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Anthroposophy
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Anthroposophy,aphilosophyfoundedbyRudolfSteiner,postulatestheexistenceofanobjective,
intellectuallycomprehensiblespiritualworldthatisaccessiblebydirectexperiencethroughinner
development.Morespecifically,itaimstodevelopfacultiesofperceptiveimagination,inspirationand
intuitionthroughthecultivationofaformofthinkingindependentofsensoryexperience,[1][2]andto
presenttheresultsthusderivedinamannersubjecttorationalverification.Anthroposophyaimstoattain
initsstudyofspiritualexperiencetheprecisionandclarityattainedbythenaturalsciencesintheir
investigationsofthephysicalworld.[1]ThephilosophyhasdoublerootsinGermanidealismandGerman
mysticism[3]andwasinitiallyexpressedinlanguagedrawnfromTheosophy.
AnthroposophicalideashavebeenappliedpracticallyinmanyareasincludingSteiner/Waldorf
education,specialeducation(mostprominentlythroughtheCamphillMovement),biodynamic
agriculture,medicine,ethicalbanking,organizationaldevelopment,andthearts.[1][4][5][6][7]The
AnthroposophicalSocietyhasitsinternationalcenterattheGoetheanuminDornach,Switzerland.
Modernanalysts,includingMichaelShermer,havetermedanthroposophy'sapplicationinareassuchas
medicine,biologyandbiodynamicagriculturepseudoscience.[8][9][10]

Contents
1 History
1.1 Etymology
2 Centralideas
2.1 Spiritualknowledgeandfreedom
2.2 Natureofthehumanbeing
2.2.1 Evolution
2.3 Ethics
3 Applications
3.1 Steiner/Waldorfeducation
3.2 Biodynamicagriculture
3.3 Anthroposophicalmedicine
3.4 Specialneedseducationandservices
3.5 Architecture
3.6 Eurythmy

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3.6 Eurythmy
3.7 Socialfinance
3.8 Organizationaldevelopment,counsellingandbiographywork
3.9 Speechanddrama
4 Socialgoals
5 Esotericpath
5.1 Pathsofspiritualdevelopment
5.2 Prerequisitestoandstagesofinnerdevelopment
5.3 Spiritualexercises
6 PlaceinWesternphilosophy
6.1 Unionofscienceandspirit
7 Relationshiptoreligion
7.1 Christasthecenterofearthlyevolution
7.2 DivergencefromconventionalChristianthought
7.3 Judaism
7.4 ChristianCommunity
8 Reception
8.1 Supporters
8.2 Scientificbasis
8.3 Religiousnature
8.4 Statementsonrace
9 Seealso
10 References
11 Externallinks
11.1 Societies

History
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Theearlyworkofthefounderofanthroposophy,RudolfSteiner,
culminatedinhisPhilosophyofFreedom(alsotranslatedasThe
PhilosophyofSpiritualActivityandIntuitiveThinkingasaSpiritual
Path).Here,Steinerdevelopedaconceptoffreewillbasedoninner
experiences,especiallythosethatoccurinthecreativeactivityof
independentthought.[1]
Bythebeginningofthetwentiethcentury,Steiner'sintereststurnedto
explicitlyspiritualareasofresearch.Hisworkbegantointerestothers
interestedinspiritualideasamongthesewastheTheosophicalSociety.
From1900on,thankstothepositivereceptiongiventohisideas,Steiner
focusedincreasinglyonhisworkwiththeTheosophicalSociety
becomingthesecretaryofitssectioninGermanyin1902.Duringthe
yearsofhisleadership,membershipincreaseddramatically,fromafew
individualstosixtynineLodges.[11]
RudolfSteiner

By1907,asplitbetweenSteinerandthemainstreamTheosophical
Societyhadbeguntobecomeapparent.WhiletheSocietywasoriented
towardanEasternandespeciallyIndianapproach,Steinerwastryingtodevelopapaththatembraced
Christianityandnaturalscience.[12]ThesplitbecameirrevocablewhenAnnieBesant,thenpresidentof
theTheosophicalSociety,begantopresentthechildJidduKrishnamurtiasthereincarnatedChrist.
SteinerstronglyobjectedandconsideredanycomparisonbetweenKrishnamurtiandChristtobe
nonsensemanyyearslater,Krishnamurtialsorepudiatedtheassertion.Steiner'scontinuingdifferences
withBesantledhimtoseparatefromtheTheosophicalSocietyAdyarhewasfollowedbythegreat
majorityofthemembershipoftheTheosophicalSociety'sGermanSection,aswellasmembersofother
nationalsections.[11][12]
Bythistime,Steinerhadreachedconsiderablestatureasaspiritualteacher.[13]Hespokeaboutwhathe
consideredtobehisdirectexperienceoftheAkashicRecords(sometimescalledthe"Akasha
Chronicle"),thoughttobeaspiritualchronicleofthehistory,prehistory,andfutureoftheworldand
mankind.Inanumberofworks,[14]Steinerdescribedapathofinnerdevelopmenthefeltwouldlet
anyoneattaincomparablespiritualexperiences.Soundvisioncouldbedeveloped,inpart,bypracticing
rigorousformsofethicalandcognitiveselfdiscipline,concentration,andmeditationinparticular,a
person'smoraldevelopmentmustprecedethedevelopmentofspiritualfaculties.[1]
In1912,theAnthroposophicalSocietywasfounded.AfterWorld
WarI,theAnthroposophicalmovementtookonnewdirections.
Projectssuchasschools,centersforthosewithspecialneeds,
organicfarmsandmedicalclinicswereestablished,allinspired
byanthroposophy.
In1923,facedwithdifferencesbetweenoldermembersfocusing
oninnerdevelopmentandyoungermemberseagertobecome
activeinthesocialtransformationsofthetime,Steinerrefounded
theSocietyinaninclusivemannerandestablishedaSchoolfor
SpiritualScience.Asaspiritualbasisfortherefounded
movement,Steinerwrotea"FoundationStoneMeditation"which
remainsacentralmeditativeexpressionofanthroposophicalideas.

