1 1 +

p1

p2
p1

( 1 p%)

this combines losses into effect on turbine

for these calculations

:= 1.4

power :=

one compressor no
intercooling

Nc = 1

1 delta_p_over_p_H

1 + delta_p_over_p_L

delta_p_over_p := 1

delta_p_over_p = 7.767 %

taking advantage of constant c po

T1 := 300

Tmax := 1200

maximum

T3 := Tmax

T6 := Tmax

start with 1+ as = 1
mathematically

pr := 1.3 , 1.4 .. 5

reversible relationships are developed in brayton_cycle_summary.mcd (may be 2005)

reversible ....
T2s ( pr) := pr

T4 ( pr) :=

irreversible .....

power

pr

T1

T2s ( 2 ) = 365.704

T2 ( pr) := T1 +

T2s ( pr) T1
T2 ( 2 ) = 384.236

p6_over_p7 ( pr) := pr(1 delta_p_over_p)

power

T3

T4 ( 2 ) = 984.402
p6_over_p7 ( 2 ) = 1.845

reversible turbine calc in irreversible cycle ... T7s ( pr) := T6

p6_over_p7 ( pr)

power

T7 ( pr) := T6 T6 T7s ( pr) t

11/21/2005

T7s ( 2 ) = 1007
T7 ( 2 ) = 1046

at this point we can compute the thermal efficiency without regeneration

reversible

th =

wnet
qH

wt + wc
qH

irreversible

T3 T4 T2s T1

T3 T2s

rev

) = T6 T7 ( T2 T1 )

QH = T3 T2s = T6 T2

T6 T2

irrev

so thermal efficiency becomes

th_basic_rev ( pr) :=

T3 T4 ( pr) T2s ( pr) T1

th_basic_irr( pr) :=

T3 T2s ( pr)

T6 T7 ( pr) T2 ( pr) T1

T6 T2 ( pr)

efficiency Brayton cycles

0.4

t = 0.8

thermal efficiency

0.3

c = 0.78
= 0.94

0.2

0.1

delta_p_over_p = 7.8 %

basic cycle - irreversible

basic cycle - reversible
0

2.5

3.5

4.5

pressure ratio

with regeneration, all the states are the same with

reversible - regen inlet temperature

irreversible ...

T5s := T4

T5 ( pr) := T2 ( pr) + T7 ( pr) T2 ( pr)

with regeneration
reversible

th_ic =

wnet
qH

wt + wc
qH

th_reg_rev ( pr) := 1

11/21/2005

T3 T4 T2s T1
T3 T5s = T4

irreversible

) = T6 T7 ( T2 T1 )

T6 T5

T2s ( pr) T1
1
T3 T3
pr

power

th_reg_irr( pr) :=

T5 ( 2 ) = 1006

rev

irrev

QH = T3 T5s = T6 T5

T6 T7 ( pr) T2 ( pr) T1
T6 T5 ( pr)

efficiency regeneration irreversible

0.8

thermal efficiency (ideal)

0.7
0.6

0.5
0.4

0.3
0.2

0.1

with regeneration - irreversible

with regeneration - reversible
1

1.5

2.5

3.5

4.5

pressure ratio

also look at magnitude of compressor work compared to turbine, say for pr = 2 (since these states are the same for
w & w/o regeneration, the work is also the same

ratiorev =

workcomp

workturb

T2s T1

T3 T4

ratioirr =

T2s ( pr) T1

ratiorev( pr) :=

T3 T4 ( pr)

T2s := 0

T2 := 0

T2 T1

T6 T7

T2 ( pr)
T1
T6 T7 ( pr)

T7 := 0

T7s := 0

parameters from above ...

power = 0.286

T1 = 300

T6 = 1.2 10

T4 := 0

maximum

reset to insure
calculation
for these calculations

one stage intercooling two compressors

t = 0.8
pr := 1.1 , 1.2 .. 5

c = 0.78

T2s (pr , N) := rc(pr , N)

power

efficiencies from above ...

delta_p_over_p = 7.767 %

range for
pressure ratio

reversible .....

11/21/2005

ratioirr( 2 ) = 54.7 %

Intercooled Irreversible (and reversible)

N := 1

workturb

ratioirr( pr) :=

ratiorev( 2 ) = 30.5 %

= 1.4

workcomp

assuming equal pressure ratios across multiple

compressors, the ratio for each is ...

rc(pr , N) := pr

N+
1

temperature out of all compressors (isentropic)

intercooling occurs along p = constant to same T 1 . Subsequent compressions

T1 are at the same ratio so temperatures after each compression are the same.

T2s (2 , 1 ) = 331.227

irreversible ... all compressors

T2 (pr , N) := T1 +

T2s (pr , N) T1
c

T2 (2 , 1 ) = 340.034

p6_over_p7(pr) := pr(1 delta_p_over_p)

1
T4 ( pr) := T3
pr

power

T7s ( pr) := T6
p6_over_p7 ( pr)

T4 ( 2 ) = 984.402

power

T7s ( 2 ) = 1.007 10

T7 ( pr) := T6 T6 T7s ( pr) t

reversile ....
th_ic =

wnet
qH

wt + wc
qH

irreversible

T3 T4 (N + 1) T2s T1
T3 T2s

) = T6 T7 (N + 1) (T2 T1)
T6 T2

th_ic_irr( pr , N) :=
th_ic_rev( pr , N) :=

T7 ( 2 ) = 1.046 10

(T6 T7(pr)) (N + 1) (T2(pr , N) T1)

T6 T2 (pr , N)

(T3 T4(pr)) (N + 1) (T2s( pr , N)

T1)
T3 T2s (pr , N)
efficiency Brayton cycles

thermal efficiency

0.4

0.3

t = 0.8

0.2

c = 0.78

0.1

delta_p_over_p = 7.767 %
0
intercooled - irreversible
intercooled - reversible
0.1

1.5

2.5

3.5

4.5

pressure ratio

ratiorev =

workcomp
workturb

ratiorev( pr) :=

(N + 1) T2s T1

ratioirr =

T3 T4

(N + 1) T2s (pr , N) T1

workcomp
workturb

ratioirr( pr) :=

T3 T4 ( pr)

ratiorev( 2 ) = 29 %

(N + 1) T2 T1

T6 T7

(N + 1) T2 ( pr , N) T1

T6 T7 ( pr)

ratioirr( 2 ) = 52 %

calculations with reheat and multiple turbines are similar and will not be done here. see brayton_plot.mcd for

general calculations and plotting

11/21/2005

Creep
Creep is slow plastic extension (strain) at elevated temperatures (T ~> 0.3 melting T) and stress. Typical strain
vs time at elevated temperature and stress is:

rupture

stage I: primary creep: rapid initial

deformation
stage II: secondary creep: a.k.a.
steady state creep: constant strain
rate designated "minimum strain rate"
stage III: tertiary creep: reduction in
cross section eventually leading to
fracture

T2

III
strain
II
minimum creep rate
d/dt

T1<<T2

time

Typical creep data is usually shown as stress vs time to rupture, 0.5% strain, and 0.2% strain for a given
temperature. A set of curves derived manually from NACA TN 4112 Generalized Master Curves for Creep and
Rupture, Heimerl and McEvily Oct 1957 (Aero Library) for Aluminum 2024-T3 alloy plate is shown:
NACA TN 4112 data

creep data shown as stress (ksi) vs time (hours) parameterized by temperature - includes rupture, 0.5% strain and
0.2% strain

Creep for Aluminum 2024-T3 alloy sheet

100

stress (ksi)

T = 500 F rupture
T = 500 F 0.5 % strain
T = 500 F 0.2 % strain
T = 350 F rupture
T = 350 F 0.5 % strain
T = 350 F 0.2 % strain

10
0.1

10

100

1 .10

time (hours)

11/28/2005

1 .10

1 .10

1 .10

creep data shown as stress (ksi) vs temperature parameterized by time (hours) - rupture only shown - gets too busy

Creep for Aluminum 2024-T3 alloy sheet

100

stress (ksi) (log)

time to rupture = 1000 hours

time to rupture = 5000 hours
time to rupture = 10000 hours

10
200

250

300

350

400

450

500

temperature deg F

These curves are difficult to use so researchers proposed a parameter that collapses data empirically. E.g.these
data can be represented can be represented on a Master Curve for Creep using the Larson-Miller (or another
similar parameter). The plots lack smoothness due to manual extraction of data.

"Master Creep Curve" Al 2024-T3

50

rupture
0.5% strain
0.2% strain

stress (ksi)

40

30

20

10

13

14

15

16

17

Larson-Miller TR(17+log(time) (*10^-3)

11/28/2005

18

19

The Larson Miller parameter combines temperature and times (rupture, strain) as follows:

( ))

LM = TR C1 + log tr

C1 = constant_based_on_material

C1_al_2024 := 17

C1_carbon_molybdenum_steel := 20

TR = temperature_deg_R = deg_F + 460

tr = time_to_rupture_hours

above curves

similar parameter for t _0.5

t_0.5 = time_to_point_5%_strain_hours

t_0.2 = time_to_point_2%_strain_hours

Master Creep Curves - rupture

stress (ksi)

100

10

Carbon Molybdenum steel

Aluminum 2024-T3 alloy plate
1

10

15

20

25

30

35

Larson Miller TR(C1+log(tr)) (*10^-3)

11/28/2005

40

45

Open Cycle
mf_dot fuel

QH_dot
combustor

2
ma_dot air compressor

4
turbine
W_dotnet=
Wt_dot+Wc_dot

turbine ...

mf_dot

Wt_dot = ma_dot + mf_dot h 3 h 4 = ma_dot 1 +

T T4
c
ma_dot p_prod 3

Jet engine

Wc_dot = ma_dot h 2 h 1 = ma_dot cp_air T2 T1

power ... compressor ...

)(

as a side note: if the net work were converted to velocity via a nozzle (jet engine) the relationships would be

Wnet_dot = Wt_dot Wc_dot

determines state 4 out of turbine at p 4 > p1 atmosphere is state 5

wnet = cp T3 T4

T 4 determined from equation for net work

could determine p 4 from

nozzle anlysis:
First law, Q = W = 0

p4
=
T3
p3
T4

determine T 5 from

p5
=
T3
p3
T5

or ...

p5
=

T4
p4

T5

V
h4 = h5 +
2

determines V, thrust from momentum change

combustor ...
1 = atmosphere ...
0 = HR2 HP3
rewrite using LHV ...

adiabatic combustion Q = W = 0

0 = Enthaply of reactants at combustor inlet, compressor outlet

- Enthalpy of products out of combustor - first law

0 = HR2 HR0 HP3 HP0 + LHV

rewrite using specifi enthalpy and mass flows ... on a per unit mass flow of fuel ...
ma_dot
ma_dot

0 = h f2 h f0 +
h a2 h a0 1 +
h p3 h p0 + LHV
mf_dot
mf_dot

to account for incomplete combustion introduce combustion efficiency ...

12/19/2005

only obtain

combHV

Given
ma_dot
ma_dot

0 = h f2 h f0 +
h a2 h a0 1 +
h p3 h p0 + combLHV
mf_dot
mf_dot

can solve for

) (

ma_dot

introduce average
specific heat ...

cp_bar_air =

) (

h p3 h p0 h a2 h a0

h a2 h a0

cp_bar_prod =

T2 T0

h p3 h p0
T3 T0

cp_bar_fuel =

combLHV + cp_bar_fuel T2 T0 cp_bar_prod T3 T0

cp_bar_prod T3 T0 cp_bar_air T2 T0
mf_dot

or ... inverting

ma_dot

combLHV + h f2 h f0 h p3 h p0

mf_dot

mf_dot

mf_dot
Find ma_dot h f2 h f0 h p3 + h p0 + combLHV
h a2 + h a0 + h p3 h p0

ma_dot/mf_dot

ma_dot

T2 T0

)
(

cp_bar_prod T3 T0 cp_bar_air T2 T0

h f2 h f0

combLHV + cp_bar_fuel T2 T0 cp_bar_prod T3 T0

gas turbine efficiency efficiency dividing by m a_dot

mf_dot

1
+
( T T4 ) cp_bar_air ( T2 T1 )

c
Wnet_dot
Wt_dot + Wc_dot
ma_dot p_bar_prod 3

=
=
=

mf_dot LHV

mf_dot LHV

mf_dot

ma_dot

kg
SFC =

hr

power = kW

SFC =

12/19/2005

fuel

mf_dot
Wnet_dot

kg
kW hr
mf_dot

lb

not equality ...

hp
hr
LHV

Wnet_dot LHV

1
LHV

LHV

Open cycles have similar alternatives to closed

analysis would be similar as well so not repeated here

Open Cycle Regenerative (Recouperative)

regenerator
3

combustor

mf_dot fuel
mp_dot products

ma_dot air compressor

turbine
W_dotnet=
Wt_dot+Wc_dot

static data for plot

T-s diagram

temperature

1000

irreversible cycle
irreversible, heat exchanger maximum
regeneration inlet temperature irreversible

500

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

entropy
N.B. cycle is drawn closed from state 6 to 1 but is taking place in atmosphere

12/19/2005

2.2

Intercooled Regenerative (Recouperative) Cycle

stack

Rolls Royce WR-21 is an example see links

regenerator

combustor

mf_dot fuel
6 mp_dot products
QL_dot
1 compressor
2
ma_dot air

4
3

turbine

compressor

W_dotnet=
Wt_dot+Wc_dot

static data for plot

T-s diagram
1200

irreversible cycle
irreversible, heat exchanger maximum
regeneration inlet temperature irreversible

temperature

1000

800

600

400

0.8

1.2

1.4

entropy

12/19/2005

1.6

1.8

thermodynamic models for combustion

Various thermodynamic models can be used for analysis of products of combustion:
1. Single gas model
perfect gas, constant cp (1 kJ/kg*K close enough), = 1.4
2. Two gas model
a) perfect gas - air for compression, c p = 1.0035 kJ/kg*K, a = 1.4

b) perfect gas combustion products; c pp = 1.13 kJ/kg*K, p = 1.3

3. Tabulated data (e.g. Keenan & Kaye Gas Tables)

property data for air:
Table 1: Air at low pressure: T deg F abs, t deg F, h, pr, u, v r,
Table 2. Air at low pressures: T, t, c p , cv, k = cp /cv, a, Gmax/pi , , , Pr

Table 3: R Log N for air

Table 4: Products - 400% Theoretical Air (for One Pound Mole)

Table 5: Products - 400% Theoretical Air (for One Pound Mole) fuel data

Table 6: Products - R_bar Log e N +4.57263 n

Table 7: Products - 200% Theoretical Air (for One Pound Mole)

etc. data for oxygen, hydrogen, carbon monoxide, dioxide etc.

T = deg F abs
t = deg F
h = enthalpy per unit mass
pr = relative pressure

c p = specific heat at constant pressure

c v = specific heat at constant volume
G = flow per unit area or mass velocity
k = cp /cv

u = internal energy per unit mass

vr = relative volume

p = pressure
Pr = Prandtl number = cp*/
R = gas constant for air
a = velocity of sound
= thermal conductivity
= viscosity

cp
T

dT

T0

Notes: Appendix (Sources and methods

- " ...calculated for one particular composition of the hydrocarbon fuel, it has been shown that it represents
with high precision the properties of the productsof combustion of fuels of a wide range of composition - all
for 400% theoretical air." page 205 bottom
- problems involving intermediate mixtures to Table B:
can be solved by interpolation based on theoretical air
or ... extrapolated to 100% for products is valid except for effects of disassociation
.products
.
reactants
air_and
.

Table %theor %theor %theor water_vapor

Number
air
fuel
fuel
mass_%_water

Table_B =
1

inf
0
0
0
4

400
25
14
6.7

200
50
28
.

12/19/2005

4. Polynomial equations
- example in combustion example c p = f(

polytropic process
compressor

isentropic process
dT
dp
ds = cpo
R
T
p

(7.21) in gas relationships

dp

dT
= pc cpo
p
T
T

dp
p

dT

c
R po T

T
1s

p1 1
ln =
p 2
R
T

p1
cp
T

p2

dT

=e

1s
cp
pc

dT
T
R
T
2

turbine

p1
p2

=e

1s c
p
1

dT
T
R
T

1s c
p

dT

T
ptR
T
1

p1

p2

=e

High Temperature Gas Turbines

Advantages:
high efficiency - low specific fuel consumption

high specific horsepower - small size and weight

Disavantages:
materials strength problems (Creep) see separate notes re: creep
corrosion
Solutions:
better materials
blade and combustor cooling
ceramic materials

12/19/2005

blade cooling
mf_dot fuel

QH_dot
combustor

to blades
ma_dot air compressor

turbine
W_dotnet=
Wt_dot+Wc_dot

cooling flow

compressed air ducted into stationary AND rotor blades. Temperature reuduced by:
convective heat transfer
transpiration (evaporation of water from surface)
film
nominal data for plot

Cooling effectiveness (nominal)

effectiveness %

60

40

20

convective
film
transpiration
0

cooling flow/turbine flow %

cooling_effectiveness =

12/19/2005

Tblade_gas Tblade_metal
Tblade_gas Tcooling_air

1500 K

T3

nominal T over stages defining where

cooling is required

1st nozzle @ stator

1st rotor
2nd nozzle @ stator
2nd rotor

metal temperature

@ critical value

800 K

T4

Ceramic materials
examples silicon nitride, silicon carbide
can be pressed, bonded and/or sintered to produce complete rotor system
25 _deg_C ( 75_deg_F)
.

.
MPa
tensile_strength =
552
Si3 N4

193

Si C

12/19/2005

1400 _deg_C ( 2500_deg_F)

ksi MPa

ksi

80 172

25

28 138

20

Intercooled Regenerative Gas Turbine

typically two spool design

stack

regenerator

10

combustor

mf_dot fuel
6 mp_dot products

QL1_dot
3

4
1

lp
compressor

power
turbine

lp
turbine

hp
turbine

hp
compressor

ma_dot air

W_dotnet=
Wt_dot+Wc_dot

6
7
8

10

s
powers ... (review) reversible

(
)
HP_comp = mair_dot ( h 4 h 3 )
HP_turb = ( mair_dot + mfuel_dot) ( h 6 h 7 )

LP_comp = mair_dot h 2 h 1

)(

LP_turb = mair_dot + mfuel_dot h 7 h 8

)(

12/19/2005

w_dot LP_comp = w_dot LP_turb

w_dot HP_comp = w_dot HP_turb
mair_dot

Power_turb = mair_dot + mfuel_dot h 8 h 9

)(

QH_dot = mair_dot + mfuel_dot h 6 h 5

mfuel_dot

)
9

from combustion analysis

Marinization
Problems:
1. sea water droplets in air (inlet)
2. sea water in fuel
3. coupling to the propeller
4. long ducting
Solutions:
1. sea water in air
1. design of inlet - demisters to remove droplets
demisters

wire mesh

inertial separation

2. select corrosion resistant materials

3. surface treatment of components - plating to improve corrosion resistance
4. water washing and abrasive cleaning
2. sea water in fuel
1. treat to remove sodium
3. coupling to propeller (later)
4. long ducting
inlet and exit pressures reduce the pressure ratio across turbine
reduction in power
increase in fuel consumption
additional effect from inlet density
p v = R T

=>

= R T

p
R T

static data for plot

12/19/2005

10

T-s diagram
irreversible cycle
nominal pressure losses inlet and exaust
temperature

1000

500

0.9

1.1

1.2

1.3

1.4

1.5

1.6

1.7

entropy
similar effect for T inlet > nominal
cycle will walk up p1 curve
normally cannot increase T H to account for these losses

other issues/topics
Materials
coatings
use of titanium
fuel treatment
sodium - bad - corrosion from products
remove by washing
add agents such as demulsifiers
water combines with sodium - remove by centrifuge
vanadium - in Bunker C combines with sulfur - creates corrosive combustion products
GE fro example has an additive to modify ash to prevent adhering to blades
problem 3 above: coupling to propeller
1. Controllable Reversible Pitch Propeller (CRP)
2. reversing gearbox
3. electric drive
4. reversing turbine
concentric opposite direction direction blade annuli

12/19/2005

11

Brayton cycle applied to turbocharging reciprocating engines

power ...

mf_dot fuel
in

comp = mair_dot h 2 h 1

out

2
ma_dot air compressor

) (

turb = mair_dot + mfuel_dot h 3 h 4

stack

turbine

) (

w_dot comp + w_dot turb = 0 = mair_dot + mfuel_dot h 3 h 4 mair_dot h 2 h 1

mfuel_dot

h2 h1 = 1 +
h3 h4
mair_dot

p3 may be > or < p2 depending on

what happens in engine

combined cycles - gas turbine and Rankine - or other

3

maximum available power from T 4 -> T5

w_dot rev

= 4 5 = h 4 T0 s4 ( h 5 T0 s5 )
= h 4 h 5 T0 (
s4 s5 )

m_dot
max
second law ...

T ds = dh v dp

assuming cpp constant

ds =

dh
T

if ...

cppdT

p 4 = p 5 = p atmos
=>

w_dot rev

T4

= 4 5 = cpp T4 T5 T0 ln

m_dot
max

T5
12/19/2005

12

T4
s4 s5 = cpp ln

T5

dp = 0

ds =

dh
T

example LM 2500

T4 := 825

T0 := 300

GT_power := 330

500
T5 := 400

300
325
T4 T5 = 425

525

kJ

kg K

w_dot rev

= W_m_dot_max
m_dot
max
T4
T0 ln
=
T5

150.233
217.176

303.48

T4
W_m_dot_max := cp_prod T4 T5 T0 ln
K
T5

188.749
kJ
W_m_dot_max = 224.45

kg

239.241

W_m_dot_max
GT_power

12/19/2005

kJ := 1000J

kg
s

cp_prod := 1.08

1 < cp_prod < 1.33

kW

0.572
= 0.68

0.725

13

Electrical Overview

Ref: Woud 2.3

I=

C = 1C

Q = charge

N.B. this is a long note and

repeats much of what is is the text

C = 1 coul

(2.50)

min = 60 s

t = time

s = 1s

A = 1A

I = current

work done per unit charge = potential difference two points

aka electromotive force (EMF)
Power = U( t) I( t)

V = 1V

U = volts

1V 1 A = 1 W

1V 1 A = 1 watt

(2.51)

source, resistance, inductance, capacitance

resistance
resistance = R

= 1

ohm = 1

Ohm's law

U( t) = I( t) R

power in a resistor ...

Power = U( t) I( t) = I( t) R

friction in mechanical system

(2.52)

1 (1A) = 1 W

inductance

(2.53)

mass of inertia in mechanical system

H = 1H

inductance = L

henry = 1 H
t

d
U( t) = L I( t)
dt

A
s

= 1V

U( t)
dt
I( t) =
L

or ...

V s
H

= 1A

(2.54)

d
P = U I = L I I

dt

H A

A
s

(2.55)

= 1W

t
I

inductive_energy_stored = Eind = P( t) dt =
L I I dt = L I dI

dt

0
0

1 2
L I dI I L

2
0

A H = 1 J

capacitance

spring in mechanical system

F = 1F

capacitance = C

farad = 1 F
t

d
I( t) = C U( t)
dt

(2.56)

V
s

= 1A

I( t)
dt
U( t) =
C

or ...

A s
F

= 1V

(2.57)

d
P = U I = C U U( t)
dt

F V

t
U

capacitive_energy_stored = Ecap = P( t) dt =
C U U( t) dt = C U dU

dt
0
0

V
s

= 1W

C U dU

1
2

U C

(2.58), (2.59)
2

V F = 1 J
1
11/13/2006

Kirchhoff's laws
first ...

number_of_currents

sum_of_currents_towards_node = 0

Ii( t) = 0

i= 1

second ...

(2.60)

direction specified

sum_of_voltages_around_closed_path = 0

number_of_voltages

Ui( t) = 0

i= 1

(2.61)

series connection of resistance and inductance ...

U( t) := Umcos( t)

imposed ... external

Um = amplitude_of_voltage

V = 1V

= frequency

Hz = 1

t = time

min = 60 s

I( t) := Imcos( t )

resulting current assumed also harmonic

Im = amplitude_of_current

(2.62)

1
s

A = 1 amp

(2.63)

= phase_lag_angle
it is useful to represent this parameters as vectors using complex notation, where the values are represented by the real
parts
Uz( t) := Umcos( t) + Umsin( t) i

Iz( t) := Imcos( t ) + Imcos( t ) i

Imaginary parts of Uz(t), Iz(t)

plotting set up

Uz(t)
Iz(t)

0.5

0.5

Real parts of Uz(t), Iz(t) = U(t), I(t)

over R voltage drop will be ... U ( t) := R I( t) R I cos( ) t +
R
m
over L voltage drop will be ...

UR( t) = R Im cos( t )

cos( ) = cos( )

d
UL( t) := L I( t) L Imsin( ) t +

dt

L I( t) = ImLsin( t ) = ImLcos + t
2
dt

2
11/13/2006

 + sin( )

2

cos

+ = cos cos( ) sin sin( ) = 0 cos( ) 1 sin( )

2
2

cos

or ...

UzR( t) := R Imcos( t ) + R Imsin( t ) i

in complex (vector) notation ...

UzL( t) := ImLcos + t + ImLsin + t i

2
2

Imaginary parts of Uz(t), UzR(t), UzL(t)

plotting set up

Uz(t)
UzR(t)
UzL(t)

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0.2

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

Real parts of Uz(t), UzR(t), UzL(t) = U(t), UR(t), UL(t)

at this point these vectors are shown with two unknowns included I m and
i.e. directions are correct relatively given and magnitudes arbitrary given I m
Kirchoff's second law ...

U( t) := UR( t) + UL( t ) R Imcos( ) t + + L Im sin( ) t +

Umcos( t) = R Imcos( t ) + L Imcos + t

2

this can be solved for and Im after expanding the rhs into sines and cosines and setting cos = cos and sin = sin
easier if think in terms of vectors

3
11/13/2006

Imaginary parts of Uz(t), UzR(t), UzL(t)

Uz(t)
UzR(t)
UzL(t)
UzL(t) rel. to UzR(t)
UzR(t)+UzL(t)

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0.2

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

Real parts of Uz(t), UzR(t), UzL(t) = U(t), UR(t), UL(t)

for UzR(t) + zL(t) to = Uz(t) magnitude and angle must be =

Um =

(R Im)

+ L Im

)2 =

UzR( t) R Im cos( ) t + i R Imsin( ) t +

R + ( L ) Im
2

Uz( t) Um cos( t) + i Umsin( t)

UzL( t) L Imsin( ) t + + i Im L cos( ) t +

or ...

and ...

Im =

Um
R + ( L )
2

= atan

using these relationships in the plot ...

plotting set up

4
11/13/2006

Uz(t)
UzR(t)
UzL(t)
UzL(t) rel. to UzR(t)
UzR(t)+UzL(t)

Imaginary parts of Uz(t), UzR(t), UzL(t), etc.

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.2

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

Real parts of Uz(t), UzR(t), UzL(t) etc. = U(t), UR(t), UL(t), etc.

N.B. angle may not appear as right angle due to scales

shown as lag (positive value with negative sign)

capacitor lead approach (text)

similar for Capacitance

imposed ... external

U( t) := Umcos( t)

Um = amplitude_of_voltage

V = 1V

= frequency

Hz = 1

1
s

(2.62)
min = 60 s

t = time

this is different from text: lag phase angle vs. lead angle used
resulting current assumed also harmonic

I( t) := Imcos( t )

current assumed to have lag angle. this approach taken

to allow common treatment of L and C in circuits

Im = amplitude_of_current

V = 1V

= phase_lag_angle

complex (vector) representation, set up with real part expressed as cos

Uz( t) = Umcos( t) + Umsin( t) i

Iz( t) = Imcos( t ) + Imsin( t ) i

plotting set up

5
11/13/2006

Imaginary parts of Uz(t), Iz(t)

voltage and current at omega*t positive lag phase angle

Uz(t)
Iz(t)

0.5

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

Real parts of Uz(t), Iz(t) = U(t), I(t)

voltage across capacitor (from above)

t

(2.57)

t
I cos( t )
Imsin( t )
I( t)
Im

dt =
dt =
UC( t) =
=
cos t

C
C
2
C
C

using complex (vector) notation

Uz( t) := Umcos( t) + Umsin( t) i

UzC( t) :=

Im
C

Iz( t) := Imcos( t ) + Imcos( t ) i

cos t

Im

sin t i
+
2 C
2

UzR( t) := R Imcos( t ) + R Imsin( t ) i

Kirchoff's second law for resistor with capacitor...
Uz( t) := UzR( t) + UzC( t) Imcos( ) t + iImsin( ) t +

Im
C

sin( ) t + i

Im
C

cos( ) t +

plotting set up

6
11/13/2006

Voltages with phase angle = - 40 deg

Imaginary parts of Uz(t), UzR(t), UzC(t), etc.

0.8

N.B. angle is distorted due

to scales; angle between
UzR(t) and UzC(t) is /2)

0.6

0.4

0.2

Uz(t)
UzR(t)
UzC(t)
UzC(t) rel. to UzR(t)
UzR(t)+UzC(t)

0.2

0.4

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.2

Real parts of Uz(t), UzR(t), UzC(t) etc. = U(t), UR(t), UC(t), etc.

Uz( t) = Um cos( t) + Umsin( t) = R Imcos( t ) + i R Im

sin( t ) +

Im
C

sin( t ) i

Im

cos( t )
C

look at solution plotted

plotting set up

7
11/13/2006

Imaginary parts of Uz(t), UzR(t), UzC(t), etc.

Uz(t)
UzR(t)
UzC(t)
UzC(t) rel. to UzR(t)
UzR(t)+UzC(t)

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.2

0.4

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.2

1.4

Real parts of Uz(t), UzR(t), UzC(t) etc. = U(t), UR(t), UC(t), etc.

Uz( t) = Um cos( t) + Umsin( t) = R Imcos( t ) + i R Im sin( t ) +

magnitude similar to
above ...

Im =

R +

( C) 2

N.B. angle may not appear as right angle due to scales

shown as lead (negative value with negative sign)

so with both L and C

phase angle is negative;

hence referred to as
lead angle

Um
2

Im

sin( t + ) i

Im

cos( t + )

CR

= atan

1 = 26.565 deg in this numerical example

L 1

CR
R

= atan

8
11/13/2006

Section 2.3.4
2

P = U = I R

Direct current (DC)

P( t) = U( t) I( t)

Single phase alternating current (AC)

U( t) := Umcos( t)

typically sinusoidal ...

Pa :=

average power ...

lim
T

I( t) := Imcos( t )

lag phase angle used

1 T

1
U( t) I( t) dt UmImcos(
)

T 0

in practice effective values are used

Ue :=

Ie :=

lim
T

lim
T

Umcos( t)

dt

1
2

2 Um
2

2 Im

2
1

so average power becomes ...

Ue = effective_voltage

(Imcos(t ))2 dt

Um

Ue :=

Ie :=

Im
2

Ie = effective_current
cos( ) = power_factor

Pa := UeIecos( )

what is current required in two systems with same effective voltage but larger phase lag?
here forward e subscript dropped and U == U e , I == Ie
some power and current definitions
apparent_power = V A = U I
real_power = U cos( )

W = 1W

reactive_power = U I sin( )

same for current

I = current

A = 1 amp

load_current = I cos( )

A = 1 amp

reactive_current = I sin( ) A = 1 amp

V A

three phase alternating current

0

2
:= 3

4
3

ORIGIN := 1
i := 1 .. 3

and ...
3

i= 1

Up := Umcos t i
i

phase angle for respective phases

Ip := Imcos t i
i

Up expand 0
i

i= 1

Ip expand 0
i

9
11/13/2006

IL = Ip
1
1

star connection ...

i := 1 .. 2

UL := Up Up
i
i
i+
1

i := 1 .. 3

e.g.

magnitude is ...

IL = Ip
3
3

UL := Up Up
3
3
31

Uzp := Umcos t i + Umsin t i i

i := 1 .. 2

i := 1 .. 3

IL = Ip
2
2

UzL := Uzp Uzp

i
i
i+ 1

UzL := Uzp Uzp

3
3
1

1
1
UzL simplify Um cos( t) + i Umsin( t) + Um cos t + + i Umsin t +
1
3
3

from trigonometry...
1
2

cos( t) + cos t + + sin( t) + sin t + expand 3 cos( t) 2 + 3 sin( t) 2

3
3

Um *

magnitude := Um 3

(2.85)

angle relative to *t (set *t = 0)

1
1
Umcos( 0 ) + i Umsin( 0 ) + Umcos + i Umsin
substitute , t = 0
3
3
simplify
UzL
1

for plotting ...

i := 1 .. 3

sin

3
anglet = atan

1 + cos
1 := 1 t1 := 0.79

1 := 1

U1m := 1 U1p := U1m cos 1 t1 i

i

sin

3
atan
= 30 deg
1 + cos

U1zp := U1m cos 1 t1 i + U1m sin 1 t1 i i

i

Up1
Up2
Up3
-Up2 ref Up1
Up1-Up2

1.5

0.5

0.5

0.5

0.5

similarly in a delta connection ... current has same geometry

UL = Up

(2.86)

IL = Ip 3

(2.87)

10
11/13/2006

2.3.5 Magnetic induction

B =

T = 1 tesla

B = flux_density

2r

T=1

= permeability_of_medium

=1

m kg

2 2

A s

0 = permeability_of_vacuum

R = permeability_of_medium_relative_to_vacuum

=1

kg

T=1

amp s

(2.90)

= 0 R

Wb

henry

0 := 410

7H

unitless

magnetic field around wire carrying current

derived from Biot-Savart law

e.g. magnetic field at point P results from motion of charged particle at velocity V in vacuum

V ar
B=
q
T
2
4
r
0

parameters

units and equivalents

T = 1 tesla

B = flux_density

T=1

Wb

m
0 = permeability_in_vacuum

0 := 410
C = 1 coul

q = charge

V = velocity_vector_of_charge

7H

=1

=1

newton
2

amp

C = 1 A s

ar = unit_vector_from_charge_q_to_point_P
r = distance_from_P_to_charge

units check
H
m

m 1

= 1T
2
s
m

V ar

dB =
dq

4
r

q V = I dl
0

differential
form
line currents ...

so ..

T = 1 10 gauss

dl ar
dB =
I
2
4
r
0

B=

I
dl ar
4 2
r

11
11/13/2006

e.g. long straight wire with current I

dl ar
0 dl sin(
)
dB =
I
=
I
2
2
4
4
r
r
0

see figure at right

dl sin( ) = r d

dl sin( )

r
=

sin( )

cos( )

r*d

geometry for solution set up

r
d

cos( ) d
R

dl

sin( )

r
R

dl

r=

dB into
paper

sin( ) =

r d

cos( ) =

dl

R
r

dl ar
0 dl sin( )
0 cos( ) d

dB =
I
=
I
=
I
2
2
R
4
4
4
r
r
0

2
0 cos( )

B = 1 dB =
I
d
R
4

2
0 cos( )

1 0 I
I
d

R
2
4

B=

0 I

Q.E.D.

2R

if area not vacuum, substitute = r* 0 ...

magnetic flux density over an area AA

:= B dAA

AA = enclosed_area

to distinguish from A
(ampere)

Wb = 1 weber

Wb = 1

kg m

A = 1 amp

A s

12
11/13/2006

Lorentz force
I

a force will act on a current carrying conductor when it

is placed in a magnetic field

FL
FL = B Ilen
(2.92)

FL = I len B

FL = Lorentz_force

N = 1 newton

B = flux_density

T = 1 tesla

I = current_thru_conductor

A = 1 amp

len = length

l=len

B into paper

T A m = 1 N
B I sin( angle)

where x is vector cross product and magnitude is

right hand rule applies

view of single coil in magnetic field (B) with current (I) (slightly revised from text; len*sin()

I into paper

F into
paper

len

F
len*sin()
side view

force on one segment (h) of coil

torque on coil depends on

B
top view

F = I Bh

N.B. I is perpendicular to B =>

M = F lensin( )

M = F lensin( ) = I Bhlensin( ) = I BAAsin( ) = I sin( )

account for multiple windings (turns) (N)

len sin( ) = distance_between_couple_of_force_F

AA = area_of_coil = enclosed_area

M = N I sin( )

general relationship recognizing proportionality to I*

F = I Bh

M = KmI

AA to distinguish
from A (ampere)

Km = constant_for_given_motor

(2.93)

13
11/13/2006

Faraday's Law

Voltage is generated in conductor when moving in magnetic field

E = Blenv

E = induction_potential = electromotive_force

V = 1 volt

units check

T = 1 tesla

B = flux_density
m

v = velocity

len = length_of_conductor

m
s

m = 1 V

E as shown is positive value and direction

minus sign is consistent with observation that E as shown
would produce a current in the same direction which in
turn would produce a force opposite to velocity.

v l=len

E = (B v)len

vector form ...

consistent with text ... multiply by sin() where is

angle between B and v

B into paper

d
E=
dt

may also be expressed as ...

since ...

= B Area

substituting ...

E = N

dt

Wb
s

d
d
d
d
E = = (B Area) = B Area = Blen x
dt
dt
dt
dt

in coil rotating in constant magnetic field B

and with N turns ...

for single turn and ..

for N turns

= 1V

as ...

= B Area cos( ) = B Areacos( t)

(2.95)

Area = len x

where ...

Area = area_enclosed_in_coil
d (
E = N B Areacos( t) ) E = N B Area sin( t)
dt
rad
= 2n
n = rpm
rpm = 6.283
E = N 2 nB Areasin( t)
min

as abve for motor constant ... express ...

E = KEn

KE = constant_for_given_motor
E = induced_electromotive_force

V = 1 volt

= magnetic_flux

Wb = 1 weber

n = rotation_speed

rpm = 0.105

1
sec

1Wb 60rpm = 6.283 V

14
11/13/2006

Electric Motors
M = KmI

from electrcal overview

Lorentz force...

Ref: Chapter 9

Km = constant_for_given_motor
M = torque
N m

(ref: 2.93)

= magnetic_flux

Wb = 1 weber

I = current

A = 1 amp

(9.1)

1Wb 1A = 1 N

when rotating, electromotive force induced in rotor given by ..

from electrical overview Faraday's force ...
E = KEn

(ref: 2.96)

KE = constant_for_given_motor
E = induced_electromotive_force

V = 1 volt

= magnetic_flux

Wb = 1 weber
rpm = 6.283

n = rotation_speed

(9.2)

Wb rpm = 0.105 V

min

model motor as resistance in series with EMF generator (opposing applied voltage)

U = E + I R
M = KmI

with ...

I :=

n collect ,

(9.1)

KE

n=

2
Km
KE

(9.4)

E = KEn

and ...

E := (U I R)

Km
U

P = E I + I R

(9.3)

n :=

U
KE

(9.2)

RA
Um

KE

separately
excited
field

M R

KEKm

(9.5)

XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX

to see an example of DC motor behavior assume a set of reasonable parameters. Not all are independent.

for fixed magnetic field and rpm at maximum power

, maximum current Im and maximum torque Mm

M = KmI

set , n, R and applied voltage U

:= 1Wb
derived

n := 100rpm

R := 2

U = E + I R

E Im = M mn 2

M m = KmIm

Km

E = KEn

KE

maximum current

Um := 400V
Im := 10A

E := Um ImR

E = 380 V
M m :=

Km :=
KE :=

E Im

M m = 57.753 N m assuming EMF*I converted

into mechanical power

n 2

Mm

Km = 5.775

Im

P = U I = E I + I R = M n 2 + I R

KE = 36.287

XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
1
11/15/2006

M = U

a :=

Km
R

Km

KEKm

Um

b :=

Km KE

KEKm

= 57.753 N m

M ( U , n ) := ( U a b n)

nn( U , M ) :=
M 0 := 0N m

Km

M m = 57.753 N m

calculate M when U and n known ...

U a M

calculate n when U and M known useful at ends of torque range 0 - M m

nn Um , M m = 100 rpm

derived check

nn Um , 0 = 105.26316 rpm

for example at U = 0.25 U m, calculate n at 0 and maximum torque

(
(

)
)

n11 := nn Um0.25, M m n11 = 21.053 rpm

n12 := nn Um0.25, M 0 n12 = 26.316 rpm

maximum torque
0 torque

n1 := n11 , n11 + 0.1rpm .. n12

Mm

plot M vs n for U = 0.25*U m

N m

50

M U m0.25, n1
N m

and if develop similar data for 0.5 * U m, 0.75 * Um and Um

0

obtain the following plot

10

20

30

n1
rpm
plot data

torque N*m

60

0.25 * Um
0.5 * Um
0.75 * Um
1.0 * Um
Mm max torque

40

20

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

rpm
2
11/15/2006

additional operating envelope is available beyond design rpm by reducing the field strength . But the region is limited

by the maximum power available

Pmax := M m 2 n

beyond a M limited by Pmax

Pmax = 3.8 10 W

above base sped and torque with power consatant at P max, torque is limited inversely with rpm
M maxnn 2 = Pmax

Pmax

M max_n( nn) :=

nn 2

nn1 := n , n + 1rpm .. 2
n
60

Mm

using .. again
M max_n(nn1)

40

N m

n=

20
100

150

200

M R

KE

KEKm

(9.5)

250

nn1

rpm

Pmax
n=

U
KE

M R

nn =

KEKm

U
KE

nn 2

Pmax

R
U

nn =

KEKm

KE

nn

KEKm

solved symbolicly on blank sheet

nnmax( ) :=

1
4KEKm

2 UmKm + 2 Um Km 2KEKm PmaxR

calculate n when U and M known - useful at ends of torque range 0 - M m and in this application a and b are functions of
a( ) :=

Km
R

b ( ) :=

M ( U , n) = U a b n

Km KE

calculate M when U and n known ...

so with = 0.75 base

n51 := nnmax( 0.75)

n52 := nn 0.75 , M 0

nn( , M ) :=

b( )

MM( , n ) := Um a( ) b ( ) n

and = 0.6 of base

n51 = 133.333 rpm
n52 = 140.351 rpm

n5 := n51 , n51 + 1rpm .. n52

MM( 0.75, n51 ) = 43.315 N m
MM( 0.75, n52 ) = 0 N m

Uma( ) M

n61 := nnmax( 0.6)

n61 = 166.667 rpm

n62 = 175.439 rpm

n62 := nn 0.6 , M 0

n6 := n61 , n61 + 0.1rpm .. n62

MM( 0.6, n61 ) = 34.652 N

m
MM( 0.6, n62 ) = 0 N m

3
11/15/2006

60

0.25 * Um
0.5 * Um
0.75 * Um
1.0 * Um
Mm
FI = 0.75
FI = 0.6
Pmax

50

torque N*m

40

30

20

10

50

100

150

200

250

rpm
now if we plot this data in terms of power,
nrpm
load( nrpm) := Pmax

1.5 n

power = torque rpm 2

and superimpose a cubic load curve

reaching max power at 1.5 base rpm
0
0

Pmax
Pmax_plot :=
n

rpm W

nrpm := 0rpm , 1rpm .. 1.5 n

4000

0.25 * Um
0.5 * Um
0.75 * Um
1.0 * Um
M max
FI = 0.75
FI = 0.6
P max
load

power (W)

3000

2000

1000

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

220

rpm
So ... as observed in the text: "The operational envelopes show that a DC motor is very suited to drive a propeller for ship
propulsion."
4
11/15/2006

practical aspects ...

IA

shunt motor: field in parallel with armature

IF

operates same as separate excitation ...

field excitation constant

RA
shunt
field

Um

series motor: field in series with armature

now the field current and armature current is the same

using the same relationships from above ...

M := KmI

(9.1)

E = KEn

(9.2)

U = E + I
R

(9.3)

:= KFII

Um

I :=

U E

M := KmKFI

I R = U KEKFIn

M KmKFI

E := KE n

M := KmKFI

E KE KF I n

E := KE KF I n

U KEKFI n

I=

U KE KF I n

I =

I R + KEKFn = U

I :=

R + KEKFn

M Km KF

U
R + KEKFn

(R + KEKFn)

(9.7)

I = current

M := KmI

U = E + I R

series
field
E

KF = constant_for_given_motor

eliminate I ...

RA

M := Km KF

(R + KEKFn)

(9.8)

some numerical values for a plot ...

Um := 100V KE := 1

Km := 1
2

M ( U , n ) := KmKF

(R + KEKFn)

Wb
KF := 1
A

R := 4

M Um , 100rpm = 47.747 N m

Imax := 9A
2

M max := KmKFImax
M max = 81 N

n := 1rpm , 2rpm .. 200rpm

5
11/15/2006

100
Mmax

Torque (N*m)

80

N m

60

40

20

Um
0.5*Um
0

50

100

150

200

250

rpm
motor suitable for traction purposes - high torque at low rpm

Induction motors (AC)

IF := 1

:=

1
s

t := FRAME

4
100

sec

t to go from 0 to 4* in
100 steps

current sinusoidal (cos) with time

Ib ( t) := IF cos t 2
3

Ia( t) := IF cos( t)

Ic( t) := IF cos t 4
3

field vector displaced by 2*/3 and 4*p/3, and current at appropriate phase shift applied
IF cos( t)
= 1

Bza( t) := IF cos( t)

Bzb ( t) := IF cos t 2 cos 2 + sin 2 i
3
3

IF cos t 2 = 0.5
3

Bzc( t) := IF cos t 4 cos 4 + sin 4 i
3 3

Re_sum ( t) := Re Bza( t) + Re Bzb ( t) + Re Bzc( t)

IF cos t 4 = 0.5
3

Im_sum( ) := Im Bza( t) + Im Bzb ( t) + Im Bzc( t)

Re_sum ( t) = 1.5

Im_sum( t) = 0

Re_sum( t) + Im_sum( t) = 1.5

6
11/15/2006

1.5

Im Bz ( t)

( a )

Im Bz ( t)

( b )

0.5

Im Bz ( t)

( c )

0.5

Im_sum( t)

1.5
1.5

0.5

0.5

1.5

0
0
0

Re Bz ( t) , Re Bz ( t) , Re Bz ( t) ,

( a )

( b )

( c )

Re_sum( t)

t1 :=

IF cos( t1) = 0.5

sec

Re Bza( t1)

IF cos t1 2 = 0.5
3

Re Bzb ( t1)

imaginary part of field vector

IF cos t1 4 = 1
3

Re Bzc( t1)

= 0.5

= 0.5

=1

+ Im Bza( t1)

+ Im Bzb ( t1)

+ Im Bzc( t1)

real part of field vector

7
11/15/2006

speed of rotation of this machine = frequency of the supplied AC. as shown, there are two poles (one pair) N-S

with multiple pairs the speed of rotation is reduced proportional to the number of poles

ns = f =

with AC frequency
and two poles

n s = rotation_speed

f = frequency

rpm

Hz
1

= frequency
for p poles

ns =

2 f

Hz = 1

Hz = 9.549 rpm

s
Hz

( 9.10 )

assumes radians
2Hz = 60 rpm

one stator winding ...

d
E = N
dt

d
= constantf
dt

(2.95)
small ...

U = IFR + E

R<1

U=E=

E=

=>

f
KF

U
= KF
f

=>

KF

KF = constant_for_given_motor

now consider the rotor,if it is turning at the same speed as the rotating magnetic field of the stator, there is no EMF
the current induced in the rotor is strongly dependent on the relative speed
define ...
at low slip

s=
0%

n s n

(9.14)

n
s
to ..

10%

s = slip

n s = rotation_speed_stator
fR_EMF = n s n

n = rotation_speed_rotor

fR_EMF = frequency_of_rotor_EMF

(9.15)

because the rotor induced current will be at slip frequency, EMF is low so reactance (L) will be low. I A depends
primarily (only) on rotor (armature) resistance R A and is in phase with the flux pattern. The net result is torque is ~
directly proportional to slip
M = K s

(9.16)

8
11/15/2006

some typical curves from text for discussion

M,I

pull out torque

M
increasing
resistance

load curve

n
s

load curve

ns
0

ns

1
fig. 9.20A Torque - speed curve varying rotor resistance from Woud

1
fig. 9.18 Torque - speed curve induction motor from Woud

Um

I
increasing
resistance

0.75*Um

0.5*Um

load curve

load curve

0.25*Um
0

n
s

ns
0

1
fig. 9.20B Current - speed curve varying rotor resistance from Woud

n
s

ns
0

fig. 9.21 Torque - speed curve induction motor

varying supply voltage, from Woud

starting has challenges and text reviews some alternatives

There is much more to this subject and text covers quite well. Next lecture will review ship applications.
One comment regarding opinion in text regarding DC motor drive. Dc drives not typical as commutation brushes require
significant maintenance. DDX motor has innovative new brush technology.
see: http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/report/2002/mil-02-04-wavelengths02.htm

9
11/15/2006

Reliability and Availablity

This set of notes is a combination of material from Prof. Doug Carmichael's notes for 13.21 and Chapter 8 of

Engineering Statistics Handbook. NIST/SEMATECH e-Handbook of Statistical Methods,

http://www.itl.nist.gov/div898/handbook/, 2005.

available free from:

see: NIST/SEMATECH e-Handbook of Statistical Methods on CD

Including and improving reliability of propulsion (and other) systems is a challenging goal for system designers.
An approach has developed to tackle this challenge:
1. a design and development philosophy
2. a test procedure for components and total systems
3. a modelling procedure based on test results, field tests and probability (statistics

Design and development philosophy

recognition that reliability is a product is essentiall the abscence of failures or substandard performance of all

critical systems in the design, followed by an examination of the factors leading to failure.

Causes of failure:
a. loading: (inaccurate estimates of) thermal, mechanical or electriacl including

vibrations

b. strength: (inaccurate estimates of) the load carrying capacity of the components
c. environment: presence of dirt, high temperature, shock, corrosion, moisture, etc.
d. human factors: heavy handed operators ("sailor proof"), wrong decisions (operator error), criminal activities

(sabatoge), poor design, tools left in critical components, use of incorect replacements

e. quality control: or lack thereof; loose control of materials and manufacture, lack of inspection, loose

specifications

f. accident; act of God, freak accidents, collisions

g. acts of war: terorism, war damage
designer should recognize these potential causes for failure and try to design devices that will resist failure.

Detailed Design Features

a. try to account for all possible situations in the design stage and eliminate possible failures. Delivering

maximumloads and minimum strengths

b. assume that every component can fail, examine the outcome of the failure and try to reduce the risk of damage.

Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (FEMA)

c. institute strict quality control in manufacture and maintenance

d. have cleaarly defined specifications (including material specifications and methods of testing)
e. develop technology to meet new challenges. conduct development testing.
f. consider possible war damage and ship collision
g. carry out development testing in arduous conditions

System Design Features

a. calculate probability of failures. (reliability and availability analysis
b. improve system design by standby or redundant systems
c. analyze failures, note trends
d. specify clearly all operating procedures (good operating manuals)
e. require inspection, maintenance and replacement procedures (trend analysis)

Failure testing and analysis

from field or laboratory tests on components or systems determine number of operating units as a function of time

(life):

12/13/2005

set up N_surv

nominal survival curve

100

a typical survival curve might

look like this:
number surviving

80

60

40

20

20

40

60

80

100

time

define the failure rate at time t as

=

proportion_failing_in_t

d
N( t)
dt
N( t)

N( t) 1
1 d
N( t)
=
N( t) t
N( t) dt

- as "rate" > 0 consistent with

population decline units are:

to make some
estimates based on this
sample:

d N( t)
N( t)

N( t)
ln
( ) d
=

N( 0 )
0

= dt

fail_rate( t , t) :=

N( t + t) N( t)
N( t)t

fail_rate( 40 , 0.01) = 0.01

fail_rate( 10 , 0.01) = 0.01

N = N( t = 0)
define ... I

N( t) = NIexp d

d
N( t)
dt
N( t)

set ...
or ...

calculate for modest t = 0.01 and t =10, 40,

60, 120

fail_rate( 60 , 0.01) = 0.01

looks like = failure rate is a constant, not unusual

or ...

N( t) = NI exp ( ) d
0

time

fail_rate( 120 , 0.01) = 0.01

1 d
N( t) = constant

N( t) dt

d
N( t)
dt
N( t)

integrate from
N( t)
ln
d
=
0 to t

N( 0 )
0

:= 0.01
N( t) := NIexp( t)

NI := 100
100

N( t) 50

50
t

12/13/2005

100

N.B. failure rate is not necessarily the same as (but can be related to) (in this case it is) the probability of failure

see Engineering Statistics Handbook

an actual failure rate curve might look like this:

set up bath tub

nominal failure rate

2

100

three regions are evident:

800

failure rate

0 - 100 early failure period = infant mortality

rate
1

100 - 800 intrinsic failure period aka stable

failure period => intrinsic failure rate

200

400

600

800

> 800 wearout failure period - materials wear out

and degradation failures occur at an ever
increasing rate

1000

for most systems, the failure ratetime

is relatively constant except for wer in and wear out. If the failure rate is constant,

the component is said to have random failure.

Reliability
(applies to a particular mission with a defined duration.)

defined as the probability of operating without degraded performance during a specific time period. At time t 1 , the

number operating is N(t1 ) and NI is the initial number. The reliability is:

( )

R t1 =

( )

t1

R( t 1 ) =
= exp
dt

NI
0

1
N( t1 )
ln
= dt

0
NI

( )

N t1

since ...

NI

with = constant

d N( t)
N( t)

= dt

( )

R t1 = exp t1

( )

and expanding
in a series ...

( )

and if ... *t1 << 1,

R t1 = 1 t1

e.g.

N t1

R t1 = 1 t1

t1 := 0.05

2
3
t1 )
t1 )
(
(
+

+ ..

1 t1 = 0.95

2!

3!

exp t1 = 0.951

Mean Time Between (Operational Mission) Failure (MTB(OM)F

with field testing,data is collected in the form of operating time, failures and repair time.
During the field operation of a component or a system, there is a total number of operating hours and a total
number of failures. MTB(OM)F is defined
MBT( OM) F =

accumulated_life
number_of_failures

For random failures, the failure rate

if ...

t1
MBT( OM) F

12/13/2005

=
<1

number_of_failures
accumulated_life

MBT( OM) F

t1
R t1 = 1 t1 = 1

MBT( OM)
F

( )

Probability of Failure (Q or F)
since probability of success + failure = 1

t1 if ... *t1
Q = 1 R = 1 exp t1 = t1 =
MTBF<< 1

R+ Q=1

now consider separate components C1 and C2 having R 1 and R2 and Q1 and Q2 . then ...

(R1 + Q1) (R2 + Q2) = 1

(R1 + Q1) (R2 + Q2) expand

R1 R2 + R1 Q2 + Q1 R2 + Q1 Q2

R1 R2 = probability_both_C1_and_C2_operating
R1 Q2 = probability_C1_operating_and_C2_failed
R2 Q1 = probability_C2_operating_and_C1_failed
Q1 Q2 = probability_C1_and_C2_failed

Series Systems
If it is necessary for all systems to operate, then this termed a series system and is represented as a circuit as:
Rseries = R1 R2

From above; the probability that both are operating is ...

e.g. ...

( it1) = Ri

Rseries = R1 R2 R3 .. Rn = exp

more generally,

R1 := 0.9

R2 := 0.9

R3 := 0.9

2 components

R1 R2 = 0.81

Rn := 0.9
6 components

Rn = 0.531

Parallel Systems
If there is redundancy, and either C1 or C2 is required for operation then this is a parallel scheme ...
Rparallel = R1 R2 + R1 Q2 + Q1 R2 = 1 Q1 Q2
generally ...

Rparallel = 1 Q1 Q2 Q3 .. Qn = 1

Qi

when Qi = Qn

Rparallel = 1 Qi

e.g. ...

R1 := 0.9

R2 := 0.9

R3 := 0.9

Qi := 0.1

Rn := 0.9
2 components

12/13/2005

1 Qi = 0.99

R out of N
see Handbook of Statistical Methods section 8.1.8.4.R out of N model
If a system has n components and reqires any r to be operational; assuming
all components have thesame reliability Ri
all components operate independent of one another (as far as failure is concerned)
the system can survive any (n - r) components failing, but fails at the instant the n - r - 1)th component fails
System reliability is given by the probability of exactly r components surviving to time t + the probability of exactly (r
+ 1) components surviving to time t ... up to all n surviving. These are binomial probabilities:
n

Rs( t) =

i = r

n R i 1 R ni

i (
i)
r

for example (where Ri are not

necessarily equal ...

n=4

r = 2 i.e. four components of which two are

required for operation

2 components

R1 R2 Q3 Q4 + R1 R3 Q2 Q4 + R1 R4 Q2 Q3 + R2 R3 Q1 Q4 + R2 R4 Q1 Q3 + R3 R4 Q1 Q2

3 components

R1 R2 R3 Q4 + R1 R3 R4 Q2 + R1 R2 R4 Q3 + R2 R3 R4 Q1

R1 R2 R3 R4

n = 4 components

sum all these for R s

Rs = R1 R2 Q3 Q4 + R1 R3 Q2 Q4 + R1 R4 Q2 Q3 + R2 R3 Q1 Q4 + R2 R4 Q1 Q3 + R3 R4 Q1 Q2 ...
+ R1 R2 R3 Q4 + R1 R3 R4 Q2 + R1 R2 R4 Q3 + R2 R3 R4 Q1 ...
+ R1 R2 R3 R4

N.B. a series system is one with r = n i.e. all components must operate. a parallel system is one with r = 1

Standby Systems
Standby scenario will be more reliable than parallel as seen in Handbook of Statistical Methods section

8.1.8.5.Standby model

Availability
Availability is the probability that a component is operational, i.e. it is not being repaired

MTTR = mean_time_to_repair =

total_time_for_repairs

number_of_repairs

For every failure there should be a repair, so that the average component is repaired for the average time after it
has operated for the average time between failures. Average time between failures is MTBF and for repair MTTR,
so assuming component is either operating or being repaired ...
availability = A =

if ...
12/13/2005

operating_time
operating_time + repair_time

MTBF > MTTR

( << )

MTBF

MTBF + MTTR

which it should be ...

A=

MTBF
MTBF + MTTR

=1

probability that it is being repaired is ... Q A

MTTR

MTBF

1+a

= (1 + a)

=1a

a<1

MTTR
QA = 1 A =
MTBF

and as above, availability for series systems would be ..

Aseries = A1 A2 A3 .. An =

Ai
n

and parallel ...

Aparallel = 1 Q1 Q2 Q3 .. Qn = 1

Qi
n

12/13/2005

( << )

Supplement for Repairable System Reliability

Reference: Probability and Reliability for

Engineers, Miller, TA340.M648 1985

primarily chapter 15

NIST e-book Engineering Statistics Handbook,

sections labelled

PDF = probability_density_function = f( t)
t

CDF = cumulative_distribution_function = F( t) = f( x ) dx

8.1.2.2 Reliability or Survival function

Reliability_function = probability_unit_survives_beyond_t
R( t) = 1 F( t)

F( t) = 1 R( t)

or ...

8.1.2.3 Failure (or Hazard) rate

h ( t) = failure_rate =

f( t)
1 F( t)

f( t)

conditional probability

R( t )

f( t) = R( t) h ( t)

therefore ...

d
d
F( t) = R( t) = f( t)

dt
dt

R( t) = 1 F( t )

now ...

h ( t) =

f( t)
R( t )

d
R( t )
dt
R( t )

d
= ln( R( t) )

dt

integrate from 0 to t

h ( x ) dx = ln( R( t))

exponentiate ..

h( x) dx

R( t) = e

f( t) = R( t) h ( t) = h ( t) e

therefore ...

h( x) dx

now .. if assume (observe) failure rate h(t) = constant =

t

h ( t) :=

f( t) := h ( t) e

h( x) dx

( )

f( t) e

( ) x
( ) t
F( t) := e
dx e
+1

F( t) := 1 e

have exponential assumption of probability of failure times

1
11/27/2006

exponential pdf and cdf example

PDF_of_time_to_next_failure = f( t) = e

:=

t := 0 .. 10000

1000

f( t) := e

probability density of time to next failure (lambda = 1/1000)

probability

0.001

5 .10

0
0

2000

4000

6000

1 .10

8000

time to next failure

CDF = F( t ) = 1 e

= CDF_of_waiting_time_to_next_failure

F( t) := 1 e

or .. CDF of "interarrival" time between failures

cumulative probability density of time to next failure (lambda = 1/1000)

probability

0.5

0
0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

8000

9000

1 .10

time to next failure

exponential pdf and cdf example
reset variables

interpret time to failure as a waiting time, it can be shown that this can be represented as a Poisson
process, if a component which fails is immediately replaced with a new one having the same failure rate .
Some results from this observation:
mean_waiting_ttime_between_successive_failures =

= MTBF

Some results for exponential model

2
11/27/2006

R( t) := 1 F( t)

Reliability or Survival function

R( t) e

Reliability_function = probability_unit_survives_beyond_t

( ) t
0.05

e.g. if component has a failure rate of 0.05/1000 hours, probability that

it will survive at least 10,000 hrs is given by:

10000

1000

= 0.607

n components in series
if a system consists of n components in series, with respective failure rates 1 , 2 ... n
n

Rs( t) =

it

=e

it

=1

so it also is an exponential distribution ...

and the MTBF for the system is:

i= 1

MTBF series_system =

i= 1

1
MTBF
i

i = 1

for a parallel system

... with respective failure rates 1 , 2 ... n
in this case we need to deal with "unreliabilities"
F =1R
i

is probability component i will fail

probability_all_will_fail = unreliability = Fp =

Fi
i= 1

Rp ( t) = 1 Fp ( t) = 1

and probability of survival =R p (t)

F ( t) = 1

i= 1

1 Ri(t)
i= 1

in this case; exponential probability of failure

Fi(t) = (
1 e
n

Fp ( t) =

i= 1

h p( t) =

fp ( t)
Rp( t)

it

this will not show exponential distribution ...

i= 1

Fp ( t
)
dt

difficult to evaluate, but notice at least it is f(t).

Rp ( t )

Rp (t) difficult to obtain in general, but when all components have same failure rate
3
11/27/2006

Rp( t) = 1

t
t
(1 e ) = 1 (1 e )
n

1 R ( t) = 1

i= 1

i = 1

n_choose_k( n , k ) :=

1 1e

n!

= 1 1 n_choose_k( n , 1) e

Rp ( t) = n_choose_k( n , 1 ) e

binomial coefficient

k!(n k)!

+ n_choose_k( n , 1) e

n_choose_k( n , 2 ) e

2 t

........

+ ......................... ( 1 )

n 1 n t

binomial theorem from mathworld.wolfram.com/BinomialTheorem.html

it can be shown see reference page 460

after differentiating to find fp (t)

fp ( t) =

d
Rp ( t )
dt

and then calculating the mean (MBTF parallel)

MBTF parallel =

1 +

1
2

+ ............. +

e.g. if use two identical components in parallel

4

1 3
MBTF parallel =
2

increase of 50% not double

k=1

1
k

= 2.083

four to double

another example if time permits on board

4
11/27/2006

Reduction Gears
need:

propellers
waterjet pump
low speed diesels
medium speed diesels
steam turbine
gas turbine

60-300 rpm

300-1500 rpm

70-250 rpm

350-1200 rpm

6000-9000 rpm

3600-15000 rpm

(larger @ lower rpm)

reduction gears make conversion.

some history
ref: Marine Engineering Chapter IX Reduction Gears, by Gary P. Mowers, (SNAME) page 325 ff and
others
19th - 20th century (1890-1910) ships propelled by reciprocating steam engines - direct drive

1904 - study by consulting engineers George Melville Adm (Ret.) and John Alpine

George Melville was Chief Bureau of Steam Engineering and in 1899 President of ASME see
study: - Problem - steam engine succeeding reciprocating engine:
"If one could devise a means of reconciling, in a practical manner, the necessary high speed of revolution of the
turbine with the comparatively low rate of revolution required by an efficient propeller, the problem would be solved
and the turbine would practically wipe out the reciprocating engine for the propulsion of ships. The solution of this
problem would be a stroke of great genius." Ref: Mar. Eng.
First gear generally attributed to Pierre DeLaval in 1892. Parsons (cavitation) and George Westinghouse
developed prototypes and installed gears:

1910 - 15,000 shp with geared turbine drive

1940 - 100,000 shp with geared turbine drive

1917 - double reduction introduced

Development has been evolutionary - few step advances

- single to double
- welding in construction of gear wheel as and casing
- higher hardness pinion and gear materials => higher tooth load
Many types of gears are used (defined) and there is an extensive nomenclature associated with gear definitions.
One source: (formerly available free via registration via:
http://www.agma.org/Content/NavigationMenu/EducationTraining/OnlineEducation/default.htm )

AGMA Gear Nomenclature, Definitions of Terms with Symbols

ANSUAGMA 1012-F90

(Revision of AGMA 112.05)

[Tables or other self-supporting sections may be quoted or extracted in their entirety. Credit lines
should read: Extracted from AGMA 1012-F90, Gear Nomenclature Terms, Definitions, Symbols and
Abbreviations, with the permission of the publisher, American Gear Manufacturers Association, 1500
King Street, Suite 201, Alexandria, Virginia 22314 ] Availability changed to require registration in course.
I have copy from previous registration when it was free.
See: handout from Marine Engineering, (on web site)

11/29/2006

Single Reduction

gear_ratio = R =

R=

Single reduction
input
pinion

diameter_of_gear

diameter_of_pinion

number_teeth_gear
number_teeth_pinion

rpm_pinion
rpm_gear

NP

output

NG

bull
gear

Double Reduction (locked train 50% each drive)

R1 =

dg1
dp1

R2 =

dg2

Double reduction

R = R1 R2

dp2

dp 2
dg 2

dp 1
dg 1

dg 1

dg 1
dp+ 2

dp+2
dp 1

input

output

dg 2

Epicyclic gear summary

various combinations can be used with this
system

Epicyclic gear
ring
+

planets
sun

cage

cage

Type

Fixed

Input

Output

Ratio

Normal range

Planetary

ring

sun

cage

RR/RS + 1

3:1 - 12:1

Star

cage

sun

ring

(-) RR/RS

(-) 2:1 - 11:1

Solar

sun

ring

cage

RS/RR + 1

RS = radius_sun
RR = radius_ring

Application: Planetary gears used in high speed as tooth loading

reduced by multiplicity of planet gears. Also can provide
counter-rotation.

RP = radius_planet
11/29/2006

1.2:1 - 1.7:1

Wr*Rr

ring

Wp*Rp

to show above ratios consider:

R = pitch_diameter

subscripts ...

W = angular_velocity

s = sun

WT = tangential_load

p = planet

Wc

Wr
planet

Ws

Wc*Rr

Wp
Wp*Rp+Wc*Rs
Ws*Rs

sun

r = ring

n = rpm

c = carrier( cage)

ref: Gear Drive Systems; Design and

Application, P. Lynwander TJ184.L94 1983
N.B. in this development Ws and Wc are

1 = primary
for compound
systems

2 = secondary

clockwise and Wr and Wp are ccw

WsRs

1. point on pitch diameter of sun gear has tangential velocity

2. point on sun gear pitch diameter meshing with planet gear pitch diameter has tangential velocity

Wp Rp + WcRs

first term from rotation of planet

second from rotation of carrier about center of carrier and sun

WsRs = Wp Rp + WcRs

mesh =>

WrRr = Wp Rp WcRr

3. similarly at ring ...

Ws Rs = Wr Rr + Wc Rr + Rs
Planetary arrangement ... input sun,

or .. for solving below ...

output carrier (cage),

fixed ring
Ws

WsRs = Wc Rr + Rs

Wr = 0

Star arrangement ... input sun, output ring,

Wc

Solar arrangement ... input ring

Ws

Wr

output carrier (cage)

0 = Wr Rr + Wc Rr + Rs

Wr
Wc

Rr + Rs
Rs

Rr
Rs

+ 1

fixed carrier (cage)

WsRs = WrRr

Wc = 0

11/29/2006

WsRs = Wp Rp + WcRs = WrRr + WcRr + WcRs = WrRr + Wc Rr + Rs

combining ...

Ws = 0

WrRr + WcRr = Wp Rp

or ...

Rr

but these are in opposite directions

can use for reversing

Rs

fixed sun

Rr + Rs

Rs

Rr

Rr

+ 1

but in figure Wr and Wc are

opposite rotation => this is the

same actual rotation in result

defined mcd here for

symbolic calculation,
actually below

k 1 :=

Hertz stress

1 1

k 2 :=

E1

1 2

2
E2

a brief intro to some details. see Timoshenko, Theory of

Elasticity ... page 418 ff for more specifics

It can be shown that the width of contact between two parallel cylinders given: elliptical loading, q o , etc.
b :=

4 P_p k 1 + k 2 R1 R2

this is the solution to the

width of contact given:
elliptical loading, q o , etc.

R1 + R2

where ...

P_pr =

1
2

bq o

R1

(236)

q o = max_pressure_elliptical_distribution
b = half_width_of_rectangular_contact_area

q o :=

2 P_pr

P_pr = P' =

bb

kn =

load

1 n

(235)

length
2

all n

En

R2

(236)

elliptical loading details

b := 2 p_over_Pmax( x ) :=

x

b

x := b , b + 0.01 .. b
elliptical loading numerical plot
2

p ( xx) := P_max 1

want

xx

bb

2
pressure

symbolically

bb

p ( xx) dxx = load

bb

let ...

xx( , bb) := bb cos( )

xx( , bb) (bb) sin( )

distance

then ...
p ( ) := P_max sin( )

bb

bb

p ( xx) dxx = p ( xx) ( bb sin( ))

d

therefore ..
0

1
p ( ) ( bbsin( )) d P_max bb

elliptical loading details

11/29/2006

and with interpretation on

per unit length basis

P_pr =

1
2

b q o

P_pr

qo

substitution for b and solve for q o in terms of

load per unit length P_pr...

1 2 1 2
R2
1
2

P_pr

E + E R1 R + R
1
2
1
2

or ...

2 P_pr

qo =

qo =

R1 + R2

P_pr

R1 + R2

4 P_pr k 1 + k 2 R1 R2

P_pr 4

P_pr

4 P_pr k 1 + k 2 R1 R2

R1 + R2

P_pr

4 P_pr k 1 + k 2 R1 R2

R1 + R2

(k1 + k2)R1R2

P_pr

R1 + R2

1 2 1 2
2
1

E + E R1 R2
1
2

R1 + R2

1 2 1 2
(240)

2
1
+
R R
E
E2 1 2
1

same material E1 = E2, and ... = 0.3 ...

1

qo =

P_pr

R1 + R2

1 2
R R
E 1 2

P_pr E

R1 + R2
2

2 1 R1 R2

2
1
P_pr E R1 + R2

2
R1 R2

2
1

:= 0.3

= 0.418

2
2 1

q o = 0.418

Marine Engineering ...

S=

P_pr E R1 + R2

R1 R2

(241)

r1 + r2
P
0.175 E
L
r1 r2

page 330 between (10) and (11)

S = maximum_compressive_stress psi
P
L

Wt
Fe
unit version

P
L

hp

Wt

= 126051

Wt
Fe

2 1

= 0.175

tangential_tooth_load

lbf

effective_face_width_at_pitch_diameter in

hp = horse_power_transmitted_per_mesh

rpmpiniond pinionFe

Fe

11/29/2006

1
= loading_per_inch_length = P_pr

P d1 + d2

L d 1 d 2

maximum stress ~

E, r straight forward

hp in horsepower
hp

rpmpiniond pinionFe

rpm in min-1
dpinion in inches
Fe in length; carries to result

result ...

lbf

Fe_unit

replace ...

d1 = dg

d2 = dp
dg

+ 1

Wt d p

=
dg
Fe

Wt d g + d p

=
Fe d g d p

maximum stress ~

motivates parameter K factor

maximum stress ~

Wt R + 1

=
Fe d g

Wt 1 R + 1

Fe d p
R

K=

as ...

Wt R + 1

Fe d p R

R=

dg
dp

units of pressure: kPa. psi, N/m^2 etc.

K
Wt

R
hp
= K d p
=
Fe
R+1
n p d p Fe

some observations ...

Fe
=C
d
p
max

for double helical pinion gear

substitute F e = C*d p into

dp =

above ...

dp =

Kn p Fe

2 C 2.5

KCn p R

3
hp R + 1
KCn R
p

classification societies limit to 300 psi

550

6012 = 126051

hp

100psi = 689.5

K used in design 100 - 1000 psi

highest in hardened and ground aircraft engine gears

R + 1

lbf ft 60sec 12in

sec
ft
min

dp =

1.5 for epicyclic

unit conversion

R + 1

hp

hp

=>

kN

1000psi = 6895

m
300psi = 2068

kN
2

kN
2

Marine Engineering suggests the first approximation for the gear ratio for the second reduction be taken as ...
Roverall 1
another Navy study (ref: Prof
Carmichael) suggests

volume ... for solid gear

volume_bull_gear =

total_volume =

11/29/2006

hp

Kn p

Roverall

vol =

d p Fe = d p C =

locked train

for double reduction

Roverall

Roverall + 3

articulated

for triple reduction

d Fe

R + 1

2 2
2 hp R + 1
2
d g Fe = R d p Fe = R

4
4
4
Kn p R

hp R + 1 2
2
2
d p Fe R + 1 =

R + 1
4
4 Kn p R
6

in terms of diameter of pinion

n p = R n g

or substituting

total_volume =

R + 1 2
R +1

2
4 Kn g
R

hp

in terms of diameter of bull gear

overall volume ... increases with

1. power increases (per torque path
2. rpmgear decreases
3. K decreases
4. R increases
data for plot

$/hp

nominal cost plot showing trends

single reduction
double reduction
triple reduction
0

10

20

30

40

overall reduction ratio R

11/29/2006

50

60

from: Marine Engineering Chapter IX Reduction Gears, by Gary P. Mowers, (SNAME)

gear automation and design revised

Backlash_lookup  0.015

Backlash_lookup

Backlash_lookup  0.010

Backlash_lookup

6
8

Backlash_lookup

10

 0.010

Backlash_lookup

12
14
16

 0.009

Backlash_lookup

 0.009

Backlash_lookup

 0.008

pressure_angle_at_pitch_radius

NP  20

addendum 

dedendum 
number_of_gear_teeth

************************************ end of input

C

RG 

DP

Table 9.2 Sigley for pressure

angles 20, 22.5 and 25

2 DP
NG 1

DP 2

RG

RP 

BL

DP

BL

TP1 = TG1 =

=

2
2
2
DP 2
S
DP 2

BL
2

TP1

R

center_distance

1.5

BL

CP

2.5

1.25
DP

*************************************************************************

NP  NG

BL  Backlash_lookup

TP1 

number_of_pinion_teeth

NG  30

NP 1

DP 2

RP

NG
NP

0.01

allocate 1/2 backlash to each P & G

TG1  TP1

0.152

Rroot_P  RP  dedendum

Rroot_P

0.875

Rroot_G  RG  dedendum

Rroot_G

1.375 root_radius_gear

root_radius_pinion

Radd_P  RP  addendum

Radd_P

1.1

addendum_radius_pinion

Radd_G  RG  addendum

Radd_G

1.6

addendum_radius_gear

inv  I  tan I  I

 0.006

middle of course range 2 .... 16 per

Shigley Table 9.3

diametral_pitch

I1  20deg

20

 0.007

Table page 68 Lynwander, Gear Drive Sysytems for

backlash at various diametral values

numerical example ...