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Steinerdiedjustoverayearlater,in1925.TheSecondWorldWartemporarilyhinderedthe
anthroposophicalmovementinmostofContinentalEurope,astheAnthroposophicalSocietyandmost
ofitsdaughtermovements(e.g.Steiner/Waldorfeducation)werebannedbytheNationalSocialists
(Nazis)[15]virtuallynoanthroposophistseverjoinedtheNationalSocialistParty.[16]
By2007,nationalbranchesoftheAnthroposophicalSocietyhadbeenestablishedinfiftycountries,and
about10,000institutionsaroundtheworldwereworkingonthebasisofanthroposophy.[17]Inthesame
year,theAnthroposophicalSocietywascalledthe"mostimportantesotericsocietyinEuropean
history."[18]

Etymology
AnthroposophyisanamalgamoftheGreekterms(anthropos="human")and(sophia
="wisdom").ItislistedbyNathanBailey(1742)asmeaning"theknowledgeofthenatureofman"
(OED).AuthorswhoseusageofthetermpredatesSteiner'sincludeoccultistAgrippavonNettesheim,
alchemistThomasVaughan(AnthroposophiaTheomagica),andphilosopherRobertZimmermann.
Steinerbeganusingthetermintheearly1900sasanalternativetothetermtheosophy(divinewisdom),
atermcentraltotheTheosophicalSociety,withwhichSteinerwasassociatedatthetime,andtoalong
traditionofEuropeanesotericists.Steinerprobablyfirstencounteredtheword"anthroposophy"inthe
workofZimmermann,someofwhoselecturesintheUniversityofViennahehadattendedwhilea
student.[19]

Centralideas
Spiritualknowledgeandfreedom
Anthroposophicalproponentsaimtoextendtheclarityofthescientificmethodtophenomenaofhuman
soullifeandtospiritualexperiences.Thisrequiresdevelopingnewfacultiesofobjectivespiritual
perception,whichSteinermaintainedwaspossibleforhumanitytoday.Thestepsofthisprocessofinner
developmentheidentifiedasconsciouslyachievedimagination,inspirationandintuition.[6]Steiner
believedresultsofthisformofspiritualresearchshouldbeexpressedinawaythatcanbeunderstood
andevaluatedonthesamebasisastheresultsofnaturalscience:[4]"Theanthroposophicalschoolingof
thinkingleadstothedevelopmentofanonsensory,orsocalledsupersensoryconsciousness,whereby
thespiritualresearcherbringstheexperiencesofthisrealmintoideas,concepts,andexpressivelanguage
inaformwhichpeoplecanunderstandwhodonotyethavethecapacitytoachievethesupersensory
experiencesnecessaryforindividualresearch."[20]
Steinerhopedtoformaspiritualmovementthatwouldfreetheindividualfromanyexternalauthority:
"Themostimportantproblemofallhumanthinkingisthis:tocomprehendthehumanbeingasa
personalitygroundedinhimorherself."[20]ForSteiner,thehumancapacityforrationalthoughtwould
allowindividualstocomprehendspiritualresearchontheirownandbypassthedangerofdependencyon
anauthority.[20]
Steinercontrastedtheanthroposophicalapproachwithbothconventionalmysticism,whichhe
consideredlackingtheclaritynecessaryforexactknowledge,andnaturalscience,whichheconsidered
arbitrarilylimitedtoinvestigatingtheouterworld.