DP  10

18

TG1

CP 

0.152

S 2 RP
NP
2 TP1

dedendum

0.125

addendum

0.1

CP

0.314

0.304

involute_function

CTT 1  TP1

circular_tooth_thickness_at_pitch_radius

T1  inv I1 

involute_angle_at_pitch_radius

T1

0.854 deg

1
12/8/2006

geometry to determine points on involute between root and addendum R 2 , B

CTT1

CTT1

B(I

R2

R1
A

T

RB

R1
T

RB

T

figure 2.10 page 31 Lynwander

figure 2.10 page 31 Lynwander

reversed and rotated - values at pitch radius

reversed and rotated

A = T1 

1 CTT 1

2 R1

here consider varying I from 0

to a value > design angle = I2
T2 = involute_of_I2

CTT 1 = circular_tooth_thickness
I = pressure_angle_design

B I2  = A  T2

T1 = involute_of_design_pressure_angle
RB
R1 = pitch_radius =
cos I

R2 =

Pinion geometry

want to go from base to addendum

radius in say 20 points

RB_P

cos I2 i

RB_P

RB_P

Radd_P

I_add_P

D = circular_range_variable
0.94

Rroot_P

0.875

Rroot_P ! RB_P

31.321 deg

N1 = number_of_points_along_involute

i  1  N1  1
T2  inv I2 

base_radius_pinion

I_add_P  acos

N1  20

cos I2 

D  0  0.01  2 S
RB_P  RP cos I1 

R2_P 

RB

I2 i 

I_add_P
N1

( i  1)

increment_of_pressure_angle

let's put base radius

to addendum in
1:n1+1

involute_angle_at_local_radius
radius_on_involute

CTT 1

CTT 2  2 R2_P
i

2 RP

 T1  T2 i

thickness_at_location

2
12/8/2006

number of teeth

j  1  NP

B = angle_relative_to_tooth_center =
CTT 2
Bl_P

i j

B_del  ( j  1 )
j

2S

angular increment for teeth (offset to angle B)

NP

thickness

r,l = right,left side of tooth

2 radius_at_location

CTT 2

2 R2_P

 B_del

Br_P

i j

 B_del 
j

i = range_variable_along_involute
i

j = tooth_number

2 R2_P

adding a point at the root radius so we need to add two values of R root and one each of Br and Bl. these are the first points
R2_P  Rroot_P
0

Bl_P

0 j

now i needs to go from 0 to N1 + 1

 Bl_P

Br_P

1 j

N1  N1  1

0 j

 Br_P

1 j

i  0  N1

put into vector of R and T for polar plot effectiveness

N1+2 points from i up and down. radius up across then down across connecting the dots ...
R_plot_P

i ( N1  1) 2 ( j 1)

 R2_P
i

R_plot_P

i ( N1  1) [ 2 ( j 1)  1]

 R2_P
N1 i

put right data first

alternate by and "right" and "left" in sequence
B_plot_P

i ( N1  1) 2 ( j 1)

 Br_P

bug  rows( R_plot_P)

B_plot_P

i j

i ( N1  1) [ 2 ( j 1)  1]

R_plot_P

bug

 R_plot_P

B_plot_P

bug

N1  i  j

close curve

 B_plot_P

krhs  1

convert to X, Y coordinates to allow a closeup

of one tooth, cannot restrain T in polar plot

90
120

 Bl_P

60

Xr_P

i j

Yr_P
150

 R2_P cos Br_P

i j
i

i j

Xl_P

 R2_P sin Br_P

i j
i

i j

Yl_P

 R2_P cos Bl_P

i j
i

i j

 R2_P sin Bl_P

i j
i

30
0.5

closeup of tooth
180

0.1
210

330
0
240

300
270
0.1

gear outline
root radius
base radius

0.8

1.2

3
12/8/2006

RB_G  RG cos I1 

base_radius_gear

RB_G

N2  24

1.41

Rroot_G

RB_G

Radd_G

want to go from base to addendum radius in say

20 points retained separate number N2
N2  20

reset I2 to avoid extra values in gear

I2  reset

Gear geometry

I_add_G  acos

I_add_G

1.375

28.241 deg

N2 = number_of_points_along_involute
Rroot_G ! RB_G

I_root_G  if Rroot_G ! RB_G  I_ded_G  0

i  1  N2  1

RB_G

Rroot_G

I_ded_G  acos

involute_angle_at_local_radius

CTT1

CTT 2  2 R2_G
i

2 RG

 T1  T2 i

i j

N2
RB_G

R2_G 

2 R2_G

increment_of_pressure_angle

radius_on_involute

cos I2 

angular increment for teeth (offset to angle B)

NG
thickness

r,l = right,left side of tooth

2 radius_at_location

CTT 2

( i  1)

thickness_at_location

2S

B = angle_relative_to_tooth_center =

Bl_G

I_add_G  I_root_G

j  1  NG B_del  ( j  1 )

CTT 2

12.816i deg

if root is > base, start involute at root not base. to allow the
pposite, insert extra point as in pinion.

I2 i  I_root_G 

T2  inv I2 

I_ded_G

 B_del

Br_G

i j

 B_del 
j

i = range_variable_along_involute
i

2 R2_G

j = tooth_number
i

adding a point at the root radius, R root is max(RB,Rroot) and one each of Br and Bl. these are the
first points. in either case, added point is R root_G .
R2_G  Rroot_G
0

Bl_G

0 j

put into vector of R and T for polar plot

effectiveness

 Bl_G

Br_G

1 j

0 j

now i needs to go from 0 to N2 + 1

 Br_G

1 j

N2  N2  1

i  0  N2

N2 points from i up and down. radius up across then down across connecting the dots ...
 R2_G
R_plot_G
 R2_G
i ( N2 1) [ 2 ( j 1)  1]
i
N2 i
put right data first, alternate by and "right" and "left" in sequence
R_plot_G

i ( N2 1) 2 ( j 1)

B_plot_G

i ( N2 1) 2 ( j 1)

bug  rows( R_plot_G )

 Br_G

B_plot_G

i j

R_plot_G

bug

convert to X, Y coordinates to allow a

closeup of one tooth, cannot restrain T
in polar plot

 R_plot_G

i ( N2 1) [ 2 ( j 1)  1]

B_plot_G

bug

 Bl_G

 B_plot_G

N2 i  j

close curve
krhs  1

Xr_G

i j

Yr_G

 R2_G cos Br_G

Xl_G  R2_G cos Bl_G
i j
i j
i j
i
i

i j

 R2_G sin Br_G

Yl_G  R2_G sin Bl_G
i j
i j
i j
i
i

4
12/8/2006

90
120

closeup of tooth

60
1.5
0.1

150

30

1
0.5

R_plot_G 180

0
0.1

210

330

240

1.4

1.5

300
270
B_plot_G

geometry to shift gear to appropriate center

R*sin(TT
atan(R*sin(TT/(R*cos(TTC))

relationships to shift a circle R,T from

center at 0,0 to C,0

R,T
T

R21 R  T  C  T1  
T 21 R  T  C  T1  

 R cosT  T1  C 2  R sin T  T1  2

R*cos(TTC

T1 = angle_circle_center_rotated

atan R sin T  T1  T1

R cos T  T1   C

shift gear a distance C, no rotation of center but rotate gear (B P) by 1/2 circular pitch angle to mesh
Gear

i  0  rows( R_plot_G )  1

add rotation dependent on FRAME start at

1/2 -CP go to CP/2 ??

B_shift 

S
NG

B_rot  B_shift  2

B_shift
B_shift
100

6 deg

FRAME

B_rot

6 deg

and finally ... remove BL for meshing, applying half thedistance on each of pinion and gear
pinion is rotating CCW so adjust BL/4*R P and gear is CW so add BL/4*RG (CCW) to gear

B_adj_P 

B_shift  B_rot  B_adj_G = total_rotation_of_gear

B_adj_G 

applied before translation

BL
4 RP
BL
4 RG

5
12/8/2006

R_plot_G_1  R21 R_plot_G  B_plot_G  B_shift  B_rot  B_adj_G  C  0

i
i
i

B_plot_G_1  T 21 R_plot_G  B_plot_G  B_shift  B_rot  B_adj_G  C  0

i
i
i
now add tangent to the mix ...

pinion is rotating ccw therefore tangent is at:

gear is rotating cw therefore tangent before shift is at:

Rtan_G  R21 RB_G  S  I1  C  0

so tangent plot is

t_plot 

RB_P  I1

RB_G  S  I1

and we need to translate it

I1
RB_P

Rtan_G T tan_G

T tan_G  T 21 RB_G  S  I1  C  0
t_plot

0.94 0.349

1.27 0.389

90
4
120

60

150

30
2

1
R_plot_G_1
R_plot_P

180

0
t_plot

210

330

240

300
270

1
B_plot_G_1  B_plot_P B_rot R B_adj_P  t_plot

6
12/8/2006

X_G  reset

shift to X,Y so can get closeup of mesh in animation

Y_G  reset

X_G  R_plot_G_1 cos B_plot_G_1

i

X_tan_G  Rtan_G cos T tan_G

Y_P 

X_tan_P  RB_P cos I1 

Y_tan_G  Rtan_G sin T tan_G



j
R_plot_P sin B_plot_P  B_rot R  B_adj_P
j
j

X_P  R_plot_P cos B_plot_P  B_rot R  B_adj_P

Y_G  R_plot_G_1 sin B_plot_G_1

j  0  rows( R_plot_P)  1

Y_tan_P  RB_P sin I1 

t_xy_pl 

Y_tan_G X_tan_G

Y_tan_P X_tan_P

1.5

0.5
Y_G
Y_P

0
t_xy_pl
0.5

1.5

2
1.5

0.5

0.5

1.5

2
1
X_G  X_P  t_xy_pl

2.5

3.5

4.5

B_rot R
R

1.5

NP

20

NG

9 deg

30

7
12/8/2006

0.15

0.1

0.05
Y_G
Y_P

0
t_xy_pl
0.05

0.1

0.15

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.1

1.2

1
X_G  X_P  t_xy_pl

These last two figures are animated in gear mesh video revised. In animating, the variable FRAME is incremented from 0 :
100, the calculations highlighted above are carried out and plotted, the plots updated and a video screen captured.

8
12/8/2006

Gear geometry
Consider the curve generated by unwrapping a string from around a
disk of radius R B. The end of the string will trace an involute curve.
To mathematically define an involute consider the following:
Rc = length_of_string_unwrapped

involute curve
(not exact)

tangent with disk at one end

Rc
R

tan ( ) =

RB = radius_of_generating_cylinder

= pressure_angle

RB

RC
RB

direction of loading perpendicular along

involute curve

= position_paramter_associate_with_involute

E= +

point at loose end of curve is at polar coordinates R,

E = interim_variable_sum_of_angles
length of arc = radius * angle
RC

=>

RB

= E = +

= tan ( )

from geometry ...

involute curve

tan ( ) =

substitute above ...

RC
RB

= E= +

RC = E RB
tan ( ) = +

basic definition for angular coordinate of involute curve for any . Curve is generated by setting
to range from 0 to max
RB
RB
=> R =
the other coordinate, R=pitch_radius
cos ( ) =
R
cos ( )
when = pressure angle for design
:= 40deg

:= tan ( )

involute ( )

RB:= 1

1 := 0 , 0.01.. 2

pressure_angle

= 8.077deg

R_rad := 0 , 0.1.. 2

2_range_variable
1_max:= 0.85rad

in this case we will define the base radius

calculate the pitch radius

RP :=

RB

cos ( )

N.B. positive directions for

and are opposite

RP = 1.305

the involute is constructed by varying a dummy pressure angle over a range - equivalent to unwrapping the
string from the disk.
1 := 0 , 0.01 .. 1_max range_variable_for_construction
2 ( 1 ) := tan( 1 ) 1

R2( 1 ) :=

RB

cos( 1 )

a tangent is drawn from the pressure angle thru the involute at the pitch radius (perpendicular to involute)

R

P
2

draws the tangent

R_tan :=
1.305 1.571
R_tan =

1 0.873

RB 2

12/4/2006

add in an involute at a nominal pressure angle of 50 deg and then rotate it by the difference between pressure
angles. Notice it overlays the first tangent.
4 := 50deg

4 := tan( 4 ) 4

4 = 18.282 deg

RB

+ ( 4 ) k4
2
cos( 4 )

R_tan1 :=

4 + ( 4 ) k4
RB
2

R_tan1 =

(4 ) k4

1.556 1.745

1 0.873

the resulting figure is as follows:

tooth construction (design)

at this point we know ...

RB = radius_of_generating_cylinder
= pressure_angle

R=

define

12/4/2006

RB

cos( )

radius as function of pressure angle

= pitch radius at design pressure angle

CP = circular_pitch =

circumference_of_pitch_diameter
number_of_teeth
2

does the rotation with k4 = 1

 := 25deg

set pressure angle

DP := 10

diametral_pitch = DP =

NP := 20

BL := 0.01

pressure_angle
number_of_teeth
pitch_diameter

NG

2 RG

NG := 30

number_of_pinion_teeth

backlash = 0.01 beyond scope,

depends on DP

CTT P :=

DP 2

NP
2 RP

CP DP =

number_of_gear_teeth

BL
2

circular_tooth_thickness

same on pitch diameter

CTT G := CTT P
calculate pitch and base radii
NG 1
RG :=

RG = 1.5
pitch_radius_gear
RBG := RGcos( ) RBG = 1.359
DP 2
NP 1

DP 2

RP :=

C := RG + RP
R :=

RG
RP

RP = 1

pitch_radius_pinion

C = 2.5

center_distance

R = 1.5

gear_ratio

CTT P

CTT P2 = 2 RP2

2
RP1

at R2 point on
thickness of tooth B is

RBP := RPcos( )

RBP = 0.906

base_diameter_gear

base_diameter_pinion

i.e. gear ration is ratio of pitch radii (or diameters or number of teeth)

+ inv( 1 ) inv( 2 )

derived from involute geometry

defining function inv

1 CTT 1
B = 1 +
2
2 R1
derived below ...

12/4/2006

an aside ...

inv( ) := tan( )

CTT1

CTT1

B(2)

R2

R1
A

RB

R1

RB

1
2

figure 2.10 page 31 Lynwander

figure 2.10 page 31 Lynwander

reversed and rotated - values at pitch radius

reversed and rotated

A = 1 +

1 CTT 1

2 R1

here consider varying from 0

to a value > design angle = 2
2 = involute_of_2

CTT 1 = circular_tooth_thickness

= pressure_angle_design

B( 2 ) = A 2

1 = involute_of_design_pressure_angle

RB

R1 = pitch_radius =
cos(
)

R2 =
so ..

RB

cos( 2 )
B = 1 +

1 CTT 1

2
2 R1

and points on tooth surface are R2,B

additional definitions

addendum

dedendum

root_diameter

tooth profile ... with pitch radius and base radius shown ...
plot set up

12/4/2006

pinion profile

gear profile (scale is changed)

( )

move the pinion out to C, rotating it by and offsetting both by half tooth thickness

_plotG RG

geometry to shift circle

plot set up

90

120

60

150

30

180

210

330

240

300

270

12/4/2006

Helical Gears
advantages ...
greater load capacity
smoother operation
less sensitivity to tooth errors

ref: Gear Drive Systems; Design and

Application, Peter Lynwander

teeth are at angle to rotation, contact is a series of oblique

lines with several lines in contact simultaneously. total
length of contact varies as teeth mesh.

offset adjacent "strings" in involute generator concept on base cylinder by angle

L=

2**RB

2RB

L = lead

tan B

RB = base_radius

( )

( )

tan B =

2RB

B = base_helix_angle

develop normal at any radius on tooth by considering transverse and normal planes intersecting tooth at that point
geometry development

0, 0

( Xn , Yn , Zn) , ( Xn1 , Yn1 , Zn1) , ( X_line , Y_line , Z_line) , ( Xg , Yg , Zg) , ( X , Y , Z)

11/22/2004

point B ... point on gear for normal with helix (shown off gear)
point A ... point on radial line 0,0 to B perpendicular joining tangent
point D ... tangent point
point E ... point on plane perpendicular to tooth at B, connecting with (transverse) tangent point along RB

( )

AB
tan N =
AE

( )

AB
tan T =
AD

( )

cos( ) =

( )

AD AB
AB

=
= cos( ) tan T = tan n
AE AD AE

AD
AE

( )

=>

tan T =

( )

tan n

tan( n)

or ...

cos( )

T = atan

cos( )

other parameters; as in general gear ...

D d
Pt = circular_pitch_transverse =
=

Ng
Np

D = diameter_gear

Ng = number_of_teeth_gear

d = diameter_pinion

Np = number_of_teeth_pinion

considering an expanded view at any radius ...

Pt

magnified ....

Pn

cos( ) =

Px

Pt

Pn

Px

Pn
Pt

Pn = circular_pitch_normal = Pt cos( )

if radius were RB ...

Pb
tan B =
Px

( )

Pb = base_pitch_transverse

Pb

gear geometry at pitch radius (diameter)

3. Pitch

Pt = circular_pitch_transverse =

pitch_circumference
number_of_teeth

Pn = circular_pitch_normal = Pt cos( )

N.B.

P = diametral_pitch_transverse =

above geometry =>

11/22/2004

B = atan

and ...

D
Ng

Px
g = gear

p = pinion

Np

from geometry above

number_of_teeth
pitch_diameter
tan( ) =

Px

Pb

= atan

Pt

Ng
D

=>

Px

Np

so ...

d
Px =

Pt

tan( )

and ...
Pt =
P

Pn =
PN

Px = axial_pitch = Pt cot( )
Pb = base_pitch_transverse =

base_circumference
number_of_teeth

2 RB

2 RG RB

RG
N

RG = pitch_radius =

from geometry way above ... 0.0, A, B, D

RB

( )

=>

cos t =
RG

D
2

B
t

D
Pb =
cos t = Pt cos t
Ng

( )

( )

RG
RB
t

PbN = base_pitch_normal

0,0

Pb

PbN

consider geometry at left which is above brought down to base radius

Px is common, not dependent on radius ... PbN forms altitude of
triangle with sides Px and Pb and base sqrt(...) calculate area

area =

Px

1
2

base altitude =

and ...

=>

area =
2

P P
2 x b

Pb + Px PbN
2

Pb + Px PbN = Px Pb

as ... is right triangle ...

and ...

Px Pb

PbN =

Pb + Px

also ...

Px

PbN =

Pb + Px

( )

( )

from figure and above ..

Pb = cos B Pt cos t

( )

not shown here ...

PbN = Pt cos( ) cos n
Ng
shown above ...
P = diametral_pitch_transverse =
D
also ...

P
PN = diametral_pitch_normal =
=
=

Pn
cos( )
Pt cos( )

additional note on tooth loading ...

hp

2 1 in 1 in

min 2

= 126051

lbf
in

and ...
Pt =
P

HP
HP
Wt = tangential_tooth_load = 126050
= 126050
RPMp d
RPMg D
Wt
WT = total_tooth_load_transverse_plane =
cos t

( )

Wn = tangential_tooth_load_normal_plane =

WN = total_tooth_load_normal_plane =

11/22/2004

Pn =
PN

Wt

cos(
)
Wt

( )

cos n cos( )

Air Independent Propulsion

This is an ever moving

technology. These notes
represent an overview but may
not represent the latest
parameters.

For non-nuclear submarines, submersibles and unmanned vehicles;

AUV, UUV, torpedoes
Torpedo propulsion was originally stored high pressure air.** It evolved to
heated air at the turn of the century using kerosene, alcohol or Otto fuel.
Current torpedoes employ electrical storage or lithium sulphur
hexafluoride systems. (Sulphur hexafloridegas is sprayed over a block of
lithium which generates heat.

As is well known typical submarine propulsion uses a storage battery with engine recharging. In all the stored
systems, the challenge is storage of the oxygen component,
** The initiative behind the self-propelled torpedo was provided by an Austrian frigate captain Giovanni Luppi. After some
unsuccesful attempts to propel a charge laden boat with a springdriven clockwork. In 1864 he turned to Robert Whitehead
(1823-1905), then technical manager in an Italian factory to design an improved version. The result was a torpedo in
October 1886: length 3.35 m, diameter 25.5 cm, weight 136 kg. Propulsion was provided by 20 to 25 kg of compressed air,
driving a reciprocating engine with a high and low pressure cylinder. Taken from "Swedish Torpedo 100 Years; 1876 - 1976.

Secondary Batteries

Lead acidsolid solid

liquid

=>

discharges 2 - 1.8 V per cell

charges 2.1 - 2.6 V per cell

electrolyte H2 SO4

solid liquid

Pb + Pb O2 + 2 H2 SO4 = 2 PbS O4 + 2H2 O

2 Pb

2 Pb

(2 + 8) O

2 S

4 H

energy density 67 lb/kW*hr

check

67

lbf
kW hr

= 30.391

kgf
kW hr

(8 + 2) O

2 S

4 H

1
67

Silver - Zinc
discharges 1.1 - 0.8 V per cell
charges 1.6 - 2.0 V per cell
electrolyte KOH

energy density 20 lb/kW*hr

20

lbf
kW hr
1

20

lbf

lbf

W hr
lbf

kW hr

= 9.072
= 50

= 14.925

kgf

kW hr

W
hr
lbf

kW hr

problem (both cells): hydrogen release in charging. New developments: NiCd, Li rechargeable

Fuel Cell
originally developed by Roger Bacon. H 2 and O2 are supplied to special electrodes with various electrolytes. KOH
in the alkaline cells, proton exchange membranes (PEM) and high temperature carbonate in the molten carbonate
cells, solid oxides in other cells. Energy conversion is relatively high ~ 60%
figure later

overall reaction

1
H2 + O2 = H2 O
2

complete

theoretical voltage: 1.23 V, practical voltage ~ 0.8 V

12/11/2006

H2 + 2 OH = 2 H2 O
+ 2electons
1

O + H2 O = 2electrons + 2 OH
2 2

maximum power at
constant T1

w_dot max
m_dot

= h 1 T1 s1 h 2 T1 s2 = G1 G2 = G

G = Gibbs_function

h 1 h 2 = heating_value_of_fuel
G
hhv

= 0.825_to_ 0.95

depending on T 1 and state of H 2 O liquid or vapor with internal

losses ( ~ 60% conversion)

H2 consumption:
O2 consumption:
reactants

0.111

lbf
kW hr

0.889
1.0

= 0.05

lbf
kW hr

lbf
kW hr

kgf
kW hr
kgf

= 0.403

= 0.454

kW hr

kgf
kW hr

the volume is important and depends on the storage method: as cryogenic liquids:
O2

sp_gr = 1.14

71

lbf
ft

H2

sp_gr = 0.064

4.0

3 kgf

= 1.137 10

lbf
ft

m
3

= 64.074

kgf
3

Other methods of storage include: high pressure gas, hydrides (driven out by heat and pressure reduction) or as
liquid fuel which has to be reformed. A summary of ypes of fuel cells from
Fuel Cell Handbook (Sixth Edition) DOE/NETL-2002/1179 By EG&G Technical Services, Inc. Science Applications
International Corporation Under Contract No. DE-AM26-99FT40575 U.S. Department of Energy Office of Fossil
Energy National Energy Technology Laboratory P.O. Box 880 Morgantown, West Virginia 26507-0880 November
2002

12/11/2006

A brief description of various electrolyte cells of interest follows. A detailed description of these
fuel cells may be found in Sections 3 through 7.
Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cell (PEFC): The electrolyte in this fuel cell is an ion exchange
membrane (fluorinated sulfonic acid polymer or other similar polymer) that is an excellent
proton conductor. The only liquid in this fuel cell is water; thus, corrosion problems are
minimal. Water management in the membrane is critical for efficient performance; the fuel cell
must operate under conditions where the byproduct water does not evaporate faster than it is
produced because the membrane must be hydrated. Because of the limitation on the operating
temperature imposed by the polymer, usually less than 120C, and because of problems with water balance, a
H2-rich fuel is used. Higher catalyst loading (Pt in most cases) than that used in
PAFCs is required for both the anode and cathode. Because CO poisons the catalyst, the fuel
may contain no CO.
Alkaline Fuel Cell (AFC): The electrolyte in this fuel cell is concentrated (85 wt%) KOH in
fuel cells operated at high temperature (~250C), or less concentrated (35-50 wt%) KOH for
lower temperature (<120C) operation. The electrolyte is retained in a matrix (usually asbestos),
and a wide range of electrocatalysts can be used (e.g., Ni, Ag, metal oxides, spinels, and noble
metals). The fuel supply is limited to non-reactive constituents except for hydrogen. CO is a
poison, and CO2 will react with the KOH to form K2CO3, thus altering the electrolyte. Even the
small amount of CO2 in air is detrimental to the alkaline cell.
Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC): Phosphoric acid concentrated to 100% is used for the
electrolyte in this fuel cell, which operates at 150 to 220C. At lower temperatures, phosphoric
acid is a poor ionic conductor, and CO poisoning of the Pt electrocatalyst in the anode becomes
severe. The relative stability of concentrated phosphoric acid is high compared to other common
acids; consequently the PAFC is capable of operating at the high end of the acid temperature
range (100 to 220C). In addition, the use of concentrated acid (100%) minimizes the water
vapor pressure so water management in the cell is not difficult. The matrix universally used to
retain the acid is silicon carbide (1), and the electrocatalyst in both the anode and cathode is Pt.
Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC): The electrolyte in this fuel cell is usually a combination
of alkali carbonates, which is retained in a ceramic matrix of LiAlO2. The fuel cell operates at
600 to 700C where the alkali carbonates form a highly conductive molten salt, with carbonate
ions providing ionic conduction. At the high operating temperatures in MCFCs, Ni (anode) and
nickel oxide (cathode) are adequate to promote reaction. Noble metals are not required.
Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC): The electrolyte in this fuel cell is a solid, nonporous metal
oxide, usually Y2O3-stabilized ZrO2. The cell operates at 600-1000C where ionic conduction by
oxygen ions takes place. Typically, the anode is Co-ZrO2 or Ni-ZrO2 cermet, and the cathode is
Sr-doped LaMnO3.

12/11/2006

Table 1-1 Summary of Major Differences of the Fuel Cell Types

PEFC

A
FC

PAFC

MCFC

SOFC

Electrolyte

Ion Exchange
Membranes

Mobilized or
Immobilized
Immobilized
Ceramic
Immobilized
Liquid
Liquid
Potassium
Phosphoric
Molten
Hydroxide
Acid
Carbonate
____________________________________________________________________________________
Operating
80C
65C - 220C 205C
650 C
600-1000C
Temperature
Charge

OH -

CO 3 -

External
Reformer for
CH4 (below)

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

No

Prime Cell
Components

Carbon-based

Carbon-based

Graphite-based Stainless
based

Ceramic

Catalyst

Platinum

Platinum

Platinum

Nickel

Perovskites

Product
Water
Management

Evaporative

Evaporative

Evaporative

Gaseous
Product

Gaseous
Product

Product Heat
Management

Process Gas +
Independent
Cooling
Medium

Process Gas + Process Gas + Internal

Electrolyte
Independent
Reforming +
Circulation
Cooling
Process Gas
Medium

Carrier

Internal
Reforming +
Process Gas

Aluminum - Oxygen semi-cell Solid Oxide Cell

4 Al + 6 H2 O + 3 O2 > 4 Al(OH)
Fuel Cell Technologies, Ltd
formerly Alupower
(http://www.fct.ca)

termed gibbsite or hydragillate

Al consumption:

O2 consumption:
H2O + KOH

0.62

lbf
kW hr

= 0.281

kgf
kW hr

lbf
kgf
= 0.263
kWlbf
hr
kWkgf
hr
1.98
= 0.898
kW hr
kW hr

0.58

voltage: 1.4 - 1.5 V per cell

12/11/2006

figure later

simplified model of Stirling cycle

closed; constant mass, states at end points shown; drive rotates /2 clockwise between each state
compare with continuous plot below volumes are designated 0, 0.5 and 1.0 to go with min, midway and max in
each cylinder.
hot

regenerator

state 1:

volhot = 0.5

volcold = 1.0

voltotal = 1.5

action 1 - 2: working fluid is compressed with T = constant, negative work done and
heat is removed
cold

hot

regenerator

cold

hot

state 3:

volcold = 0.5

voltotal = 0.5

volhot = 0.5

volcold = 0.0

voltotal = 0.5

action 3 - 4: working fluid is expanded with T = constant, positive work done and heat
is added

state 4:
regenerator

volhot = 0.0

action 2 - 3: ~ constant volume, heat added to system from regenerator, note that end
state volume is the same but what was in cold cylinder (2) goes to the hot (3)

regenerator

cold

hot

state 2:

volhot = 1.0

volcold = 0.5

voltotal = 1.5

action 4 - 1: ~ constant volume, heat removed from system to regenerator, note that
end state volume is the same but is in hot cylinder vs. cold
cold

12/11/2006

volume plot data

plot shows volume in cylinders and thermodynamic model with rotation

hot side
cold side
volume of system
thermo model

volume

1.5

0.5

rotation of drive wheel

define some units

3

kJ := 10 J

Stirling Cycle thermodynamic analysis

kmol := 10 mole
*
1-2
2-3
3-4
4-1

The ideal Stirling cycle is made up of four totally reversible processes:

Constant temperature compression (heat rejection to external sink)
Constant volume regeneration (internal heat transfer from regenerator back to the working fluid).
Constant temperature expansion (heat addition from external source)
Constant volume regeneration (internal heat transfer from the working fluid to regenerator)

from gas relationships

p v = R T

p1 v1

(3.2)

T1

p2 v2

(3.5)

T2

2
2 1
V2
dV = p 1 V1 ln
W1_2 =
p dV = p 1 V1

V
V1

V
1

(4.5)

du = cvodT

12/11/2006

vo

=> constant volume

ideal gas

T2
v2
s2 s1 = cvo ln
+ R ln
T1
v1
T2
p2
s2 s1 = cpo ln
R ln
T1
p1

(5.20)

(7.24)

(7.23)

data for example:

cvo = constant
again, parameterize in terms of p p1 < p < p3, given ...

TH := 1000K

p 1 := 1bar

TL := 300K

R TL

v 1 :=

p1

T1 := TL

P V = R T

kJ
s1 := 1
kg
K

r := 3

R_m := 8.3144

kg K

kJ

:= 1.4

kg

compression ratio

cv :=

cp

mw_N2

cv = 0.744

NN := 10

ten increments
for plotting

kg

kmol

R_m

R :=

kmol K

v 1 = 0.891

mw_N2 := 28

insert N2 values e.g.

kJ

cp := 1.042

N2

cpo = constant

R = 0.297

kJ
kg K

kJ
kg K

i := 0 .. NN

1 - 2 compression, constant internal energy, heat rejection at constant temperature (negative)

work done
p v = R T

p1 < p < p2

p 2 := r p 1

p 2 = 3 bar

incremental for plots

p2 p1

p 1_2 :=

NN

i + p 1

v 1_2 :=
i

w1_2 = p dv = R Th

R
T1

v 1_2

p 1_2

v 1_2

v2
dv = R T1 ln
v
v1
1

=3

v 2 := v 1_2
NN

v 2 = 0.297

10

v2
w1_2 := R T1 ln
v 1

first law, mass constant c v, T constant H 1 - 2 = 0

v2
q 1_2 = w1_2 = R T1 ln = T1 s2 s1 q 1_2 := w1_2
v1

T2 := T1

q 1_2 = 98

kJ

kg

kJ
w1_2 = 97.868

kg

s2 :=

kg

q 1_2
T1

+ s1

kJ
s2 = 0.674
kgK

plot 1 - 2

2 - 3 constant volume heat addition (from regenerator)

q 2_3 := cv TH TL
v 3 := v 2
p 3 :=

R T3
v3

p v = R T

q 2_3 = 521

T3 := TH

p 3 = 10 bar

T2
v2
s2 s1 = cvoln
+ R ln

T1
v1

kJ
kg

T2_3 p 2_3 =

p 2_3 v 2
R

(7.24)

T2_3 ( p 2_3 )
functionally
T2

s2_3 p 2_3 = s2 + cv ln

incremental for plots

p 2_3 := p 2 +
i
plot 2 - 3

12/11/2006

p3 p2
NN

T2_3 :=
i

p 2_3 v 2
i

T2_3 i

indicially
s2_3 := s2 + cv ln

T2
7

kJ
s3 := s2_3
s3 = 1.57
NN
kg K

3 - 4 (+) work done by fluid; expansion at constant internal energy, heat addition; at constant
temperature
constant volume ...

v 4 := v 1

p v = R T

p 3_4 :=
i

p 3 = 10 bar

p4 p3
NN

i + p 3

w3_4 = p dv = R Th

v 3_4 :=
i

v 3_4

p 3_4

v 3_4

q 3_4 := w3_4

kg
p 2 = 3 bar

= 0.333

10

v4
w3_4 := R T3 ln
v 3

v4
q 3_4 = w3_4 = R T3 ln = T3 s4 s3
v 3

p 4 = 3.333 bar

v4

R T3

v4
dv = R T3 ln
v
v3

v 4 = 0.891

R T4

p 4 :=

T4 := TH

constant temperature

s4 :=

kJ
w3_4 = 326
kg

q 3_4
T3

kJ

s4 = 1.896
kg K

+ s3

4 - 1 constant volume heat rejection, via regenerator

p v = R T

q 4_1 := cv T1 T4
v 1 := v 4
p 1 :=

R T1
v1

q 4_1 = 521

kJ

T4
p4
s4 s1 = cpo ln
R ln
T1
p1

kg

T1 := TL
p 4_1 := p 4 +
i

p1 p4
NN

T4_1 i
p4_1 i

s4_1 := s4 + cp ln
R ln

T4

p4

T4_1 :=
i

p 4_1 v 4
i

p 1 = 1 bar

indicially

s1 := s4_1
NN

here could have used cv relationship as well. both are consistent as the area will show
set up plot

12/11/2006

T1
= 300 K

kJ

s1 = 0.999
kg K

p-v

pressure (bar)

10

Stirling Cycle plots from calculations

0
0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

specific volume (m^3/kg)

1000

Temperature

800

600

400

200
500

1000

1500

2000

entropy s

p - v (log scale)

pressure (bar)

10

1
0.1

1
specific volume (m^3/kg)

th :=

12/11/2006

w3_4 + w1_2
q 3_4

th = 0.7

th_carnot := 1

TL

TH

th_carnot = 0.7

for closed cycle combustion .....

from combustion.mcd
this is on a stochiometric basis
(mole basis- i.e. 1 mole of C12H26

C12H26 + 18.5 O2 + 69.6 N2 = 13 H2 O + 12 C O2 + 69.6 N2 + heat

mw_O2 := 32

kg

mw_C12_H26 := (144 + 26)

kmol

mw_H2_O := (2 + 16)

kg
kmol mw_C_O2 := (12 + 32)

kg
kmol

mw_N2 := 28

combines with 18.5 moles of O2

kg

etc.) or volume basis to convert to

weight use molecular weights

kmol

kg

kmol

1kmol C12H26 + 18.5 kmolO2 + 69.6 kmolN2 = 13 kmolH2 O + 12kmol CO2 + 69.6kmol N2 + LHV

1kmol mw_C12_H26 C H ... = 13 mw_H2_O kmolH O ... + LHV

12 26
2

170
170
18.5 kmol.mw_O2
12kmol mw_C_O2

O2 ...
CO2 ...
+
+
170
170
69.6 kmolmw_N2
69.6kmol

mw_N2
+
N2
+
N2

170
170

this is divided by 170 - the

molecular weight of C12H26 to

express on a per 1 kg fuel basis

(1kmol) mw_C12_H26 = 170 kg

for symbolic calculation

result is ... combustion of C12H26 by weight ...

1kg C12H26 + 3.48 kg O2 + 11.46 kgN2 = 1.38 kg H2 O + 3.11 kgC O2 + 11.46 kgN2 + heat
air_fuel_ratio := 3.48 + 11.46

weight of air : weight of fuel = air-fuel ratio

kW
mf_dot LHV
LHV := 43000

sfc =

kJ
kg

air_fuel_ratio = 14.94

mf_dot
kW

kg
mf_dot := 1
s

power := 10000kW
:=

12/11/2006

power
mf_dot LHV

= 0.233

10

sfc :=

mf_dot
kW

sfc = 3.6 10

kg
kW hr

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

DEPARTMENT OF OCEAN ENGINEERING
(Center for Ocean Engineering)
2.611 SHIP POWER and PROPULSION
Problem Set #1, Propeller Problems, Due: September 26, 2006
Assume: 1knot=1.688 ft/s, standard seawater density (at 59 F) = 1.9905 lb s2/ft4
1. A survey vessel has a 10 ft diameter, B 5-90 propeller with a pitch of 10 ft. The propeller speed is 200 rpm,
the boat speed is 20 knots, and the thrust reduction factor (t) is 0.12, wake fraction (w) is 0.18, and the relative
rotational efficiency R is 1.0.
The propeller operates as indicated by the Wageningen (Troost) Series B propeller charts. Determine:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

Thrust
Shaft torque
EHP of the boat
The propeller shaft power (delivered power) PD
The (Quasi) PC or D

The propeller is also tested at zero ship speed (bollard pull) and it is found that the engine limits the torque to
50,000 lbf ft. Determine:
f.

the propeller rpm and thrust at this condition

2. A propeller is to be selected for a single-screw container ship with the following features:
EHP = 80000 HP, ship speed = 25 kts, maximum propeller diameter = 34 ft,
w = 0.249, t = 0.18, R = 1.0, centerline depth, h = 25 ft
a. Using the maximum prop diameter, determine the optimum B 5-90 design. Use the metrics below to confirm
your design.
a.
P/D
b.
KT (optimum)
c.
KQ (optimum)
d.
o (optimum)
e.
J
f.
Developed HP
g.
The (Quasi) PC or D
h.
RPM
From the consideration of cavitation, determine:
i.
The predicted cavitation (%) using the Burrill correlation
j.
The expanded area ratio (EAR) to provide 5% cavitation for a commercial ship.
Assume the operating conditions are similar to the B 5-90 propeller.
3. List the advantages and disadvantages of the fixed pitch propeller, controllable pitch propeller, and waterjet
propulsion systems. List the best applications (or platform(s)) for each propulsor and supporting reasons
considering the mission of the platform. (expectation: half a page of concise thought).

1. A survey vessel has a 10 ft diameter, B 5-90 propeller with a pitch of 10 ft. The
propeller speed is 200 rpm, the boat speed is 20 knots, and the thrust reduction factor
(t) is 0.12, wake fraction (w) is 0.18, and the relative rotational efficiency R is 1.0.
The propeller operates as indicated by the Wageningen (Troost) Series B propeller
charts. Determine:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

Thrust
Shaft torque
EHP of the boat
The propeller shaft power (delivered power) PD
The (Quasi) PC or D

The propeller is also tested at zero ship speed (bollard pull) and it is found that the
engine limits the torque to 50,000 lbf ft. Determine:
f.

the propeller rpm and thrust at this condition

a. Prop. Thrust.
Given variables

d := 10ft

p := 10ft

p_over_d :=

t := .12

w := .18

R := 1

n_rpm := 200

n :=

n_rpm
60 sec

n = 3.333

Vs := 20knot

:= 1.9905lb

sec
ft

VA := Vs ( 1 w)

Velocity of Approach

Advance Ratio

m
VA = 8.437
s
VA
J1 :=
n d

1
s

Use the B 5-90 prop curve to determine KT and KQ

J1 = 0.83

KT := .12

KQ := .023

2 4

Thrust := KT n d

Thrust = 2.654 10 lb

b. Shaft Torque
2 5

Torque := KQ n d

c. Shaft powerr delivered

PD := 2 n

Torque
lb
550

Torque = 5.087 10 lb ft

ft
sec

hp

PD = 1.937 10 hp

d. EHP

Vs

PE := Thrust ( 1 t )

lb
550

ft

PE = 1.433 10 hp

sec

hp

e. Quasi Efficiency
D :=

PE

D = 0.74

PD

f. Propeller rpm and thrust at 50,000.

Advance_velocity := 0

n o :=

Torque max := 50000 lb ft

Torque max
5

no = 3.305

KQ d R
2 4

Thrust q := KT n q d

1
s

n q := n o 60 sec

n q = 198.286

7 2

Thrust q = 9.391 10 s lb

2. A propeller is to be selected for a single-screw container ship with the following

features:
EHP = 80000 HP, ship speed = 25 kts, maximum propeller diameter = 34 ft,
w = 0.249, t = 0.18, R = 1.0, centerline depth, h = 25 ft
a. Using the maximum prop diameter, determine the optimum B 5-90 design. Use the
metrics below to confirm your design.
a.
P/D
b.
KT (optimum)
c.
KQ (optimum)
d.
o (optimum)
e.
J
f.
Developed HP
g.
The (Quasi) PC or D
h.
RPM
From the consideration of cavitation, determine:
i.
The predicted cavitation (%) using the Burrill correlation
j.
The expanded area ratio (EAR) to provide 5% cavitation for a commercial
ship.
Assume the operating conditions are similar to the B 5-90 propeller.
Given

V2 := 25 knot

EHP := 80000 hp

d 2 := 34 ft

w2 := .249

t2 := .18

R := 1

h := 25

First we must combine a couple of equations in order to get all the information we know in terms of KT and
J.

ft

lb

sec
R2 := 550
hp

EHP

V2

Kt

T2 :=

R2
1 t2

ft

lb

sec
550
hp

Kt :=

( EHP)

)(

V2 d 2 1 t2 1 w2

J2

T2
2

n2 d2

V2
J2 :=
n 2 d 2

= 0.55

Now we can plot the function KT = 0.55 * J2 on the B 5-90 curve graph. Drawing a verticle line
where the function plot and each KT - P/D intersect will provide a value for KT and o. Starting
with a logical P/D (.5 for example), step though P/D values, recording KT and o. Take note at
the peak value for o, That will determine optimal values.
found:
P/D = 1.2
KT=.29
o = .6

Using the curves posted on the web, I

a. P/D = 1.2
J2 :=

b. KT(opt) = .29

Kt

Kq := .055

.55

c. KQ(opt) = .055

o2 := .6

2 5

d. o = .6

Kt := .29

Q2 := Kq n d

J2 = 0.726

e. J = 0.726
1t
PC := o2

1 w R
EHP
PD2 :=
PC

f. HP = 124200 HP
1 w2
n 2 := V2
J2 d 2

g. PC = .644
h. RPM = 77.012

n2 = 1.284

1
s

N2 := n 2 60 s

Cavitation Calculations

EAR := 90

A E := EAR

d2
4

assume AD ~ AE

P_over_D_ans := 1.2

PD2 = 1.242 10 hp

PC = 0.644
N2 = 77.012

h := 25ft

A P := A E [ 1.067 0.229( P_over_D_ans ) ]

2
2
VR := V2 ( 1 w2) + ( 0.7 n d 2)

C :=

AP

1
2

VR

2026
0.7R :=

ft

sec

+ 64.4

ft

C = 5.421 10

1
A s

sec

sec

1
2 ft
VR + 4.836 N2 d 2
s
2

0.7R = 1.095 10

0.2

C :=

10

A E = 7.591 10 m

C A s + 0.3064 0.523 0.7R

0.2

0.7R
0.0305

C = 17.791

0.0174

% cavitation

Negative cavitation indicates that it is not a problem with at this speed

i. Cavitation = - 17.8%
Cn := C .0305 0.7R

A pn :=

0.2

0.2

. 0174 .3064 + .523 0.7R

.5 V 2
Cn R

EARn :=

A pn

( )

1.067 .229 1.2 34

4

j. = EAR is much less than one, Changing to meet these requirements would
not be necessary. (This will be considered extra credit)

3. List the advantages and disadvantages of the fixed pitch propeller, controllable
pitch propeller, and waterjet propulsion systems. List the best applications (or
platform(s)) for each propulsor and supporting reasons considering the mission of the
platform. (expectation: half a page of concise thought).
For full credit - A brief discussion similar to that in chapter 6 of the text, At least 2 advantages and 2
disadvantages of each and an example of where each has been used sucessfully.

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

DEPARTMENT OF OCEAN ENGINEERING
2.611 SHIP POWER and PROPULSION
Problem Set #2, Waterjet Problems, Due: October 5, 2006
1. In the following equation for Total Propulsive Efficiency in a waterjet, what does
K_in and K_out physically represent. What is the designer using to derive values for
K_in and K_out?
D

2 ( 1 )

( 1 t)

( 1 w) p

1 + Kout 2 ( 1 Kin)

As a designer, how would you optimize overall efficiency in a waterjet? Hint: The above
equation makes some assumptions that may not always be true and substitutes for Vj/Va.
Bonus: What is the optimum value for Vj/Va?
2. Two waterjet propulsion systems are proposed for a surface effect ship having a net
thrust of 225,000 lbf at 70 knots. Determine the total propulsive efficiency, pump
pressure rise, the mass flow rate, and the total horsepower delivered to the pumps, for the
two designs with the following characteristics:
VJ/VA

Ram
2.0

Flush
2.0

12 ft

12 ft

CD

0.4

0.15

Kin

0.8

0.2

Kout

0.7

0.2

pump

0.9

0.9

** For this problem you can assume w and t are equal, or use reasonable values for each.

Propeller Design Assignment

Fall 2006
A lifting line code (PVL) is setup and run for a particular propeller design.
The input file and resulting design output file are attached. The input file gives the
operating point specifics as well as the inflow distribution and design chordlength
distribution on the propeller.
The full scale propeller runs on a ship with the following characteristic:
Diameter: 5 m
Ship Speed: 13 m/s
RPM: 156
Required Propeller thrust: 991.5 kN
Depth at Prop Centerline: 8m
Vapor pressure: 2500 Pa
Water Density: 997 kg/m3
Axial inflow velocity variation +/-1 m/s
The output file shows the non-dimensional circulation distribution G, induced velocities
Flow angles and drag coefficient.

1)Find the optimal efficiency for this propeller from Kramers Diagram
Using the data for a NACA a=0.8 meanline and NACA 65A010 Thickness section
determine the blade section design at the r/R=0.697 radius. The max. thickness of this
section is chosen at to/C = 0.04
2) Find the lift coefficient for this section as well as the camber ration fo/c and proper
angle of attack
3). Determine the blade angle and pitch P/D for this section.
4).Will this section cavitate at this radius under the design operating conditions for this
ship? Use Brockett diagram to estimate
5). Use the matlab m-file vlm.m provided to analyze the 2D section at ideal angle of
attack. Plot the pressure distribution Cp vs. chordwise position. At what position on the
blade would cavitation first occur under these conditions?

PVL input file

32
: NUMBER OF VORTEX PANELS OVER THE RADIUS
10
: MAXIMUM ITERATIONS IN WAKE ALIGNMENT
1
: HUB IMAGE FLAG: 1=YES, 0=NO
0.5
: HUB VORTEX RADIUS/HUB RADIUS
11
: NUMBER OF INPUT RADII
5
: NUMBER OF BLADES
1.0
: ADVANCE COEFFICIENT, J, BASED ON SHIP SPEED
0.600
: DESIRED THRUST COEFFICIENT, CT
0.000
: HUB UNLOADING FACTOR: 0.0=OPTIMUM (NO UNLOADING)
0.000
: TIP UNLOADING FACTOR 1.0=REDUCED LOADING
1.000
: CRP SWIRL CANCELLATION FACTOR: 1.0=NO CANCELLATION
r/R
c/D
Cd
Va/Vs Vt/Vs
0.20000 0.17400 0.00800 1.00000 0.00000
0.25000 0.19700 0.00800 1.00000 0.00000
0.30000 0.22900 0.00800 1.00000 0.00000
0.40000 0.27500 0.00800 1.00000 0.00000
0.50000 0.31200 0.00800 1.00000 0.00000
0.60000 0.33700 0.00800 1.00000 0.00000
0.70000 0.34700 0.00800 1.00000 0.00000
0.80000 0.33400 0.00800 1.00000 0.00000
0.90000 0.28000 0.00800 1.00000 0.00000
0.95000 0.24000 0.00800 1.00000 0.00000
1.00000 0.00200 0.00800 1.00000 0.00000

PVL output design for assignment

Ct= 0.6000
Cp= 0.8392
Kt= 0.2356
Kq= 0.0524
Va/Vs= 1.0000
Efficiency= 0.7150
r/R
G
VA
VT
UA UT
0.20048 0.012889 1.00000 0.00000 0.05119 -0.10192
0.20433 0.012905 1.00000 0.00000 0.05276 -0.10307
0.21199 0.012995 1.00000 0.00000 0.05590 -0.10527
0.22338 0.013231 1.00000 0.00000 0.06060 -0.10830
0.23840 0.013668 1.00000 0.00000 0.06681 -0.11187
0.25691 0.014331 1.00000 0.00000 0.07443 -0.11565
0.27872 0.015217 1.00000 0.00000 0.08328 -0.11929
0.30362 0.016295 1.00000 0.00000 0.09313 -0.12245
0.33138 0.017522 1.00000 0.00000 0.10367 -0.12490
0.36172 0.018842 1.00000 0.00000 0.11458 -0.12645
0.39436 0.020199 1.00000 0.00000 0.12552 -0.12706
0.42898 0.021538 1.00000 0.00000 0.13619 -0.12674
0.46524 0.022811 1.00000 0.00000 0.14637 -0.12559
0.50281 0.023974 1.00000 0.00000 0.15588 -0.12376
0.54131 0.024990 1.00000 0.00000 0.16461 -0.12139
0.58037 0.025826 1.00000 0.00000 0.17251 -0.11866
0.61963 0.026454 1.00000 0.00000 0.17959 -0.11570
0.65869 0.026847 1.00000 0.00000 0.18587 -0.11264
0.69719 0.026981 1.00000 0.00000 0.19139 -0.10959
0.73476 0.026830 1.00000 0.00000 0.19621 -0.10661
0.77102 0.026376 1.00000 0.00000 0.20041 -0.10376
0.80564 0.025599 1.00000 0.00000 0.20404 -0.10110
0.83828 0.024490 1.00000 0.00000 0.20715 -0.09865
0.86862 0.023042 1.00000 0.00000 0.20982 -0.09643
0.89638 0.021261 1.00000 0.00000 0.21207 -0.09445
0.92128 0.019161 1.00000 0.00000 0.21396 -0.09271
0.94309 0.016764 1.00000 0.00000 0.21552 -0.09123
0.96160 0.014101 1.00000 0.00000 0.21677 -0.08999
0.97662 0.011213 1.00000 0.00000 0.21775 -0.08901
0.98801 0.008143 1.00000 0.00000 0.21847 -0.08827
0.99567 0.004940 1.00000 0.00000 0.21894 -0.08778
0.99952 0.001656 1.00000 0.00000 0.21917 -0.08754

BETA
57.796
57.303
56.337
54.940
53.168
51.093
48.794
46.353
43.848
41.347
38.909
36.576
34.379
32.336
30.457
28.743
27.190
25.792
24.540
23.423
22.433
21.559
20.793
20.126
19.550
19.060
18.650
18.316
18.052
17.857
17.729
17.665

BETAI
63.334
62.895
62.031
60.770
59.154
57.237
55.078
52.745
50.304
47.820
45.350
42.941
40.631
38.448
36.408
34.522
32.792
31.218
29.795
28.516
27.373
26.359
25.465
24.683
24.006
23.428
22.943
22.546
22.233
22.001
21.848
21.772

Chord/D
CD
0.17419 0.00800
0.17576 0.00800
0.17890 0.00800
0.18377 0.00800
0.19082 0.00800
0.20106 0.00800
0.21512 0.00800
0.23122 0.00800
0.24637 0.00800
0.26003 0.00800
0.27285 0.00800
0.28614 0.00800
0.29986 0.00800
0.31291 0.00800
0.32415 0.00800
0.33326 0.00800
0.34021 0.00800
0.34487 0.00800
0.34696 0.00800
0.34610 0.00800
0.34147 0.00800
0.33205 0.00800
0.31757 0.00800
0.30007 0.00800
0.28231 0.00800
0.26639 0.00800
0.24822 0.0080
0.22128 0.00800
0.18391 0.00800
0.13812 0.00800
0.08618 0.00800
0.03048 0.00800

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Center for Ocean Engineering
2.611 SHIP POWER and PROPULSION
Problem Set #4 Basic Thermodynamic Cycles, Due: November 2, 2006
1. First Law refreshera) Write the generic first law thermodynamic equation for a single inlet and single
exit flow.
b) What does this equation not take into account?
c) Discuss the adiabatic process, the polytropic process and what it means for a
process to be reversible.
2. Air at 10 C and 80kPa enters the diffuser of a jet engine steadily with a velocity of
200 m/s. The inlet area of the diffuser is 0.5 m2. The air leaves the diffuser with a
velocity that is very small compared with the inlet velocity. (Assume the diffuser is the
system, flow is steady and air is an ideal gas (R=.287 (kPA*m3)/(kg*K), enthalpy @ 283
Kelvin ~ 283 kJ/kg )
Determine:
a) The mass flow rate of the air
b) The temperature of the air leaving the diffuser.
3. Consider the tank system below. Tank A has a volume of 100ft3 and initially contains
R134a at a pressure of 100 kPa and a temperature of 313 Kelvin. The compressor
evacuates tank A and charges tank B. Tank B is initially evacuated and is of such volume
that the final pressure of the R134a in tank B is 800 kPa. Temperature remains constant.
Determine the work done by the compressor.
4. Steam enters an adiabatic turbine at 8 MPa and 500C with a mass flow rate of 3kg/s
and leaves at 30 kPa. The isentropic efficiency of the turbine is .9. Neglecting kinetic
energy, determine:
a) Temperature at the turbine exit
b) Power output

5. A marine steam plant operates as a simple Rankine cycle with a turbine inlet
temperature and pressure of 600 C and 4 MPa. The condenser operates at a pressure of
20kPa. Assume that the turbine isentropic efficiency is 80% and the pump isentropic
efficiency is 90%.
a.
Sketch the cycle on T-s and h-s diagrams.
b.
Determine the steam quality at exit from the turbine.
c.
Determine the specific enthalpy change across each component.
d.
Determine the net power of the cycle with a mass flow rate of 3 kg/s.
e.
Determine the thermal efficiency of the Rankine cycle.