Natureofthehumanbeing
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InTheosophy,Steinersuggestedthathumanbeingsuniteaphysicalbody
ofanaturecommonto(andthatultimatelyreturnsto)theinorganic
worldalifebody(alsocalledtheethericbody),incommonwithall
livingcreatures(includingplants)abearerofsentienceorconsciousness
(alsocalledtheastralbody),incommonwithallanimalsandtheego,
whichanchorsthefacultyofselfawarenessuniquetohumanbeings.
Anthroposophydescribesabroadevolutionofhumanconsciousness.
Earlystagesofhumanevolutionpossessanintuitiveperceptionof
reality,includingaclairvoyantperceptionofspiritualrealities.Humanity
hasprogressivelyevolvedanincreasingrelianceonintellectualfaculties
andacorrespondinglossofintuitiveorclairvoyantexperiences,which
havebecomeatavistic.Theincreasingintellectualizationof
consciousness,initiallyaprogressivedirectionofevolution,hasledtoan
excessiverelianceonabstractionandalossofcontactwithbothnatural
andspiritualrealities.However,togofurtherrequiresnewcapacitiesthat
combinetheclarityofintellectualthoughtwiththeimagination,and
beyondthiswithconsciouslyachievedinspirationandintuitive
insights.[21]

TheRepresentativeof
Humanity,detailofa
sculptureinwoodbyRudolf
SteinerandEdithMaryon.

Anthroposophyspeaksofthereincarnationofthehumanspirit:thatthehumanbeingpassesbetween
stagesofexistence,incarnatingintoanearthlybody,livingonearth,leavingthebodybehindand
enteringintothespiritualworldsbeforereturningtobebornagainintoanewlifeonearth.Afterthe
deathofthephysicalbody,thehumanspiritrecapitulatesthepastlife,perceivingitseventsastheywere
experiencedbytheobjectsofitsactions.Acomplextransformationtakesplacebetweenthereviewof
thepastlifeandthepreparationforthenextlife.Theindividual'skarmicconditioneventuallyleadstoa
choiceofparents,physicalbody,disposition,andcapacitiesthatprovidethechallengesand
opportunitiesthatfurtherdevelopmentrequires,whichincludeskarmicallychosentasksforthefuture
life.[21]
Steinerdescribedsomeconditionsthatdeterminetheinterdependenceofaperson'slives,or
karma.[22][23]
Evolution
Theanthroposophicalviewofevolutionconsidersallanimalstohaveevolvedfromanearly,
unspecializedform.Astheleastspecializedanimal,humanbeingshavemaintainedtheclosest
connectiontothearchetypalform[24]contrarytotheDarwinianconceptionofhumanevolution,all
otheranimalsdevolvefromthisarchetype.[25]Thespiritualarchetypeoriginallycreatedbyspiritual
beingswasdevoidofphysicalsubstanceonlylaterdidthisdescendintomaterialexistenceonEarth.[26]
Inthisview,humanevolutionhasaccompaniedtheEarth'sevolutionthroughouttheexistenceofthe
Earth.
Theevolutionofman,Steinersaid,hasconsistedinthegradualincarnationofaspiritual
beingintoamaterialbody.Ithasbeenatrue"descent"ofmanfromaspiritualworldintoa
worldofmatter.Theevolutionoftheanimalkingdomdidnotprecede,butrather
accompaniedtheprocessofhumanincarnation.Manisthusnottheendresultofthe

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evolutionoftheanimals,butisratherinacertainsensetheircause.Inthesuccessionof
typeswhichappearsinthefossilrecordthefishes,reptiles,mammals,andfinallyfossil
remainsofmanhimselfthestagesofthisprocessofincarnationarereflected.
[27]
AnthroposophytookoverfromTheosophyacomplexsystemofcyclesofworlddevelopmentand
humanevolution.Theevolutionoftheworldissaidtohaveoccurredincycles.Thefirstphaseofthe
worldconsistedonlyofheat.Inthesecondphase,amoreactivecondition,light,andamorecondensed,
gaseousstateseparateoutfromtheheat.Inthethirdphase,afluidstatearose,aswellasasounding,
formingenergy.Inthefourth(current)phase,solidphysicalmatterfirstexists.Thisprocessissaidto
havebeenaccompaniedbyanevolutionofconsciousnesswhichleduptopresenthumanculture.

Ethics
Theanthroposophicalviewisthatgoodisfoundinthebalancebetweentwopolar,generallyevil
influencesonworldandhumanevolution.Twospiritualadversariesendeavourtotemptandcorrupt
humanity:theseareoftendescribedthroughtheirmythologicalembodiments,Luciferandhis
counterpartAhriman,whichhavebothpositiveandnegativeaspects.Luciferisthelightspirit,which
"playsonhumanprideandoffersthedelusionofdivinity",butalsomotivatescreativityandspirituality
Ahrimanisthedarkspirit,whichtemptshumanbeingsto"...deny[their]linkwithdivinityandtolive
entirelyonthematerialplane",butalsostimulatesintellectualityandtechnology.Bothfiguresexerta
negativeeffectonhumanitywhentheirinfluencebecomesmisplacedoronesided,yettheirinfluences
arenecessaryforhumanfreedomtounfold.[1][4]
Eachhumanbeinghasthetasktofindabalancebetweentheseopposinginfluences,andeachishelped
inthistaskbythemediationoftheRepresentativeofHumanity,alsoknownastheChristbeing,a
spiritualentitywhostandsbetweenandharmonizesthetwoextremes.[4]

Applications
Applicationsofanthroposophyinclude:
Phenomenologicalapproachestoscience,[1]
Newapproachestopaintingandsculpture.[1]
JohnWilkes'fountainlikeflowforms.Thesesculptural
formsguidewaterintorhythmicmovementandareused
bothinwaterpurificationprojectsanddecoratively.