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Center for Ocean Engineering
2.611 SHIP POWER and PROPULSION
Problem Set #4 Basic Thermodynamic Cycles, Due: October 31, 2006

1. First Law refreshera) Write the generic first law thermodynamic equation for a single inlet and single
exit flow.
d
U
dt

( )

( )

2
2

V in
V out

Q _W
+m
h + g z +
mout_dot h out + g zout +

dot
dot
in_dot in
in
2
2

b) What does this equation not take into account?

The influence of chemical reactions is not included in this calculation.
c) Discuss the adiabatic process, the polytropic process and what it means for a
process to be reversible.
AP - A process in which no heat is transferred across the assigned boundary
PP A process in which during which expansion and compression can be related
to ideal gas properties. More specifically, pressure and volume can be
related by PVn=C
RP A reversible process is one that can be reversed without leaving any trace on
its surroundings. This is possible only if the net heat and net work
exchange between the system and he surroundings is zero for the
combined process
2. Air at 10 C and 80kPa enters the diffuser of a jet engine steadily with a velocity of
200 m/s. The inlet area of the diffuser is 0.5 m2. The air leaves the diffuser with a
velocity that is very small compared with the inlet velocity. (Assume the diffuser is the
system, flow is steady and air is an ideal gas (R=.287 (kPA*m3)/(kg*K), enthalpy @ 283
Kelvin ~ 283 kJ/kg )
Determine:
a) The mass flow rate of the air
b) The temperature of the air leaving the diffuser.

t1 := 283 K

P1 := .080 MPa

velocity_in := 200

Area := .5 m

R := .287

1000 Pa m

kJ := 1000J

kg K

To determine the mass flow rate, find specific volume of the air using the ideal gas relationship
Volume_spec := R

t1

Volume_spec = 1.015

P1

kg

velocity_in ( Area )

m_dot :=

Volume_spec
m_dot = 98.497

The flow is steady and Energy in = Energy out

h_out := h_in

velocity_in

h_in := 283.14

kJ

kg

velocity_out := 0

kg

h_out = 303.14

t2 := 303.14K

3. Consider the tank system below. Tank A has a volume of 100ft3 and initially
contains R134a at a pressure of 100 kPa and a temperature of 313 Kelvin. The
compressor evacuates tank A and charges tank B. Tank B is initially evacuated
and is of such volume that the final pressure of the R134a in tank B is 800 kPa.
Temperature remains constant. Determine the work done by the compressor.
VA := 100 ft

h_A := 287.66

PA := .1MPa

TA := 313 K

PB := .8 MPa

kJ

vA := .25076

kg

kg

TB := 313 K
TA = 39.85C

T_o := TA

u_A := h_A PA vA

u_A = 262.584
u_B := 252.13

Work_r := ( u_A u_B ) T_o ( s_A s_B )

mass :=

VA
vA

mass = 11.292kg

kJ
kg

kJ
kg

s_A := 1.141

kJ

kg K

s_B := .9374

kg K
kJ

4 1

Work_r = 5.327 10

kg

joule

Work_rev := Work_r mass

5

Work_rev = 6.016 10 J

Negative indicates work was added to the system

4. Steam enters an adiabatic turbine at 8 MPa and 500C with a mass flow rate of 3kg/s
and leaves at 30 kPa. The isentropic efficiency of the turbine is .9. Neglecting kinetic
energy, determine:
a) Temperature at the turbine exit
b) Power output

Define state 1 and 2

m1 := 3

v1 := .0417

h1 := 3398.3

kg

P2 := .030 MPa

T2 := 342.25K

hf := 289.23
hfg := 2336.1

hg := 2625.5

kJ
kg

s1 := 6.724

kJ
kg

kg
s

Pi := 8 MPa

T1 := 773.15K

s1 = s2 for an adiabitic process. Using the tables provided, saturated

vapor temperature is 342.25 K
Now state 2 is defined in the saturated region.

kJ
kg

sf := .9439

kJ

kJ
sfg := 6.8337

kg

kJ
kg

kg

kJ
kg

( s1 sf )
sfg

h2 := hf + .846 hfg

= 0.846

.846 represents the quality of the sat

vapor. Use this to determine the enthalpy
at state 2.

3 kJ

h2 = 2.266 10

kg

h_actual := [ .9 ( h1 h2) h1]

3 kJ

h_actual = 2.379 10
Work := m1 ( h1 + h_actual )

kg
3 1

Work = 3.058 10

kJ

5. A marine steam plant operates as a simple Rankine cycle with a turbine inlet
temperature and pressure of 600 C and 4 MPa. The condenser operates at a pressure of
20kPa. Assume that the turbine isentropic efficiency is 80% and the pump isentropic
efficiency is 90%.
a.
Sketch the cycle on T-s and h-s diagrams.
b.
Determine the steam quality at exit from the turbine.
c.
Determine the specific enthalpy change across each component.
d.
Determine the net power of the cycle with a mass flow rate of 3 kg/s.
e.
Determine the thermal efficiency of the Rankine cycle.

a). T-s and h-s diagrams

b). Steam quality

p 1 := 0.02MPa

p 3 := 4MPa

p 4 := p 1

p 2 := p 3

From the steam tables:

kJ
h 3 := 3674.4
kg
s 3 := 7.3688

T3 := 873.15K
T1 := 333.21K

h 1 := 251.42

kJ

kJ

kg K

s 4S := s 3

kJ
kg K

s 2S := s 1

v 1 := .001017

h 4g := 2609.7

kJ
kg
kJ
kg

3 kJ

kg

s 4fg := s 4g s 4f

X4S = 0.924

Thus, the enthalpy at 4S can be calculated:

h 4S := h 4f + X4S h 4fg

The efficiency of the turbine is t

h 4 := h 3 t h 3 h 4S

kg

s 4f := 0.83202
s 4g := 7.9072

h 4fg := h 4g h 4f

h 4fg = 2.358 10

The quality of steam at 4S is:

s 4S s 4f
X4S :=
s 4fg

p := 0.9
3

h 4f := 251.42

kg

s 1 := 0.83202

t := 0.8

kJ
h 4S = 2430.242
kg
h3 h4
0.78( Given) so solve for h4:
h 3 h 4S
h 4 = 2679.074

kJ
kg

s 4fg = 7.075

kJ
kg K

kJ
kg K
kJ

kg K

Now, the quality of the steam at 4 can be determined.

X4 :=

h 4 h 4f

X4 = 1.029

h 4fg

c). Determine h across each component. We only need to solve for h2 to complete this. I used a slightly
different pump calc. I gave credit for either method.

h 2S := h 1 + v1 p 2 p 1

h 2 := h 1 +

h 2S h 1

h 2 = 435.827

kJ
kg

h 2S = 417.386

h results:
h 3 h 4 = 995.326
kg

pump:

kJ
h 2 h 1 = 184.407
kg

steam generator:

kJ
h 3 h 2 = 3238.573
kg

condenser:

kJ
h 4 h 1 = 2427.654
kg

Power

m_dot := 3

kg
s

m_dot w_dot t + w_dot p

) (

m_dot h t h p

Power := m_dot h 3 h 4 h 2 h 1

)
Power = 2432.759kW

e). Efficiency of thermal cycle.

th_real :=

kg

kJ

turbine:

d). Net power.

kJ

) (

m_dot h 3 h 4 h 2 h 1

m_dot h 3 h 2

th_real = 0.25

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

DEPARTMENT OF OCEAN ENGINEERING
2.611 SHIP POWER and PROPULSION
Problem Set #5, Diesel Engine Problems, Due: November 14, 2006
1.

A diesel engine designer is interested to know the effect of turbo-charging on

mean effective pressure and power. The engine he is considering is a 14 cylinder,
4 stroke diesel engine. The rotational speed is 1200 rpm, mean piston speed of 12
m/s, and stroke to bore ratio of 1.25. The following data is estimated:
Note: Review chapter 7 in the text before attempting this problem.
Thermodynamic efficiency = 58.5%
Mechanical losses = 8 %
Heat losses = 9 %
Charge pressure = 3.5 bar overpressure in inlet receiver
Charging is reasonably effective (93%)
Inlet receiver temp 60 Celsius
Air excess ratio 1.8
Lower heating value of fuel 42,000 kJ/kg
Stoichiometric fuel air ratio = 13:1
Gas constant air/exhaust gas R = .287 kJ/kg
a. Calculate engine efficiency, mean effective pressure, and power output. (Note:
you can assume that the combustion efficiency is 100%).
b. If an engine of the same size was not turbocharged, what would be the
efficiency, mean effective pressure and power (keep assumptions unchanged).

2.

The air standard dual-cycle is used to represent the thermodynamic characteristics

of a large two-stroke diesel engine. The cylinder volume V1=1.0 m3; the
compression ratio rv = V1 / V2 = 13.0 ; the value of rp = T3 / T2 = 1.80 ; and the cut-off

ratio rc = T4 / T3 = 1.40 ; the temperature of the air entering the cylinder T1 = 300 K ;

and the pressure p1 = 1.0 bar 100kN / m 2 .

Determine:
a.
b.
c.
d.

the temperatures T2 , T3 , T4 and T5 in K

the mass of the gas, m, in the cylinder in kg
the heat transfers, QH 1 , at constant volume; QH 2 at constant
pressure, and QL at constant volume, in kJ
the work of the engine per cycle in kJ, and the power per cylinder
in kW, when the two-stroke engine operates at 79 rpm

The engine is now fitted with a turbocharger and charge cooler. The compressor
pressure ratio of the turbocharger is 3.9 and the polytropic efficiency PC = 0.83 .

The effectiveness of the charge cooler = TCOMP T11 / (TCOMP TW ) = 0.8 where
the cooling water temperature TW = 300 K , the air temperature leaving the
o

compressor and entering the charge cooler is TCOMP and the temperature of the air
leaving the charge cooler and entering the engine cylinder is T.
Determine:
e.
f.

the temperature of the air leaving the charge cooler and entering
the engine cylinder T11
Repeat the tasks a through d for the new situation.

Assume that the properties of air are C p = 1.00kJ / kgK , cv = 1/1.40kJ / kgK
and R = .286kJ / kgK .

3.

Using the data presented in the Vee-form additions to Pielstick family article,
calculate the engine performance assuming that it can be modeled as an Air
Standard Dual Cycle. Use the PC40 engine. Assume that the constant volume
temperature rise is T3-T2 = 300 K, the constant pressure temperature rise is T4-T3
= 800 K, and the air (from a charge cooled turbocharger) enters the cylinders at
300 K and 3 bar.
Determine:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.

the temperatures and pressures at conditions 1 through 5 (the text

can be used to help you understand terms you are not familiar with
like combustion ratio)
the thermal efficiency and sfc of the cycle (section 7.4.3 in text)
the mass of air in each cylinder
the power output per cylinder
the mean effective pressure
compare your predicted values with the data in the article
provide a justification for any differences

Assume that air has cp = 1.00 kJ/kg K, = 1.4, and the heating value of the fuel
(LHV) is 43,000 kJ/kg.

~ e e - f o r madditions to
Pielstick family
lthough the SEMT. Pielrrick PC40
engine has been wcli accepted and
rervtce resuirs have shown high
reiisbiiiry. the use of iarge-bore in-line
medium-speed engines in ferries. ln Japan.
has not been entirely iucccssful. Engine
indurdribraiionson sai:>e sfinpan'snew
ferries - none of them u,itll Pklsrick engin*, - have retarded sales of in-line
eijgiiiesrc:en;:y i?drheFiiisrickdesignen
have therefore brought our two new Veetype engines, lo be known as the P C 4 ~ 2 B
and PC2-6B.
The PC4-2B engine is based on the long
established PC4-2 design but incorpamrer
componentsofthe youngeePC40Lengine.
However, the Pielstick engineen have i n
creased the piston snoke from 6 2 h m in
r h e ~ ~ 4 - 2 r 0 6 6 0 m m a nthefiringpressure
d
from 145 bar to i 5 0 bar.
Thesechanges,combinedwdththesame
power output per cylinder (1650bhp) and
therefore a decrease in bmep, have improved the specific fuel oil consumption
fiom 183gikW h 10 175gikW hfoithe new
engine. Further improvemenain reliability
are also expected.
U'hen some ferry operators in Japan
i w k e d at newbuilding instaiiations, they
decided torerum to Vee-type engines- as
aresultanumberofferries presently building in Japanese yards are being installed
with Vee-form P C 2 4 engines. 70 funher
improvethaiengine,thePieistickderigner,
have mken proven components fmm the
PC20L design and incorporated these into
the new PC2-6B. Other minor modificationr have beenaddedandthepweroutput
per cylinder has been lifted to the 825bhp
level of the PCZOL machines. The piston
stroke has been slightly increased t o
500mm but the engine speed is held at
520revlmin.

r.

though i r i engines suffered fiom some

burnt air inlei valves. The valves were
changed during a pon turnround. Both
there ships have now accumulated more
rhan 16 MOh of aperaiion.
The third ship in the senes suffered
rome problems with air inier cams and
missed one voyage of 2Oh d m i i o o but has
nou,complcred some i 5 OOOh of operation
with no funher problems.
Heavy fueiofatleast i8OcSt vircoriryis

.>

uStmw

m
(mi
p
,
,

, cylovipufbw)
I

~mepjw)

M u pess (bar)
Sfoc at mn

PC428 F W O
570

570

560

750

4m

8.8

375
9.4

94

11.8
13.3
140
1215 1300~12151325
27.5 21.6-20.2 22.1 !
145
150
155

'

uiedonRewHomo~iuandher5iiteiships.

avoiding long engine idiing periods.

and this has brought no problems.
Funhemore.somecrackr were foundin
However. the bumt air inlet vdves r e
f e m d toeariieiaose from the ship spend- three cylinder heads and a number of fuel
inglongperiods with the engines idling on pump delivery valves but these were inilinoioad. Duringtheseidlingpe~odsdepo~ ated from manufacmring faults.
irs built up in the inlet ports, due to rlighr
b a c ~ o w o f e x h a u i t g a s , and iheieeven,u- Wear rates
Of two more recenrly built P C 4 0 L ~
aily fell into the air inier valves and were
hammered - ultimateiy causing burning powered ro-ro ships operating in a tramp
type sewice w d the Japanese coast,one
of the valve seats.
The problem hasbeen solved by simply has hadonestapat seaofah inaroraloftwo
cross section o f t h e ~ ~ 1 3 - Zveetormmd;um-~peedd~erel
E

PC40L service results

PC42
Ewlns.

! Cyl b r e (mm)
570
s M e (mm) 6M

At the beginning of 1990 a total of 34

PC40Lengines had been ordered and 17 of
these were in service.
The first engines (21 9PC40L) in three
ferries have been in sewice for rome two
andahalftothreeyeanandhvvereponedly
givenercellenrrerults.lndeed,~efintpair
ofenginer,inrtalledin the 1987-built ferry
NewHomn~srr,haveneveicauredtheship
to be delayed or stopped ar sea and a sistership has achieved the same ncord even

SIGMA
TANK COATING
RANGE

'

-be i g m a Phenguard roatlrg ivrrem

3
Loat ohenai#<
emry tank
roatrg i f i t e n w t b erreltrrf reis:arce
agajrif :he wldeit range ofuirertr,

f d f b d ~ dilemiCdi
i
waterand
i i l " e o " i i l l : i o , u t o r s ~ o b e c a r . ~ ~1d
iqueniei

SIGMAKEMIGUARD

Optimally Crarrltnked Epoxy

igma Keniguara Tanr roaiNngifitem

:i a f a i f

dryng ma, or three m a t OCL

lapinally cronl~niedlepoT tank

~ n a t n ifitem
g
i v t h a broad imrum
of cargo reartanre
T n i coaf~ngm e n ~ansibuiei
fa
greater operatonal 'lex b i v
c h e m r a l ~ a r g a i r a n i ~ i : i v ~more
ih

oup01u"tt-eifor l0iiii"9 a ,ucra,we

market

segment

SIGMAGUARDEHB

Hlgh Solid Epoxy

yean of operation.
Pielstick engineers had. therefore, to
Wear in the fin: engine in senice with design a special oil sump for each of the
the vessels has been regularly checked and engines so !-wet
sump style of operashown no untoward nendr. Some cylinder tion could be obtained, as is the case with
units lhavr been operated wtthour opening automotive engines. However, unlike an
them up until recently and here h e wear automotiveengine,rhelubticabngoilis nor
rate was the same as those cylinders ,
oievi- changed at regular intervals and the
ously inspected - O O I ~ ~ ~ ~ I I on
C X ensines
N ~
are burning HFO of up 380eSt
thecylinderlinen andO.O2Zmm/lWOhon viscosity.
thepistonringa.Thespecificlubricatingoi1
Instead of theusual marine standards of
consumption across all theengines in s m - around I litre of lubricating oil per honeice har senled down to 0.7 to I.O@hp h.
pawer, theseengines haveonly 0 3 l i n e h p .
The othenviw excellent service resvlcr Filaatiqn and cenmLfoging of the sump oil
have lead to an "prating of the latest followaconrenuonal lines but with the fil9PC40L engines lo be built at Diesel ters sized as if 1 litrehp of oil was in
United, in Japan, toalevei of 18Wbhplcyi circulation.
at 3M)/37Sreuimin thus mainmining the
T<py:og up df (I\, n ? # nengine sump*
same bmep.
.>nLe I I. lrultl thc ,I .n&c LA, hlrl Ilu
Satisfactory tertbed tnals were mn lrvln dl2 wnl'. u f i l c chlcr. 5I'Afil. ,ar~ltowards the end of 1989 with the fint of iary units.
these engines. The second engine in this
Thcre auxiliary machines have their
series was required by h e owner to be sumps drained at regular intervals and
mounted on elastic suspension elements severe rejections limits are placed on the
and the engine was modified to have a lubeoil toallow ittobeuscdfortopping~rp
special oil sump to mainwin good rigidiry the main engines.
to the whole set.
After 35Wh of opention the owner has
The anti-vibration elements are there- reported that the lubricating system is
fore set at an h g l e , towards the topedge of working well. The lubricating oil cont h e s m p and, at273t,theenginerepresenrr sumption n t e har settled d o m to a maxithe heaviest weight yet suspended by PielL mumof 0 8 g h h p handtheviscosityofthc
stick in this way.
main engine oil has slowly risen to l7cSt
and then remained steady. The TBN rose
Special sump
quickly duiing the first 2Wh or sa but has
An unusual request by a shipowner since serried down at 36.
having fow 18PC2.6 engines installed in a
There results have proved this original
car ferry was for no oil drain tmks to be idea which was accepted by Pielstick with
coniained in the ship's double-bonom.The some hepidation.
~

1
(

Sigma slyuard MC ir a moiifurecunng

fand~ingrtncriiiiaatmkcoating.
b r e d on an organo illcafe polymer
and plgrneniedwith a pure znc
powdei
Sigma Stlguard SC i a waterborn
ielfcunngtank raaing SFtern, based
on zinirirhalkaiiril~ate.
These norganr zinc ilcate tank
c0atin01enrurean e*cei1ent resirtanre

SIGMAGUARD LINE

tfi@
THE RIGHT CHOICE

'

.!

2.611 Fall 2006

Problem Set #5 Answer Key
Problem 1 (Just parts A and B).

Problem 2
Diesel engine (two stroke) V1 = 1.0m3 , rv = 13.0 , rp = 1.8 , rc = 1.4 , T1 = 300o K ,

p1 = 1 bar 100kN / m 2 , = C p / Cv = 1.00 / 0.7143 , R = 0.286kJ / kgK , 79 rpm

Temperature:

V
T2 = T1 1
V2

= 300 x130.4 = 836.9o K

T3 = T2 xrp = 836.9 x1.8 = 1506o K

T4 = T3 xrc = 1506.5 x1.4 = 2109.1o K

1.4
T5 = T4 x (V4 / V5 ) = 2109.1

13.0

0.4

= 864.9o K

QH 1 = mCv (T3 T2 ) , where m = p1V1 / RT1 = 100 x1/ (.286 x300 )

b.

m = 1.1655kg

c.

QHI = 1.1655 x

1
(1506.5 836.9 ) = 557.4kJ
1.4

QH 2 = mC p (T4 T3 ) = 1.1655 x1.0 ( 2109.1 1506.5 ) = 702.3kJ

QL = mC2 (T5 T1 ) = 1.1655 x

1
(864.9 300 ) = 470.29kJ
1.4

d.
Work output =



QHI + QH 2 QL = 557.4 + 702.3 470.29 = 789.45kJ per cycle
Power of the two stroke engine =
Work xrpm / 60 = 1.039.4kW / cycle
e.

The turbocharger compressor pressure ratio pout / pin = 3.9 ,

pc = 0.83
1

Tout / Tin = ( pout / pin ) pc = 3.9 = 1.5976

Tout = Tcomp = 300 x1.5976 = 479.3

Tcomp T11
Tcomp Tw

479.3 T11
479.3 300

T11 = 479.3 0.8 ( 479.3 300 ) = 335.8o K

f.
All temperatures are scaled from previous results by
335.8 / 300 = 1.1195
T21 = 936.97o K

T31 = 1686.6o K

T41 = 2361.2o K

T51 = 968.3o K

Heat transfers QH 1 , QH 2 , and QL are all scaled by mass of air in

cylinder and temperature.
m1 T11
= m cv (T T ) =
x xQH 1
m T1

1
H1

1
3

1
2

p11 T1
m = p V / RT = mx x 1 = 4.06kg
p1 T1
1

1
1 1

1
H1

1
1

p11
= QH x
= 3.9 xQm = 2173.9kJ
p1

QH 2 = 2739.1kJ
QL1 = 1834.1kJ
The work per cycle is proportional to the heat transfers.
Work output1 = 3078.9kJ per stroke
and Power1 = 4053.8kW per cylinder

Problem 3
Given:
T1 := 300K

p 1 := 3bar

cp := 1.00

:= 1.4

kJ
kg K

LHV := 43000

From the article:

bore := 0.57m

eng_RPM := 375RPM

stroke := 0.75m

piston_speed := 9.4

a. Temperature calculations:
T2
1
so
rv
T1

T2 := T1 rv

rv := 14

m
s

T2 = 862.1K

T3 := T2 + 300K

T3 = 1162.1K

T4 := T3 + 800K

T4 = 1962.1K

T3
rp :=
T2

T4
rc :=
T3

kJ
kg

T5 := T1 rc rp

T5 = 841.9K

Volume and pressure calculations:

swept_volume :=
rv

V1

bore stroke

and

swept_volume

so

V2
rv V2

V1

rv V1 V1

rv V1 rv V2

V1 rv 1

V1 :=

rv V1 V2

1
V1 1
rv

V1 V1

swept_volume

swept_volume
1

p 2 := p 1 rv

V1 = 206.104L

rv

V1
V2 :=
rv

b).

V1 V2

V2 = 14.722L

p 2 = 120.7bar

p 3 := p 2 rp

p 3 = 162.7bar

p 4 := p 3

p 4 = 162.7bar

T5
p 5 := p 1
T1

p 5 = 8.4bar

rp = 1.348
rc = 1.688

c). the thermal efficiency

rp rc 1

th_dual := 1

1 ( rp 1) + rp ( rc 1)

rv

3600
sfc :=

th_dual = 0.618

s
hr

th_dual LHV

sfc = 0.135

kg
kW hr

d). mass of air in each cylinder--use ideal gas law

PV

(at condition 1, for example)

p 1 V1

mRT
m :=

m = 0.718kg

287 J T
kg K 1

e) power output per cylinder

so
cp cv

m_dot := m 375

rev
min

cv :=

min

cp

1power_stroke
2strokes

60sec

Q_dot H1 := m_dot cv T2 rp 1

Q_dot H2 := m_dot cv T2 rp rc 1

Q_dot L := m_dot cv T1 rc rp 1

W_dot = 1407.6kW per cyl

W_dot := Q_dot H1 + Q_dot H2 + Q_dot L

f). mean effective pressure

power

MEP

cyl
swept_volume
sec

so

MEP :=

W_dot
swept_volume 375

1 power_stroke
2 strokes
min 60 sec

rev

min

MEP = 23.53bar

g).

Include a comparison of your calculated results with the numbers in the article.

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Center for Ocean Engineering
2.611 / 2.612 Ship Power and Propulsion
Problem Set #6, Due December 5, 2006
1. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of using a Gas Turbine vs. a Diesel
Engine.
2. Draw a T-S diagram for an inter-cooled regenerative Brayton Cycle. Label the points
and explain, in words, each portion of the cycle. Mark on your diagram the area where
heat is transferred into the system and where it leaves the system.
3. A simple closed-cycle Brayton engine operates with air as the working fluid. The
conditions at the design point are as follows:
- compressor inlet temperature, T1 = 25 C (300 K)
- compressor pressure ratio, p2/p1 = 11
- compressor isentropic efficiency, c = 85%
- turbine inlet temperature, T3 = 1425C (1698 K)
- turbine isentropic efficiency, t = 92%
- pressure loss, p/p = 6%
- mass flow rate of air through engine = 60 kg/s
Determine:
a. T2 & T4 using ideal gas properties
b. the ratio of compressor power/turbine power
c. the net power of the Brayton Cycle, (kW)
d. the heat transfer rate (kW) (between T3 T4)
e. the thermal efficiency of the cycle
Assume that air is an ideal gas with constant specific heats (cp = 1.00 kJ/kg K, = 1.4).
4. A design engineer recommends adding a regenerator with an efficiency of 90% to the
Brayton engine in Question #3. Use the design conditions from #3, Determine:
a. the heat transfer rate (kW)
b. the thermal efficiency of the cycle
c. Draw the T-S, Diagram highlighting the range which the heat transfer takes
place.

5.

An intercooled recuperative gas turbine has the following design conditions:

Compressor inlet temperature, T1=T3
310K
Compressor pressure ratio, p2/p1=p4/p3
5
1350K
Turbine inlet temperature, T6
Pressure Loss, p/p
10%
Compressor polytropic efficiency, pc
85%
Turbine polytropic efficiency, pt
90%
Regenerator effectiveness, =(T5-T4)/(T7-T4) 0.85
92%
Combustion efficiency, comb
Determine:
a. the fuel/air ratio, mf/ma
b. the specific power in kW/kg per sec (i.e. net power/mass flow rate of
air)
c. the specific fuel consumption in kg of fuel per kW hour
d. Calculate the required cross sectional area for the inlet duct if the inlet
duct velocity is 25 m/s for the turbine. Assume that the ambient air
outside the ship is at 1 bar and 298K
Assume that the working fluids are air (a = 1.4 and cpa = 1.005 kJ/kg K) for the
compressor and the combustion products (p = 1.33 and cpp = 1.130 kJ/kg K) for
the turbine. The fuel for the combustor is at 25 C and the heating value (LHV) is
43,000 kJ/kg.
6. A simple cycle 18 MW gas turbine has a maximum turbine entry temperature of
1100C and a max pressure after the compressor of 2.2MPa. The maximum pressure
in the combustion chamber is 500kPa. Pressure at the intake and temperature is
110kPa and 30 C. Additionally, a recuperator with an effectiveness of 85% has been
installed. Using an isentropic index of 1.4 throughout the turbine determine:
a. power required for compression and polytropic efficiency of the
compression process.
b. power delivered during expansion and polytropic efficiency of the
expansion process
c. amount of heat released in combustion chamber and fuel mass flow.
d. brake power and over all efficiency
- Assume gas constant = 0.287 kJ/kgK
- Specific heat at constant pressure = 1.0 kJ/kgK
- LHV of fuel = 430000 kJ/kg
- nc = 1.4 (irreversible loss for compression)
- nT = 1.33 (irreversible loss for expansion)
Hint: Use the example in chapter 8 and figure 8.8 of the text.

7.

A DC motor with a speed of 180 rpm, current of 10 amps, resistance of 2 ohms

has 400 volts applied. Determine the magnetic flux and torque.
Assume Ke=5 and Km=30

8.

The rotor of a certain 25 hp, 6 pole, 60Hz induction motor has an equivalent
resistance and reactance per phase is 0.1 and 0.5 respectively. The blocked
rotor voltage/phase is 150 V. If the rotor is turning at 1164 rpm, determine:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.

synchronous speed
slip
rotor impedance
rotor current
rotor current is changing the shaft load resulted in 1.25% slip
speed for condition in e.

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
2.611/612 SHIP POWER AND PROPULSION
Problem Set 6 Solutions 2006

1. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of using a Gas Turbine vs. a Diesel
Engine.
Advantages in general (not req'd for answer):
1) Fast Start-Up
2) Modular Construction
3) Easy Automation
4) High Reliability and Maintainabilty
Vs. Diesel
- low efficiency compared to diesel / higher fuel consumption than diesel
- requires higher fuel quality
- harder to repair underway
- higher power density than diesel so frees up space and weight
Ref:Woud, p. 137-138

2. Draw a T-S diagram for an intercooled regenerative Brayton Cycle. Label the points
and explain, in words, each portion of the cycle. Mark on your diagram the area where
heat is transferred into the system and where it leaves the system.

1 to a: Compressor raises pressure - work in

a - b: intercooler HX removes heat - qout
b-2: 2nd compressor raises pressure - work in
2-5: Fluid pre-heated in regenerator (internal flow)
5-3: Combustion - qin
3-4: Turbine - work out
4-6: Exhaust fluid enters regenerator. Loses heat to the fluid in stage 2-5. (internal)
6-1: In real cycle, heat is lost by exhausting the fluid. In closed cycle, heat is lost to a heat
exchanger. - qout

3. Simple closed-cycle Brayton engine

Given:

T1 := 298.15K
p2_over_p1 := 11

c := 0.85
T3 := 1698K
t := 0.92
p_over_p := 0.06
cp_air := 1.00

kJ
kg K

air := 1.4

m_dot := 60

kg
s

Compressor:
1

T2S
T1

air 1

p2
p
1

p2_over_p1

air

= 1.984

and for the efficiency

T2S

T1
c

T1

T2 T1

T2S

T1

so rearrange to get:
T2

T2 :=

T1 p2_over_p1
c

air 1
air

T1
c

+ T1

and using the result above

+T
1

T2 = 643.301K

Turbine:
p3

p2

p4

p1

p2_over_p1 ( 1 p_over_p ) = 10.34

and by gas properties:

air 1

p4
p
3

T4S
T3

p2_over_p1 ( 1 p_over_p )

air

= 0.513

air 1

T4S_over_T3 :=

(
)
p2_over_p1
1

p_over_p

and
t

air

T3 T4

T4S

T3

T3 1

so rearrange and use the result above for p3/p4.

a

T4 := T3 t T3 ( 1 T4S_over_T3 )

T4 = 937.264K
m_dot := 60

Now that we have the temperatures, we can do the rest of the analyses.
b). ratio of W_dot_compressor/W_dot_turbine
W_dot_compressor
W_dot_turbine

m_dot cp_air h 1 h 2

m_dot cp_air h 3 h 4

so:
W_dot_compressor
W_dot_turbine

m_dot cp_air T2 T

m_dot cp_air T3 T4

T2 T1
T3 T4

= 0.454

This is also called the "Back work" ratio.

kg
s

Net_power

W_dot_compressor + W_dot_turbine

c. Net power

= m_dot cp_air T1 T2 + m_dot cp_air T3 T4 = 2.494 104 kW

d. Heater heat transfer rate

e. Thermal efficiency
th

m_dot cp_air T3 T2 = 6.328 10 kW

Q_dot_H

Net_power

(T1 T2) + (T3 T4)

Q_dot_H

T3 T2

= 0.394

4. Regenerative closed-cycle Brayton engine

Given: All values from problem 3 + ...

T5 := T2 + .9 T4 T2

:= 0.90

T5 = 907.868K

q_in := T3 T5 cp_air
Net_power :=
_th :=

( T1 T2) + ( T3 T4) cp_air

q_in = 790.132

kJ

Q_in := q_in m_dot

kg
4

Q_in = 4.741 10 kW

Net_power
q_in

_th = 0.526

5. Intercooled Recuperative Gas Turbine

T1 := 310 K

a := 1.4

T3 := T1
P2_over_P1 := 5

cpa := 1.005

P4_over_P3 := 5

p := 1.33

T6 := 1350 K

cpp := 1.130

Pressure_loss := .1

kJ
kg K

kJ
kg K

LHV := 43000

pc := .85
pt := .9

T := 298.15K

comb := .92
a 1

T2 := T1 P2_over_P1

a 1

T4 := T3 P4_over_P3

:= .85

1
pc

T2 = 532.488K

1
pc

T4 = 532.488K

P6_over_P7 := P2_over_P1 P4_over_P3 ( 1 Pressure_loss )

p 1

p pt

P6_over_P7 = 22.5

( 1)

T7 := T6 P6_over_P7

T7 = 673.566K

T5 := T4 + T7 T4
a
fuel_air_ratio :=

T5 = 652.404K

cpp T6 T cpa T5 T

comb LHV cpp T6 T

kJ
kg

fuel_air_ratio = 0.022

specific_power := ( 1 + fuel_air_ratio ) cpp T6 T7 cpa T2 T1 cpa T4 T3

specific_power = 333.755

c.
sfc :=

kW
kg
s

fuel_air_ratio
specific_power

sfc = 0.234
Pturb := 20000 kW
m_dot a :=

Pturb
specific_power

m_dota = 59.924

kg
kW hr

kg
s

d.
Assume ambient air conditions outside the ship

Press air := 1 bar

velduct := 25

molar weight of air (assume .8 N2 and .2 O2):

Tamb := 298 K

m
s

MW air := .8 28
MW air = 0.029

gm

+ .2 32

mol
kg
mol

Find air density using PV=nRT

ambair

n
V

MW air

n_over_V :=

P
R T

Press air
Rcon Tamb

ambair := n_over_V MW air

Rcon := .08206

L atm
K mol

n_over_V = 40.359

ambair = 1.162

A duct :=

m_dot a
ambair

kg
3

Vflow = 51.555

m
s

Vflow
velduct

m
Vflow :=

mol

Aduct = 2.062m

gm
mol

6.
t1 := 303K

p2_over_p1 := 5

c := 0.85

p 1 := .1MPa

m_dot := 60

n C := 1.5

cp_air := 1.00

t := 0.92

t3 := 1373K

air := 1.4

p_over_p := 0.06
kJ
:= .85

kg K

kg
Power := 18000 kW

s
:= 220

n T := 1.33

kJ

cp :=

kg

m 1000
K s

a) The temp after polytropic compression

nC 1

t2 := p2_over_p1

nC

t1

Pc := m_dot cp t 2 t 1

t2 = 518.123K
4

b)

Pc = 1.291 10 kW

t3 = 1.373 10 K

1
t4 := t3
p2_over_p1

.25

t4 = 918.18K

Pe := m_dot cp t3 t 4

Pe = 2.729 10 kW

c)

t5 := t2 + t4 t 2

t5 = 858.172K

Q_rel = 4.212 10 kW

Q_rel := m_dt cp t 3 t 5
m_fuel :=

Q_rel
43000

d)

7.

m_fuel = 0.98

kJ

Ke := 30

PB

PB = 1.438 10 W

n := 3
Im := 10 A

Q_rel

1
s
R1 := 2

Um := 400 V
E := Um Im R1

kg

PB := Pe Pc

Km := 5

kg

m = 4.222Wb
E = 380 V

m :=

E
Ke n

E Im
n 2

= 201.596N m

= 0.341

8. AC motor
a.

p := 6

f := 60 Hz

nr = 1164 rpm

Rr := .1

X := .54
n s := 120

b.
s s :=

Zr :=

e.

Ns = 1200 rpm

ns nr

c.

d.

f
p

s s = 0.03

ns

Rr
+ .54 i
s

Ir = E/Zr

Zr = 3.377 ohms at an angle of 9.2 degrees

Ir = 44.4 amps at an angle of -9.2 degrees

Recalculate using same eqn. in step c above with new slip value
New rotor current = 18.7 amps, angle -3.9 deg.

f.

nf = 1185 rpm

Note: Think about the relationship

between rotor current, rotor impedance and load.

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Center of Ocean Engineering
2.611 SHIP POWER and PROPULSION
Fall 2006, Quiz 1
1) (20 pts)
a) Discuss how Controllable Reversible Pitch (CRP) propellers can help prevent engine
overloading. Consider your answer in terms of Torque (Q), angle of attack (), Lift, Drag,
Velocity of Advance (J), Pitch, and shaft speed. (The use of all terms is not necessary as
long as a logical sound argument is made.) (10pts)

ua *

b) Discuss the cause of ua and ut .

-ut*
V*
VA
Vo

Bi

B
r+VT

2) (50 pts) A ship captain must purchase a new propeller to replace the damaged one currently
installed on his ship. The supplier only has two propellers in stock. Both are fixed pitch, 5
blade Wageningen B-series propeller with an EAR of .45, one has a pitch of 17.1 ft and the
other a pitch of 20.9 ft. The details of the ship are as follows:
Conversion factors
Ship and Propeller characteristics:
ft
B-series 5-45 propeller (see attached sheet)
knot = 1.688
Pitch1 = 17.1 ft or Pitch2 = 20.9 ft
sec
Diameter = 19 ft
2
sec
Wake Reduction Factor, w = .2
:= 1.9905lbf

Thrust Reduction Factor, t = .12
4
ft
Relative Rotative Efficiency, R = 0.89
Ship Resistance at max Power, 174800 lbf
Velocity of the ship = 20 kts

a) Using the provided Wageningen B-Series design curves, determine the best choice between
the two propellers in stock with respect to efficiency o. (J2 function, o, and correct choice
20 pts)
b) Determine Joptimum, KToptimum, KQoptimum (15 pts)
c) Determine the Optimal propeller speed np. (5pts)
d) Calculate Thrust (T) and Torque (Q) (5pts)
e) The ships engines are capable or producing 16 x 103 HP, will the ships engines be
adequate for propeller selected? (5pts)

3) (30 pts) The same Captain asks you to design a new propeller for his pleasure boat. You run
PVL and get the following results at r/R=.7:
Given:
r/R = .7
Nprop = 220 rpm
D=1m
Va = 18 m/s
Vt = 0 m/s
Ut* = -.9 m/s
Ua* = .9 m/s
G = .7 m^2/s
c = .18 m
w=0
a) Draw the inflow vector diagram at .7R (10 pts)
b) Find V* (10 pts)
i) Hint: = 2*pi*N
c) What is CL? (5 pts)
d) How do we determine if the blade will cavitate? No calculations are required. You can
describe or use formulas. You do not have enough information to calculate a number for
this blade. (5pts)

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Center of Ocean Engineering
2.611 SHIP POWER and PROPULSION
Fall 2006, Quiz 1 - Solutions
1) (20 pts)
a) Discuss how Controllable Reversible Pitch (CRP) propellers can help prevent engine
overloading. Consider your answer in terms of Torque (Q), angle of attack (), Lift, Drag,
Velocity of Advance (J), Pitch, and shaft speed. (The use of all terms is not necessary as
long as a logical sound argument is made.) (10pts)
A number of factors such as heavy seas, towing evolutions, and / or excessive loading
conditions may cause J to decrease. Generally, with CRP propellers operating above 12 knots, the
speed of the shaft is programmed to remain constant. To compensate for the decrease in relative
water velocity the angle of attack should increase. This will result in an increase in lift and thus
require additional torque from the main engines. To bring the engine torque back to its original
designed value the pitch is reduced by controlling the angle of attack. This allows the engine to
operate at designed torque and prevent overloading
ua *

b) Discuss the cause of ua and ut .

The vortex produced by the propeller
action affects the flow field over the
propeller. These effect velocity in the
direction of advance and transverse
directions and are represented by ua and
ut. This changes the angle of inflow and
produces V* (10 pts)

-ut*
V*
VA
Vo

Bi

B
r+VT

2) (50 pts) A ship captain must purchase a new propeller to replace the damaged one currently
installed on his ship. The supplier only has two propellers in stock. Both are fixed pitch, 5
blade Wageningen B-series propeller with an EAR of .45, one has a pitch of 17.1 ft and the
other a pitch of 20.9 ft. The details of the ship are as follows:
Conversion factors
Ship and Propeller characteristics:
ft
B-series 5-45 propeller (see attached sheet)
knot = 1.688
Pitch1 = 17.1 ft or Pitch2 = 20.9 ft
sec
Diameter = 19 ft
2
sec
Wake Reduction Factor, w = .2
:= 1.9905lbf

Thrust Reduction Factor, t = .12
4
ft
Relative Rotative Efficiency, R = 0.89
Ship Resistance at max Power, 174800 lbf
Velocity of the ship = 20 kts

a) Using the provided Wageningen B-Series design curves, determine the best choice between
the two propellers in stock with respect to efficiency o. (J2 function, o, and correct choice
20 pts)
b) Determine Joptimum, KToptimum, KQoptimum (15 pts)
c) Determine the Optimal propeller speed np. (5pts)
d) Calculate Thrust (T) and Torque (Q) (5pts)
e) The ships engines are capable or producing 16 x 103 HP, will the ships engines be
adequate for propeller selected? (5pts)
Solution

only thing unknown is n, eliminate ...

T

Kt

VA

n D

n D

Kt

n D

n D
VA

T
2

D VA

Kt/J2 is constant; independent of n and P/D, Determine n, P/D which gives maximum o.
Vs := 20knot

w := 0.2

VA := ( 1 w) Vs

t := 0.12

D := 19 ft
T :=

VA = 16knot
T

Kt_over_J_sq :=

D VA

R := 174800lbf

T = 1.986 10 lbf

1t

Kt_over_J_sq = 0.379

a) Draw KT=.379*J2 function on B 5-45 Chart to determine the most efficient design

b) From the B 5-45

Charts

For P/D of .9

For P/D of 1.1

J_1= .655
KT= .14
KQ= .027

J_2= .755
KT= .22
KQ= .04

o= .63

o= .65

0.4
Using the above J and P/D=1.1 on the B 5-45 plot, we get KT := 0.22 and KQ :=
10

c)
n p :=

VA
J_2 D

n p = 112.952

1
min

T := KT n p D

T = 2.022 10 lbf

Q := KQ n p D

Q = 6.987 10 lbf ft

d) Power delivered by the engines is not quite enough to support the optimum propeller.

0 := .65
H :=

PE :=

1t
1w

R Vs
550

lbf ft

R := .89
4

PE = 1.073 10 hp

s hp

QPC := 0 H R

PE
PD :=
QPC

QPC = 0.636
4

Power delivered by the engines is not quite enough to

support the optimum propeller.

PD = 1.686 10 hp

Looking at exercise 1 in chapter 10, the required propeller power PD is what was being asked for.
PE in this case required looking at the resistance due to hull form. That is the reason it is
calculated this way. Only 2-4 pts taken for incorrect answers.
2) (30 pts) The same Captain asks you to design a new propeller for his pleasure boat. You run
PVL and get the following results at r/R=.7:
Given:
r/R = .7
Nprop = 220 rpm
D=1m
Va = 18 m/s
Vt = 0 m/s
Ut* = -.9 m/s
Ua* = .9 m/s
G = .7 m^2/s
c = .18 m
w=0
a) Draw the inflow vector diagram at .7R (10 pts)
b) Find V* (10 pts)
i) Hint: = 2*pi*N
c) What is CL? (5 pts)

d) How do we determine if the blade will cavitate? No calculations are required. You can
describe or use formulas. You do not have enough information to calculate a number for
this blade. (5pts)

3) Lifting Line theory Question

a) Flow Vector Diagram

w := 0

b) Find V*

utstar := .9

D := 1 m
m

uastar := .9

:= 2 Nprop

Vstar :=

m
Va := 18
s
m

= 23.038

1
s

c) find CL
L

Vstar

1
2

If -Cpmin is greater than local then the blade will cavitate.

1
2

Vstar

G :=

r = 0.35 m

r = 8.063

Vstar c CL

2
CL :=
Vstar c
d) How to determine if a blade will cavitate

Pinf Pvap

r := .7 R

m
s

Note: The Vs cancels out of the eqn so able to use

PVL values
m
Vstar = 20.212
s

therefore:

local :=

.7

:= .7

r := r

(
2
)2
r + utstar + ( Va + uastar )

Now we know that

Nprop := 220 min

R :=

c := .18 m

CL = 0.385

Pinf

Patm + g h

The lowest Pinf occurs at the shallowest blade

depth of the blade section

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Division of Ocean Engineering
2.611 SHIP POWER and PROPULSION
Frigate Plant Design Project, Fall 2006
General
The main purpose of the project is to provide students with experience in the selection
and preliminary design of a propulsion power plant. The projects are to be conducted by
teams of two students. The teams should develop their own design philosophy and
selection criteria to be used in the process. The teams are required to compare several
power plant and propulsor alternatives and to select the best overall plant
configuration. The design should be developed in sufficient detail to demonstrate
feasibility and practicality.
Design Data
The students should collect the design data for this project. Sources would include class
notes, open literature, trade journals such as Marine Log, and SNAME publications.
Students should take care to assess the confidence level and document that confidence in
each written report of all design data used in the study.
Reports
Each team will be expected to submit three design reports. These are as follows:
1. Propulsor selection, due October 20, 2006, is discussed on the next page.
2. Power Plant selection, due November 17, 2006, should include the selection
procedure and all the economic data.
3. Propulsion system engineering report, due December 12, 2006, should include
realistic weight estimates, more accurate cost estimates, and engineering
calculations.
Each report should contain:
a. A summary of the designs investigated, including significant information and be
located at the beginning of the report.
b. A text section in which the procedure is described and the selected designs are
critically evaluated.
c. A number of appendices in which the design calculations are presented. This is
particularly important if you have developed your designs using.
A high standard of report writing is expected for these reports.

Phase 1. Propulsor Selection

The study of the propulsor should include optimization of Wageningen (Troost) B 5
bladed propellers for diameter or rpm constraints, where appropriate. Cavitation
considerations should be used to select the suitable expanded area ratios for the
propellers. Assume that with modern design methods the propellers can operate
successfully with 10% cavitation (predicted by the Burrill chart) at the operating
(sustained) speed.
If you expect that a controllable reversible pitch propeller may be used in your final
selection then you should place an upper limit of expanded area ratio of approximately
0.8, because a propeller with a higher EAR is not able to achieve reverse pitch. With
electric drive and with diesels it is assumed that there is no upper limit on EAR (except
the availability of propeller data) because these units can be reversed.
Your report should be written as technical proposal describing your approach and the
results of your study. It is important to provide a summary near the beginning of your
report that presents all the important technical details of your selected propulsor(s).
It may be prudent to provide your team with a choice of propulsors for the later phases of
this project (e.g. CRP option and one fixed).
Frigate Study
Length
Beam
Draft
Displacement
EHP at sustained speed of 28 kts
EHP at endurance speed of 20 kts
Maximum Propeller Diameter (twin screw)
Propeller Centerline Depth
Wake fraction, w
Thrust Deduction Fraction, t
Relative Rotative Efficiency, R

400 ft
45 ft
16 ft
4100 LT
23,000 HP
6,350 HP
14.5 ft
14.75 ft
0.04
0.095
0.995

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
2.611 SHIP POWER and PROPULSION
Frigate Propulsion Plant Design Project, PHASE II
For project two you will be working in the same groups as project one. The second part
of the design project is to select the two most appropriate power plants for final
evaluation in Phase 3. You should use the propulsors selected in Phase I (corrected if
necessary) to carry out economic evaluations of combinations of propulsors and power
plants.
The selection process should be based on minimum life cycle cost. The power plants to
be considered should include (but are not limited to) simple gas turbines, inter-cooled
recuperative gas turbines (ICR), and medium speed diesels. Reduction gears with
controllable reversible pitch propellers (CRP) and electric drive with fixed pitch
propellers should be considered for the drive train and propulsor. You should select the
two best power plants for the ship.
Summary sheet:
A detailed summary is required for all phases of this project. The summary should be
placed near the beginning of the report, and should contain all the important numerical
values for your selected power plants.
References:
Some handouts with limited information will be provided. Students are expected to use
all available resources and properly reference them in their reports. Clearly state all
assumptions and reasoning for them. There is substantial data about naval propulsion
systems floating around 2N spaces. Ask your classmates who have done, and are doing
design projects.
Frigate Study
Length
Beam
Draft
Displacement
EHP at sustained speed of 28 kts
EHP at endurance speed of 20 kts
Maximum Propeller Diameter (twin screw)
Propeller Centerline Depth
Wake fraction, w
Thrust Deduction Fraction, t
Relative Rotative Efficiency, R

400 ft
45 ft
16 ft
4100 LT
23,000 HP
6,350 HP
14.5 ft
14.75 ft
0.04
0.095
0.995

Operating Profile:
Cruising Range:
Days per year underway
Underway time at endurance
Underway time at sustained
Average electrical load
Underway
Pier-side
Cost factors:
Ship life:
Discount rate:
Fuel cost
Salvage value
Accounting Method

7000 nm at endurance speed

150
97%
3%
1200 kW
400 kW
28 years
10%
$300 per LT
$0
Life Cycle Cost

Additional Guidance:
This project is meant to be an opportunity to perform a broad but shallow analysis of
multiple engineering plant configurations. Take into account size and weight of the
engines when compared to the length, beam, and displacement of the ship. Also, provide
some estimate for operating and maintaining. Manpower costs over a 28 year life cycle
are substantial. The objective of the project is to expose you to the different types of
engineering plant configurations and the positive and negative characteristics of each.
These include electric drive, CODAG, CODOG, and Integrated Propulsion System
plants.