Steiner/Waldorfeducation
Thisisapedagogicalmovementwithover1000Steineror
Waldorfschools(thelatternamestemsfromthefirstsuch
school,foundedinStuttgartin1919)locatedinsome60
countriesthegreatmajorityoftheseareindependent(private)
schools.[28]Sixteenoftheschoolshavebeenaffiliatedwiththe
UnitedNations'UNESCOAssociatedSchoolsProjectNetwork,
whichsponsorseducationprojectsthatfosterimprovedqualityof
educationthroughouttheworld,inparticularintermsofits
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ethical,cultural,andinternationaldimensions.[29]Waldorfschoolsreceivefullorpartialgovernmental
fundinginsomeEuropeannations,AustraliaandinpartsoftheUnitedStates(asWaldorfmethodpublic
orcharterschools).
Theschoolsarelocatedinawidevarietyofcommunitiesandcultures:fromtheimpoverishedfavelasof
SoPaulo[30]tothewealthysuburbsofNewYorkCity[30]inIndia,Egypt,Australia,theNetherlands,
MexicoandSouthAfrica.ThoughmostoftheearlyWaldorfschoolswereteacherfounded,theschools
todayareusuallyinitiatedandlatersupportedbyanactiveparentcommunity.[31]Waldorfeducationis
oneofthemostvisiblepracticalapplicationsofananthroposophicalviewandunderstandingofthe
humanbeing[32]andhasbeencharacterizedas"theleaderoftheinternationalmovementforaNew
Education,"[31]

Biodynamicagriculture
Biodynamicagriculture,thefirstintentionalformoforganicfarming,[33]beganinthe1920swhen
RudolfSteinergaveaseriesoflecturessincepublishedasAgriculture.Steinerisconsideredoneofthe
foundersofthemodernorganicfarmingmovement.[34][35]

Anthroposophicalmedicine
Steinergaveseveralseriesoflecturestophysiciansandmedicalstudents.Outofthosegrewa
complementarymedicalmovementintendingto"extendtheknowledgegainedthroughthemethodsof
thenaturalsciencesofthepresentagewithinsightsfromspiritualscience."[36]Thismovementnow
includeshundredsofM.D.s,chieflyinEuropeandNorthAmerica,andhasitsownclinics,hospitals,and
medicalschools.[1]
Oneofthemoststudiedapplicationshasbeentheuseofmistletoeextractsincancertherapy.[37]The
extractsaregenerallynolongerusedtoreduceorinhibittumorgrowth,forwhichverifiableresultshave
beenfoundinvitroandinanimalstudiesbutnotinhumans,butinsteadtoimprovethepatients'quality
oflifeandtoreducetumorinducedsymptomsandthesideeffectsofchemotherapyand
radiotherapy.[38]AccordingtotheNationalCancerInstitute,"Mistletoeextracthasbeenshowntokill
cancercellsinthelaboratoryandtoaffecttheimmunesystem.However,thereislimitedevidencethat
mistletoe'seffectsontheimmunesystemhelpthebodyfightcancer....[39]Atpresent,theuseofmistletoe
cannotberecommendedoutsidethecontextofwelldesignedclinicaltrials."[40]
Severalpharmaceuticalcompanieshavegrownoutofanthroposophicalmedicine,includingWeleda,
Wala,andDr.Hauschka.

Specialneedseducationandservices
In1922,ItaWegmanfoundedananthroposophicalcenterforspecialneedseducation,theSonnenhof,in
Switzerland.In1940,KarlKnigfoundedtheCamphillMovementinScotland.Thelatterinparticular
hasspreadwidely,andtherearenowoverahundredCamphillcommunitiesandotheranthroposophical
homesforchildrenandadultsinneedofspecialcareinabout22countriesaroundtheworld.[41]Both
KarlKnig,ThomasWeihsandothershavewrittenextensivelyontheseideasunderlyingSpecial
education.[42][43]

Architecture
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Steinerhimselfdesignedaroundthirteenbuildings,manyofthem
significantworksinaunique,organicexpressionist
architecturalstyle.[44]Foremostamongthesearehisdesignsfor
thetwoGoetheanumbuildingsinDornach,Switzerland.
Thousandsoffurtherbuildingshavebeenbuiltbylater
generationsofanthroposophicarchitects.[45][46]
Architectswhohavebeenstronglyinfluencedbythe
anthroposophicstyleincludeImreMakoveczinHungary,[47]
HansScharounandJoachimEbleinGermany,ErikAsmussenin
Sweden,KenjiImaiinJapan,ThomasRau,AntonAlbertsand
MaxvanHuutintheNetherlands,ChristopherDayandCamphill
ArchitectsintheUK,ThompsonandRoseinAmerica,Denis
BowmaninCanada,andWalterBurleyGriffinandGregory
BurgessinAustralia.[48][49]

TheFirstGoetheanum,designedby
Steinerin1920,Dornach,
Switzerland.