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
2.611 SHIP POWER and PROPULSION
Frigate Propulsion Plant Design Project, Fall 2006
General
The main purpose of the project is to provide students with experience in the selection
and preliminary design of a propulsion power plant. The projects are to be conducted by
teams of two students. The teams should conduct an availability analysis of one of the
plant designs selected in Project 2. The Analysis should be thorough enough to provide
the student with a solid understanding of the process of determining overall system
availability, but simple enough that good engineering approximations should suffice for
general plant information.

Final Phase
In the final phase of the project, the main components of the power and propulsion
system should be evaluated.
Your final report should contain the following:
a. A summary presenting reliability/availability data for your selected (single)
design (This should be the best of your two designs selected in Project 2).
b. A description of your final design and the approach used to select the best of the
contending systems. A paragraph discussing key design features that led to one
plant over another will suffice.
c. Simple arrangement diagrams of your proposed engine spaces (include support
equipment as discussed below). Consider all aspects for arrangements, including
survivability.
d. Summaries of your final design calculations.
In Project two, cost, size, and combination permutations of the main components were
analyzed. In this project, reliability and availability of the main components (with
ancillary equipment) are analyzed. (Professor Carmichaels Reliability and Availability
equations should be used to perform this analysis).
Example systems that should be included in the reliability/availability analysis are:
- All engines (power and/or propulsion)
- F/O system
- L/O system
- Propulsion motors (if necessary)
- Reduction gear
- Propellor/Shafting
- Sea water system

Ensure that proper equations are applied for systems that are either in parallel or series,
and remember that availability and reliability will increase with each redundant piece of
equipment (but, so will price). Availability of your selected propulsion systems should
be computed based on the operation of the complete system, including ship service
power. The reliability should be computed for a cruise period of 30 days (720 hours).

AIR-INDEPENDENT PROPULSION AIP Technology Creates a New Undersea Threat

Page 1 of 6

source: www.chinfo.navy.mil/navpalib/cno/n87/usw/issue_13/propulsion

AIR-INDEPENDENT PROPULSION
AIP Technology Creates a New Undersea Threat

Walter Type XVIIB up on the stocks. Pictured above is the German Walter Type XVIIB U-1406, partially dismantled shortly after
the end of World War II. U-1406 was turned over to the U.S. Navy as a war prize and soon disposed of, but the Royal Navy later
operated her sister ship, U-1407, as HMS Meteorite to gain experience in hydrogen-peroxide propulsion technologies.

As interest mounts in "Air-Independent Propulsion" (AIP) for enhancing the performance of small,
defensive submarines, a serious new underwater threat is developing in littoral waters.
Increasingly, smaller nations unwilling or unable to accept the high cost of nuclear power to
achieve greater underwater endurance and longer range are turning to lower-priced and less
ambitious alternatives that still offer significant operational advantages over conventional dieselelectric submarines. The best of the latter boats, such as the German-designed Type 209 or the
Russian KILO, can remain submerged on battery at slow speed for periods on the order of three
to five days. But now, several AIP schemes in development or already in operation can increase
slow-speed endurance to as much as three weeks or a month. While still dwarfed by the potential
of nuclear power, AIP offers diesel submarines a remarkable increase in capability.
AIP - The Early History
Despite their initial successes, submarine pioneers were still eager to find some means to free their
boats from the necessity of surfacing frequently for access to the atmospheric oxygen demanded by
the gasoline or diesel engines that charged the batteries. A number of approaches were tried, but
eventually, open-cycle diesel engines, lead-acid batteries, and electric motors for submerged
propulsion became the standard submarine engineering plant that served well through two world
wars.

http://www.chinfo.navy.mil/navpalib/cno/n87/usw/issue_13/propulsion.htm

11/29/2004

AIR-INDEPENDENT PROPULSION AIP Technology Creates a New Undersea Threat

Page 2 of 6

In the early 1930s, however, a brilliant German engineer, Dr. Helmuth Walter (ca. 1900-1980) of
Kiel's Germaniawerft, proposed a radical new submarine propulsion plant based on the use of highpurity hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) as an oxidant. In Walter's system, hydrogen peroxide from an
onboard supply was decomposed using a permanganate catalyst to yield high temperature steam
and free oxygen. Into the reaction chamber was injected diesel fuel, which combusted with the
oxygen to yield a mixture of steam and hot gas that drove a high-speed turbine. The exhaust and
condensed steam were then expelled overboard. Walter's primary design goal was high underwater
speed, rather than long endurance, and indeed, his first submarine prototype, the experimental V80,
reached 28.1 knots submerged in its 1940 trials - at a time when conventional submarines were
limited to 10 knots or less. Thus, V80, only 76 tons and 22 meters long, also served as an early test
bed for studying the dynamics and control of high-speed underwater vehicles.
Later in the war, the Kriegsmarine attempted to scale Walter's prototype up to a useful operational
size, but although seven Type XVIIB H2O2 coastal boats were completed before Germany's final
defeat, none saw combat. These Type XVIIs displaced 300 tons and were powered by two 2,500
horsepower turbines, in addition to a conventional diesel-electric plant. More ambitious plans to build
larger Walter-designed ocean-going submarines, such as the 800-ton Type XXVI and the 1,600-ton
Type XVIII were thwarted by the unsuccessful course of the war and the realization that the industrial
capacity needed to supply sufficient quantities of hydrogen peroxide could never be achieved.
However, the Type XVIII was modified into the highly successful Type XXI "electro-boat," in which
larger batteries provided a submerged speed of 17 knots, which could be maintained for 90 minutes.
That innovation, and the adoption of the snorkel, yielded a potent combination that strongly
influenced the postwar design of conventionally-powered submarines on both sides of the Iron
Curtain.
AIP Fallout from World War II
After the conflict, several nations sought to exploit Dr. Walter's revolutionary propulsion concepts. As
war prizes, the United States and Britain received the scuttled Type XVIIBs, U-1406 and U-1407,
respectively, and the latter was resurrected for experimental purposes as HMS Meteorite.
Additionally, Walter himself and several of his key staff were brought to England and there
collaborated with Vickers, Ltd. for several years in the design of more advanced hydrogen peroxide
systems. The result was two 1950s-era high-speed boats, HMS Explorer and HMS Excalibur, whose
design was heavily influenced by that of Walter's wartime Type XXVI. While both boats achieved
stated design goals for high underwater speed, their highly-concentrated hydrogen peroxide fuel
created such a safety hazard that the two boat became known as "HMS Exploder" and "HMS
Excruciator." Both were decommissioned in the 1960s.
The Soviet Union built a single, semi- successful exemplar of a Walter-cycle boat, known in the West
as "the Whale," but their most serious AIP efforts were focused on a closed-cycle diesel plant based
on the German Kreislauf system and their own researches prior to the war. Eventually, this led to the
650-ton Soviet QUEBEC class (1956) that used stored liquid oxygen to sustain closed-cycle
operation for diesel engines on three shafts. Although 30 were built between 1953 and 1957, their
safety record was so dismal that they were known by their crews as "the cigarette lighters" and
withdrawn from service by the early 1970s.
Meanwhile, the United States had salvaged a 2,500-horsepower Walter turbine from U-1406, as well
as a 7,500-horsepower version planned for the Type XXVI, and set them up at the Naval
Engineering Experiment Station at Annapolis, Maryland. Subsequently, the Navy funded research on
several alternative submarine AIP approaches, including variants of the Walter-cycle and Kreislauf
systems. Eventually, unacceptable growth in the required size and weight of the corresponding
engineering plants - plus the growing prospect in the late 1940s of submarine nuclear propulsion
soon brought these efforts - and those of the British and Russians - to a close. USS Nautilus (SSN
571) got "underway on nuclear power" in January 1955.
X-1 The U.S. Navy's First Midget Submarine
However, in September 1955, the U.S. Navy's first midget submarine, the one-of-a-kind X-1 (SSX-1),
was launched on Long Island with a closed-cycle hydrogen peroxide/diesel plant! Inspired by the
success of the British "X-craft" of World War II, X-1 was intended for shallow-water commando
operations. Displacing 36 tons submerged on a length of some 50 feet, X-1 was powered by a

http://www.chinfo.navy.mil/navpalib/cno/n87/usw/issue_13/propulsion.htm

11/29/2004

AIR-INDEPENDENT PROPULSION AIP Technology Creates a New Undersea Threat

Page 3 of 6

heavily modified commercial diesel engine with a small battery-powered electric motor as a backup.
On the surface, the ambient atmosphere charged the engine, but underwater, the oxygen required
for combustion was derived from the catalytic decomposition of hydrogen peroxide in a reaction
chamber. Both engine exhaust and water condensate were compressed and discharged
overboard. Four hundred gallons of peroxide could be stored in a flexible polyvinyl-chloride bag
forward, and the craft could accommodate four crewmembers.

(left) X-1 Midget Sub. The U.S. Navy's 1955 mini

submarine X-1 used a rudimentary AIP system in
which oxygen for underwater operation of its
conventional diesel engine was derived from the
decomposition of highly concentrated hydrogen
peroxide. After a peroxide explosion in 1957,
however, its AIP capability was eliminated.

(right) HMS Explorer at sea. One of two

experimental Walter-turbine submarines built by the
British in the 1950s, HMS Explorer achieved her
designed underwater speed, but suffered enough
engineering mishaps to earn the nickname, "HMS
Exploder."

(left) Gotland Class. The Swedish Navy's three

Gotland-class submarines each use two Stirling
cycle engines as an adjunct to their main dieselelectric engineering plants to provide underwater
endurance up to several weeks. This was the first
AIP system to enter regular submarine service.

After several engine failures and subsequent design modifications, X-1 finally achieved acceptable
performance in February 1957 and undertook a series of operational trials based at the Portsmouth
Naval Shipyard. Unfortunately, in May 1957, an explosion in the hydrogen peroxide storage system
blew off the whole bow section, and although no one was injured, X-1's closed-cycle capability was
never replaced. Instead, the boat was rebuilt with a small, conventional diesel-electric/battery plant,
and after being laid up for three years, it was reactivated in late 1960 and subsequently used until
1973 for a variety of research studies in the Chesapeake Bay. Later, X-1 was put on static display at
the U.S. Naval Academy in Annapolis, and more recently at the Nautilus Museum in Groton,

http://www.chinfo.navy.mil/navpalib/cno/n87/usw/issue_13/propulsion.htm

11/29/2004

AIR-INDEPENDENT PROPULSION AIP Technology Creates a New Undersea Threat

Page 4 of 6

Connecticut. Significantly, her former Officer-in-Charge later wrote, "The most important lesson
learned from this experimental program was that high concentration unstabilized hydrogen
peroxide has no place on a fighting ship.
Current Efforts in AIP
Although major naval powers like the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union
turned quickly to submarine nuclear propulsion as soon as it became technically feasible, smaller
navies have remained committed to conventional diesel-electric submarines, largely for coastal
defense. Many of these have incorporated innovations originally pioneered in the German Type XXI,
but more recently, growing demand for longer underwater endurance has generated increasing
interest in promising AIP technologies, both old and new. Currently, system developers are actively
pursuing the following generic approaches for achieving "closed cycle" operation:
z
z
z
z

Closed-cycle diesel engines, generally with stored liquid oxygen (LOX)

Closed-cycle steam turbines
Stirling-cycle heat engines with external combustion
Hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells

Closed-cycle Diesel Engines

Typically, a closed-cycle diesel (CCD) install- ation incorporates a standard diesel engine that can be
operated in its conventional mode on the surface or while snorkeling. Underwater, however, it runs
on an artificial atmosphere synthesized from stored oxygen, an inert gas (generally argon), and
recycled exhaust products. The engine exhaust - largely carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and water vapor
is cooled, scrubbed, and separated into its constituents, with the argon recycled back to the intake
manifold. The remaining exhaust gas is mixed with seawater and discharged overboard. Generally,
the required oxygen is stored in liquid form - LOX - in cryogenic tanks.
CCD systems have been developed by a number of firms in Germany, Britain, the Netherlands, and
a few other countries. However, except for a 300-horsepower demonstration system refitted onto the
German Navy's ex-U 1 in 1993, no modern CCD systems have entered naval service. England's
Marconi Marine recently acquired CCD pioneer Carlton Deep Sea Systems and is marketing a CCD
retrofit package for existing conventional submarines, such as South Korea's nine Type 209s.
Although one key advantage of CCD systems is their relatively easy backfit into existing submarine
engineering plants, there have been no takers. Despite the additional supply complication of needing
regular replenishment of cryogenic oxygen and inert gas, there are logistics advantages in retaining
standard diesel engines and using normal diesel fuel.
Closed-cycle Steam Turbines
The only steam-turbine AIP under active investigation is the French MESMA system (Module
d'Energie Sous-Marin Autonome). This is essentially a conventional Rankine-cycle turbo-alternator
powered by steam generated from the combustion of ethanol (grain alcohol) and stored oxygen at a
pressure of 60 atmospheres. This pressure-firing allows exhaust carbon dioxide to be expelled
overboard at any depth without an exhaust compressor.
Basically, the MESMA approach is a derivative of French nuclear-propulsion experience using non
nuclear steam generation. Although MESMA can provide higher output power than the other
alternatives, its inherent efficiency is the lowest of the four AIP candidates, and its rate of oxygen
consumption is correspondingly higher. The first full-scale undersea application will be in Pakistan's
three new Agosta 90B submarines, which will each be fitted with a 200 kilowatt MESMA system for
increasing submerged endurance by a factor of three to five at a speed of 4 knots. The first
installation is expected to be completed in 2001.
Stirling-cycle Engines
In the Stirling cycle, heat from an outside source is transferred to an enclosed quantity of working
fluid - generally an inert gas - and drives it through a repeating sequence of thermodynamic
changes. By expanding the gas against a piston and then drawing it into a separate cooling chamber
for subsequent compression, the heat from external combustion can be converted to mechanical
work and then, in turn, to electricity. Like MESMA, this approach has an advantage over internal

http://www.chinfo.navy.mil/navpalib/cno/n87/usw/issue_13/propulsion.htm

11/29/2004

AIR-INDEPENDENT PROPULSION AIP Technology Creates a New Undersea Threat

Page 5 of 6

combustion systems, such as the CCD, in that the combustion processes can be kept separate from
those that actually convert heat to mechanical work. This provides significant flexibility in dealing with
exhaust products and controlling acoustic radiation.
The Stirling-cycle engine forms the basis of the first AIP system to enter naval service in recent
times. The Swedish builders, Kockums Naval Systems, tested a prototype plant at sea in 1989, and
today, three Swedish Gotland-class boats are each fitted with two adjunct, 75 kilowatt Stirling-cycle
propulsion units that burn liquid oxygen and diesel fuel to generate electricity for either propulsion or
charging batteries within a conventional diesel-electric plant. The resulting underwater endurance of
the 1,500-ton boats is reported to be up to 14 days at five knots, but significant burst speeds are
possible when the batteries are topped up.
Fuel Cells
In simplest terms, a fuel cell is an electrochemical conversion device that combines hydrogen and
oxygen to produce water, electricity, and heat. Fuel cells are already seeing a number of promising
applications in the space and automotive industries, and many authorities believe that fuel cells offer
the best potential for developing more capable AIP systems in the future. There are several
alternative configurations, but for submarine propulsion, so-called "Polymer Electrolyte
Membrane" (PEM) fuel cells have attracted the most attention because of their low operating
temperatures (80 Centigrade) and relatively little waste heat. In a PEM device, pressurized
hydrogen gas (H2) enters the cell on the

In a typical fuel cell, gaseous hydrogen

and oxygen are combined catalytically
to produce water, heat, and useful
electricity. Already successful in the
U.S. space program, fuel cells are
seeing increasing use as submarine
power sources.

anode side, where a platinum catalyst decomposes each pair of molecules into four H+ ions and four
free electrons. The electrons depart the anode into the external circuit - the load - as an electric
current. Meanwhile, on the cathode side, each oxygen molecule (O2) is catalytically dissociated into
separate atoms, using the electrons flowing back from the external circuit to complete their outer
electron "shells." The polymer membrane that separates anode and cathode is impervious to
electrons, but allows the positively-charged H+ ions to migrate through the cell toward the negatively
charged cathode, where they combine with the oxygen atoms to form water. Thus, the overall
reaction can be represented as 2H2 + O2 => 2H2O, and a major advantage of the fuel-cell approach
is that the only "exhaust" product is pure water. Since a single fuel cell generates only about 0.7 volts
DC (direct current), groups of cells are "stacked" together in series to produce a larger and more
useful output. The stacks can also be arrayed in parallel to increase the amount of current available.
The greatest challenge for fuel-cell AIP systems lies in storing the reactants. Although oxygen can be
handled with relative safety as LOX, storing hydrogen onboard as a liquid or high-pressure gas is
very dangerous. One solution is to carry the hydrogen in metal hydride accumulators, at low pressure

http://www.chinfo.navy.mil/navpalib/cno/n87/usw/issue_13/propulsion.htm

11/29/2004

AIR-INDEPENDENT PROPULSION AIP Technology Creates a New Undersea Threat

Page 6 of 6

and ambient sea temperature. (A metal hydride is a solid compound of hydrogen and metallic alloy,
in which individual hydrogen atoms occupy interstitial positions in the host metal's crystalline lattice.
By manipulating temperature and pressure, hydrogen gas can be absorbed or released at will.)
Another, less efficient, approach is to generate gaseous hydrogen from a stored liquid hydrocarbon
such as diesel fuel, kerosene, or methanol. This requires an auxiliary device called a "reformer," in
which a mixture of hydrocarbon and water is vaporized and superheated under pressure to yield a
mixture of hydrogen and carbon dioxide.
Several manufacturers are currently offering fuel cell systems for submarine AIP. Prominent among
these is the German Siemens firm, which is collaborating with Howaldtswerke Deutsche Werft
(HDW) and Italy's Fincantieri to supply fuel cell installations for the forthcoming 1,840-ton German
and Italian U 212-class submarines. These will consist of nine PEM fuel-cell modules each nominally
rated at 34 kilowatts, to yield a total of approximately 300 kilowatts (400 horsepower). With metalhydride hydrogen storage, the system is predicted to yield 14 days submerged endurance and the
ability to run up to eight knots on the fuel cells alone. Siemens is working on a next-generation PEM
module rated at 120 kilowatts, and two of these will be incorporated into HDW's 1,860-ton U 214
boats, planned as export successors to the U 212 series. Other nations, such as Russia and Canada
- the latter with significant under-ice requirements - are also considering fuel-cell modules for either
new construction or for upgrading older boats.
Other key advantages here are both higher efficiency and lower specific stored-oxygen consumption
than the other alternatives.
An AIP Perspective
Although it is a remarkable tribute to Hellmuth Walter's engineering genius that he fielded a fully
functional - if troublesome - 5,000-horsepower AIP system in 1945, the maximum power output of
current AIP installations is typically on the order of 400 horsepower (300 kilowatts). In comparison,
the conventional diesel-electric plant of the U 212 class described above is rated at over 3,000
horsepower, and a typical nuclear submarine propulsion plant produces over 20,000. Since the
power required to propel a submerged body varies with the cube of its velocity, it should be apparent
that at least for the near future, AIP will be valuable primarily as a low-speed, long-endurance
adjunct to the under- water performance of conventional submarines. There is little short-term
prospect for AIP to become a primary, full-performance alternative to either diesel or nuclear power.
Even the phrase "closed cycle" is something of a misnomer, because except for fuel cells, all AIP
alternatives require ejecting exhaust gases overboard, which limits both depth capability and stealth.
However, this is not to minimize the dangerous potential for AIP submarines to complicate seriously
both coastal defense and assured access to littoral regions. If their distinctive characteristics are
exploited by skillful operators, AIP submarines can be used to telling effect for both short- and
medium-range missions. AIP dramatically expands the tactical "trade-space" for diesel-electric
submarines. If conditions permit, they can transit rapidly on the surface with-out unduly expending
the wherewithal for superior underwater performance. Submerged, they can opt for a long, slow,
silent patrol that keeps their batteries fully charged and thus capable of powering speed bursts of
significant duration. And by carefully husbanding their resources, they can revert again to slowspeed operation and repeat the cycle several times over weeks of submergence. Moreover, AIP
technology is evolving rapidly, and some experts predict, for example, that the power output of a
typical fuel cell module could well double or triple in the next several years, allowing an even more
advantageous trade-off between underwater speed and endurance.
Their tactical flexibility, their small size, their inherent stealth - and the novel operational paradigms
AIP submarines introduce to undersea warfare - will make these new boats a dangerous threat to
submariners accustomed to nuclear- or conventionally diesel-powered adversaries. The Submarine
Force needs to understand this threat - where it's been, where it's going, what it means, and how to
counter it.
Dr. Whitman is the Senior Editor of UNDERSEA WARFARE Magazine.
TABLE OF CONTENTS

http://www.chinfo.navy.mil/navpalib/cno/n87/usw/issue_13/propulsion.htm

11/29/2004

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Massachusetts Institute of Technology
2.611 Ship Power and Propulsion
REFERENCES
GENERAL
1. Doyle, J. D., et al, "Surface Ship Machinery-A Survey of Propulsion, Electrical, and
Auxiliary Systems Development," Marine Technology, Volume 29, Number 3, July,1992.
2. Harrington, R.L. (ed.) Marine Engineering, SNAME, 1992.
3. Harvald, S.A., Resistance and Propulsion of Ships, John Wiley, New York, 1983.
4. Plumb, C.M., Warship Propulsion System Selection, Inst. of Mar. Eng., London, 1987.
5. Taylor, D.A., Introduction to Marine Engineering, 2nd Edition, Butterworth, 1990.
6. Holtrop, Jan, "Extrapolation of Propulsion Tests for Ships with Appendages and
Complex Propulsors," Marine Technology Volume 38 Number 3, July, 2001.
7. Boylston, J. , Brooks, M. , "The Selection of the Power Plant for an Alaskan RO/RO
Ship," Marine Technology Volume 38 Number 3, July, 2001.
8. Sumi, T et ai, "A Study on the Application of Wind Energy Conversion, System to a
Coal Cargo Ship," Bulletin of Marine Engineering In Japan, Vol.30 No.1, 2002.
PROPULSORS
1. Allison, J., "Marine Waterjet Propulsion," SNAME Transactions, Volume 101, 1993.
2. Blake, et al, "Design of APL C-10 Propeller with Full-Scale Measurements and
Observations Under Service Conditions," SNAME Transactions, Volume 98, 1990.
3. Clayton, B. R., Bishop, R. E. D., "mechanics of Marine Vehicles", E. F. N. Spon Ltd.,
1982 (UCL PG course on Naval Architecture)
4. Luria B., Taylor, T. "Comparison of Ten Sailboat Propellers," Marine Technology,
Volume 32, Number 3, July, 1995.
5. Nishiyama, et al "Development of Contrarotating-Propeller System for Juno-a 37000DWT Class Bulk Carrier," SNAME Transactions, Volume 98,1990.
6. Sakai, H. et al "Development of the World's First Superconducting ElectromagnetoHydrodynamic Propulsion Ship, "Yamato 1"," Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Ltd. Technical
Review, Vol. 30 No.2, June 1993.
7. Van Manen, J.D., and Van Oossanen, P., "Propulsion", Principles of Naval
Architecture, Vol. ll, SNAME, 1988.
DIESEL ENGINES
1. Karaszewski, Z. J. and Schaefer, W. F., "Marine Diesel Propulsion Plants for the U.S.
Navy: Requirements for Geared Medium-Speed Engines," Marine Technology, Volume
28, Number 5, September, 1991.
2. Faber, E. "Some thoughts on Diesel Marine Engineering," SNAME Transactions,
Volume 101,1993.
3. Morton, A.J. "Thermodynamics of Waste Heat Recovery in Motor Ships", Trans.
I. Mar. Eng.(C), Vol. 92,1984.
4. Takasaki, K. et al "Visual Study on Combustion of Trouble-making Bunker Fuel",
Bulletin of Marine Engineering in Japan, Vol.30 No.1, 2002.

GAS TURBINES
1. Gas Turbine World Performance Specifications, annually.
2. Wilson, D.G., The Design of High-Efficiency Turbomachinery and Gas Turbines, MIT
Press, 1989.
REDUCTION GEARS
1. Mowers, G.P., "Reduction Gears", Marine Engineering, SNAME, 1992.
2. Dudley, D. W., Handbook of Practical Gear Design, (TJI84.D847) 1984.
ELECTRIC DRIVE
1. Beverley, J.A. "Electric Propulsion Drives", Marine Engineering, SNAME, 1992.
2. Casey, J. P., "AC Electric Drive Machinery Design," Presented at the 1990
Chesapeake Marine Engineering Symposium, SNAME, March, 1990.
3. Doery N., and Davis, J. "Integrated Power Systems for Marine Applications," Naval
Engineers Journal, May 1994.
4. Hensler, J., "Electric Ship Propulsion: Application and Integration", Trans. SNAME,
Vo197, 1989.
JOURNALS
1. Bulletin of Marine Engineering Society in Japan (in English). Final issue March 2002.
2. Gas Turbine World.
3. Marine Technology (SNAME).
4. Naval Engineers Journal.
5. The Motorship.
6. Professional Mariner