OneofthemostfamouscontemporarybuildingsbyananthroposophicalarchitectisINGHouse,anING
BankbuildinginAmsterdam,whichhasreceivedseveralawardsforitsecologicaldesignandapproach
toaselfsustainingecologyasanautonomousbuildingandexampleofsustainablearchitecture.[50]

Eurythmy
Inthearts,Steiner'snewartofeurythmygainedearlyrenown.[51]Eurythmyseekstorenewthespiritual
foundationsofdance,revealingspeechandmusicinvisiblemovement.Therearenowactivestage
groupsandtrainingcenters,mostlyofmodestproportions,inapproximately16countries.[52]

Socialfinance
Aroundtheworldtodayareanumberofbanks,companies,charities,andschoolsfordevelopingco
operativeformsofbusinessusingSteiner'sideasabouteconomicassociations,aimingatharmoniousand
sociallyresponsiblerolesintheworldeconomy.[1]Thefirstanthroposophicbankwasthe
GemeinschaftsbankfrLeihenundSchenkeninBochum,Germany,foundedin1974.[53]Socially
responsiblebanksfoundedoutofanthroposophyintheEnglishspeakingworldincludeTriodosBank,
foundedin1980andactiveintheUK,Netherlands,Germany,Belgium,andSpain.CulturaSparebank
datesfrom1982whenagroupofNorwegiananthroposophistsstarttogrowtheideaofhavingethical
bankingbutonlyinthelate90sthebankstartstooperateasasavingsbankinNorway.LaNefinFrance
andRSFSocialFinance[54]inSanFranciscoareotherexamples.

Organizationaldevelopment,counsellingandbiographywork
BernardLievegoed,apsychiatrist,foundedanewmethodofindividualandinstitutionaldevelopment
orientedtowardshumanizingorganizationsandlinkedwithSteiner'sideasofthethreefoldsocialorder.
ThisworkisrepresentedbytheNPIInstituteforOrganizationalDevelopmentintheNetherlandsand
sisterorganizationsinmanyothercountries.[1]Variousformsofbiographicandcounsellingworkhave
beendevelopedonthebasisofanthroposophy.

Speechanddrama
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Therearealsoanthroposophicalmovementstorenewspeechanddrama,themostimportantofwhich
arebasedintheworkofMarieSteinervonSivers(speechformation,alsoknownasCreativeSpeech)
andtheChekhovMethodoriginatedbyMichaelChekhov(nephewofAntonChekhov).[55]

Socialgoals
ForaperiodafterWorldWarI,SteinerwasextremelyactiveandwellknowninGermany,inpart
becausehelecturedwidelyproposingsocialreforms.Steinerwasasharpcriticofnationalism,whichhe
sawasoutdated,andaproponentofachievingsocialsolidaritythroughindividualfreedom.[1]Apetition
proposingaradicalchangeintheGermanconstitutionandexpressinghisbasicsocialideas(signedby
HermanHesse,amongothers)waswidelycirculated.HismainbookonsocialreformisTowardSocial
Renewal.[1]
Anthroposophycontinuestoaimatreformingsocietythroughmaintainingandstrengtheningthe
independenceofthespheresofculturallife,humanrightsandtheeconomy.Itemphasizesaparticular
idealineachofthesethreerealmsofsociety:[1]
1.Freedominculturallife
2.Equalityofrights,thesphereoflegislationandthejudiciary
3.Fraternityintheeconomicsphere

Esotericpath
Pathsofspiritualdevelopment
AccordingtoSteiner,arealspiritualworldexists,outofwhichthematerialonegraduallycondensed
andevolved.Steinerheldthatthespiritualworldcanberesearchedintherightcircumstancesthrough
directexperience,bypersonspracticingrigorousformsofethicalandcognitiveselfdiscipline.Steiner
describedmanyexerciseshesaidweresuitedtostrengtheningsuchselfdisciplinethemostcomplete
expositionoftheseisfoundinhisbookHowToKnowHigherWorlds.Theaimoftheseexercisesisto
develophigherlevelsofconsciousnessthroughmeditationandobservation.Detailsaboutthespiritual
world,Steinersuggested,couldonsuchabasisbediscoveredandreported,thoughnomoreinfallibly
thantheresultsofnaturalscience.[6]
Anthroposophyisapathofknowledge,toguidethespiritualinthehumanbeingtothe
spiritualintheuniverse.Anthroposophistsarethosewhoexperience,asanessentialneed
oflife,certainquestionsonthenatureofthehumanbeingandtheuniverse,justasone
experienceshungerandthirst.
[56]
Steinerregardedhisresearchreportsasbeingimportantaidstoothersseekingtoenterintospiritual
experience.Hesuggestedthatacombinationofspiritualexercises(forexample,concentratingonan
objectsuchasaseed),moraldevelopment(controlofthought,feelingsandwillcombinedwith
openness,toleranceandflexibility)andfamiliaritywithotherspiritualresearchers'resultswouldbest
furtheranindividual'sspiritualdevelopment.Heconsistentlyemphasisedthatanyinner,spiritual
practiceshouldbeundertakeninsuchawayasnottointerferewithone'sresponsibilitiesinouterlife.[6]
Steinerdistinguishedbetweenwhatheconsideredweretrueandfalsepathsofspiritualinvestigation.[57]
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Inanthroposophy,artisticexpressionisalsotreatedasapotentiallyvaluablebridgebetweenspiritual
andmaterialreality.[58]

Prerequisitestoandstagesofinnerdevelopment
Apersonseekinginnerdevelopmentmustfirstofallmaketheattempttogiveupcertain
formerlyheldinclinations.Then,newinclinationsmustbeacquiredbyconstantlyholding
thethoughtofsuchinclinations,virtuesorcharacteristicsinone'smind.Theymustbeso
incorporatedintoone'sbeingthatapersonbecomesenabledtoalterhissoulbyhisown
willpower.Thismustbetriedasobjectivelyasachemicalmightbetestedinan
experiment.Apersonwhohasneverendeavoredtochangehissoul,whohasnevermade
theinitialdecisiontodevelopthequalitiesofendurance,steadfastnessandcalmlogical
thinking,orapersonwhohassuchdecisionsbuthasgivenupbecausehedidnotsucceedin
aweek,amonth,ayearoradecade,willneverconcludeanythinginwardlyaboutthese
truths.
RudolfSteiner,"OntheInnerLife",[59]
Steiner'sstatedprerequisitestobeginningonaspiritualpathincludeawillingnesstotakeupserious
cognitivestudies,arespectforfactualevidence,andaresponsibleattitude.Centraltoprogressonthe
pathitselfisaharmoniouscultivationofthefollowingqualities:[60]
Controloverone'sownthinking
Controloverone'swill
Composure
Positivity
Impartiality
Steinerseesmeditationasaconcentrationandenhancementofthepowerofthought.Byfocusing
consciouslyonanidea,feelingorintentionthemeditantseekstoarriveatpurethinking,astate
exemplifiedbybutnotconfinedtopuremathematics.InSteiner'sview,conventionalsensorymaterial
knowledgeisachievedthroughrelatingperceptionandconcepts.Theanthroposophicpathofesoteric
trainingarticulatesthreefurtherstagesofsupersensoryknowledge,whichdonotnecessarilyfollow
strictlysequentiallyinanysingleindividual'sspiritualprogress.[60][61]
Byfocusingonsymbolicpatterns,images,andpoeticmantras,themeditantcanachieve
consciouslydirectedImaginationsthatallowsensoryphenomenatoappearastheexpressionof
underlyingbeingsofasoulspiritualnature.
Bytranscendingsuchimaginativepictures,themeditantcanbecomeconsciousofthemeditative
activityitself,whichleadstoexperiencesofexpressionsofsoulspiritualbeingsunmediatedby
sensoryphenomenaorqualities.SteinercallsthisstageInspiration.
Byintensifyingthewillforcesthroughexercisessuchasachronologicallyreversedreviewofthe
day'sevents,themeditantcanachieveafurtherstageofinnerindependencefromsensory
experience,leadingtodirectcontact,andevenunion,withspiritualbeings("Intuition")without
lossofindividualawareness.[60]

Spiritualexercises

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Steinerdescribednumerousexerciseshebelievedwouldbringspiritualdevelopmentother
anthroposophistshaveaddedmanyothers.Acentralprincipleisthat"foreverystepinspiritual
perception,threestepsaretobetakeninmoraldevelopment."AccordingtoSteiner,moraldevelopment
revealstheextenttowhichonehasachievedcontroloverone'sinnerlifeandcanexerciseitinharmony
withthespirituallifeofotherpeopleitshowstherealprogressinspiritualdevelopment,thefruitsof
whicharegiveninspiritualperception.Italsoguaranteesthecapacitytodistinguishbetweenfalse
perceptionsorillusions(whicharepossibleinperceptionsofboththeouterworldandtheinnerworld)
andtrueperceptions:i.e.,thecapacitytodistinguishinanyperceptionbetweentheinfluenceof
subjectiveelements(i.e.,viewpoint)andobjectivereality.[6]

PlaceinWesternphilosophy
SteinerbuiltuponGoethe'sconceptionofanimaginativepowercapableofsynthesizingthesense
perceptibleformofathing(animageofitsouterappearance)andtheconceptwehaveofthatthing(an
imageofitsinnerstructureornature).Steineraddedtothistheconceptionthatafurtherstepinthe
developmentofthinkingispossiblewhenthethinkerobserveshisorherownthoughtprocesses."The
organofobservationandtheobservedthoughtprocessarethenidentical,sothattheconditionthus
arrivedatissimultaneouslyoneofperceptionthroughthinkingandoneofthoughtthrough
perception."[6]
Thus,inSteiner'sview,wecanovercomethesubjectobjectdividethroughinneractivity,eventhough
allhumanexperiencebeginsbybeingconditionedbyit.Inthisconnection,Steinerexaminesthestep
fromthinkingdeterminedbyouterimpressionstowhathecallssensefreethinking.Hecharacterizes
thoughtsheconsiderswithoutsensorycontent,suchasmathematicalorlogicalthoughts,asfreedeeds.
Steinerbelievedhehadthuslocatedtheoriginoffreewillinourthinking,andinparticularinsensefree
thinking.[6]
SomeoftheepistemicbasisforSteiner'slateranthroposophicalworkiscontainedintheseminalwork,
PhilosophyofFreedom.[62]Inhisearlyworks,Steinersoughttoovercomewhatheperceivedasthe
dualismofCartesianidealismandKantiansubjectivismbydevelopingGoethe'sconceptionofthe
humanbeingasanaturalsupernaturalentity,thatis:naturalinthathumanityisaproductofnature,
supernaturalinthatthroughourconceptualpowersweextendnature'srealm,allowingittoachievea
reflectivecapacityinusasphilosophy,artandscience.[63]SteinerwasoneofthefirstEuropean
philosopherstoovercomethesubjectobjectsplitinWesternthought.[63]Thoughnotwellknownamong
philosophers,hisphilosophicalworkwastakenupbyOwenBarfield(andthroughhiminfluencedthe
Inklings,anOxfordgroupofChristianwritersthatincludedJ.R.R.TolkienandC.S.Lewis).[64]
ChristianandJewishmysticalthoughthavealsoinfluencedthedevelopmentofanthroposophy.[65][66]

Unionofscienceandspirit
Steinerbelievedinthepossibilityofapplyingtheclarityofscientificthinkingtospiritualexperience,
whichhesawasderivingfromanobjectivelyexistingspiritualworld.[67]Steineridentifiedmathematics,
whichattainscertaintythroughthinkingitself,thusthroughinnerexperienceratherthanempirical
observation,[68]asthebasisofhisepistemologyofspiritualexperience.[69]

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Christasthecenterofearthlyevolution
Steiner'swriting,thoughappreciativeofallreligionsandculturaldevelopments,emphasizesWestern
traditionashavingevolvedtomeetcontemporaryneeds.[12]HedescribesChristandhismissiononearth
ofbringingindividuatedconsciousnessashavingaparticularlyimportantplaceinhumanevolution,[1]
whereby:[4]
Christianityhasevolvedoutofpreviousreligions
ThebeingwhichmanifestsinChristianityalsomanifestsinallfaithsandreligions,andeach
religionisvalidandtrueforthetimeandculturalcontextinwhichitwasborn
AllhistoricalformsofChristianityneedtobetransformedconsiderablytomeetthecontinuing
evolutionofhumanity.
SpiritualsciencedoesnotwanttousurptheplaceofChristianityonthecontraryitwould
liketobeinstrumentalinmakingChristianityunderstood.Thusitbecomescleartous
throughspiritualsciencethatthebeingwhomwecallChrististoberecognizedasthe
centeroflifeonearth,thattheChristianreligionistheultimatereligionfortheearth'swhole
future.SpiritualscienceshowsusparticularlythatthepreChristianreligionsoutgrowtheir
onesidednessandcometogetherintheChristianfaith.Itisnotthedesireofspiritual
sciencetosetsomethingelseintheplaceofChristianityratheritwantstocontributetoa
deeper,moreheartfeltunderstandingofChristianity.
[70]
Thus,anthroposophyconsiderstheretobeabeingwhounifiesallreligions,andwhoisnotrepresented
byanyparticularreligiousfaith.Thisbeingis,accordingtoSteiner,notonlytheRedeemeroftheFall
fromParadise,butalsotheuniquepivotandmeaningofearth'sevolutionaryprocessesandofhuman
history.[4]Todescribethisbeing,Steinerperiodicallyusedtermssuchasthe"Representativeof
Humanity"orthe"goodspirit"[71][72]ratherthananydenominationalterm.

DivergencefromconventionalChristianthought
Steiner'sviewsofChristianitydivergefromconventionalChristianthoughtinkeyplaces,andinclude
gnosticelements:
OnecentralpointofdivergenceisSteiner'sviewsonreincarnationandkarma.
SteinerdifferentiatedthreecontemporarypathsbywhichhebelieveditpossibletoarriveatChrist:
ThroughheartfilledexperiencesoftheGospelsSteinerdescribedthisasthehistorically
dominantpath,butbecominglessimportantinthefuture.
ThroughinnerexperiencesofaspiritualrealitythisSteinerregardedasincreasinglythe
pathofspiritualorreligiousseekerstoday.
ThroughinitiatoryexperienceswherebytherealityofChrist'sdeathandresurrectionare
experiencedSteinerbelievedthisisthepathpeoplewillincreasinglytake.[4]
SteineralsobelievedthatthereweretwodifferentJesuschildreninvolvedintheIncarnationofthe
Christ:onechilddescendedfromSolomon,asdescribedintheGospelofMatthew,theotherchild
fromNathan,asdescribedintheGospelofLuke.[1](Thegenealogiesgiveninthetwogospels
divergesomethirtygenerationsbeforeJesus'birth,and'Jesus'wasacommonnameinbiblical
times.)
HisviewofthesecondcomingofChristisalsounusualhesuggestedthatthiswouldnotbea
physicalreappearance,butthattheChristbeingwouldbecomemanifestinnonphysicalform,
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visibletospiritualvisionandapparentincommunitylifeforincreasingnumbersofpeople
beginningaroundtheyear1933.[73]
HeemphasizedhisbeliefthatinthefuturehumanitywouldneedtobeabletorecognizetheSpirit
ofLoveinallitsgenuineforms,regardlessofwhatnamewouldbeusedtodescribethisbeing.He
alsowarnedthatthetraditionalnameoftheChristmightbemisused,andthetrueessenceofthis
beingofloveignored.

Judaism
RudolfSteinerwroteandlecturedonJudaismandJewishissuesformuchofhislife.Inthe1880sand
1890s,hetookpartindebatesonantisemitismandonassimilation.Hewasafierceopponentofanti
semitismandsupportedtheunconditionalacceptanceandintegrationoftheJewsinEurope.[74]Healso
supportedmileZola'spositionintheDreyfusaffair.[74]Inhislaterlife,Steinerwasaccusedbythe
NazisofbeingaJew,andAdolfHitlercalledanthroposophy"Jewishmethods".Theanthroposophical
institutionsinGermanywerebannedduringNaziruleandseveralanthroposophistssenttoconcentration
camps.[75]
SteineremphasizedJudaism'scentralimportancetotheconstitutionofthemoderneraintheWestbut
suggestedthattoappreciatethespiritualityofthefutureitwouldneedtoovercomeitstendencytoward
abstraction.ImportantearlyanthroposophistswhowereJewishincludedtwocentralmembersonthe
executiveboardsoftheprecursorstothemodernAnthroposophicalSociety,[76]andKarlKnig,the
founderoftheCamphillmovement.MartinBuberandHugoBergmann,whoviewedSteiner'ssocial
ideasasasolutiontotheArabJewishconflict,werealsoinfluencedbyanthroposophy.[77]
ThereareseveralanthroposophicalorganisationsinIsrael,includingtheanthroposophicalkibbutz
Harduf,foundedbyJesaiahBenAharon.Anumberoftheseorganizationsarestrivingtofosterpositive
relationshipsbetweentheArabandJewishpopulations:TheHardufWaldorfschoolincludesboth
JewishandArabfacultyandstudents,andhasextensivecontactwiththesurroundingArab
communities.InHilfnearHaifa,thereisajointArabJewishWaldorfkindergarten,thefirstjointArab
JewishkindergarteninIsrael.

ChristianCommunity
TowardstheendofSteiner'slife,agroupoftheologystudents(primarilyLutheran,withsomeRoman
Catholicmembers)approachedSteinerforhelpinrevivingChristianity,inparticular"tobridgethe
wideninggulfbetweenmodernscienceandtheworldofspirit."[1]TheyapproachedanotableLutheran
pastor,FriedrichRittelmeyer,whowasalreadyworkingwithSteiner'sideas,tojointheirefforts.Outof
theircooperativeendeavor,theMovementforReligiousRenewal,nowgenerallyknownasThe
ChristianCommunity,wasborn.Steineremphasizedthatheconsideredthismovement,andhisrolein
creatingit,tobeindependentofhisanthroposophicalwork,[1]ashewishedanthroposophytobe
independentofanyparticularreligionorreligiousdenomination.[4]

Reception
Supporters

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Anthroposophy'ssupportersincludePulitzerPrizewinningandNobelLaureateSaulBellow,[78]Nobel
prizewinnerSelmaLagerlf,[79]AndreiBely,[80][81]JosephBeuys,[82]OwenBarfield,architectWalter
BurleyGriffin,WassilyKandinsky,[83][84]AndreiTarkovsky,[85]BrunoWalter,[86]andRightLivelihood
AwardwinnersSirGeorgeTrevelyan[87]andIbrahimAbouleish.[88]AlbertSchweitzerwasafriendof
Steiner'sandwassupportiveofhisidealsforculturalrenewal.[89]

Scientificbasis
ThoughRudolfSteinerstudiednaturalscienceattheViennaTechnicalUniversityattheundergraduate
level,hisdoctoratewasinepistemologyandverylittleofhisworkisdirectlyconcernedwiththe
empiricalsciences.Inhismaturework,whenhedidrefertoscienceitwasoftentopresent
phenomenologicalorGoetheanscienceasanalternativetowhatheconsideredthematerialisticscience
ofhiscontemporaries.[90]
Hisprimaryinterestwasinapplyingthemethodologyofsciencetorealmsofinnerexperienceandthe
spiritualworlds(Steiner'sappreciationthattheessenceofscienceisitsmethodofinquiryisunusual
amongesotericists[90]),andSteinercalledanthroposophyGeisteswissenschaft(lit.:Scienceofthemind,
orculturalorspiritualscience),atermgenerallyusedinGermantorefertothehumanitiesandsocial
sciences[91]infact,theterm"science"isusedmorebroadlyinEuropeasageneraltermthatrefersto
anyexactknowledge.[92]
[Anthroposophy's]methodologyistoemployascientificwayofthinking,buttoapplythis
methodology,whichnormallyexcludesourinnerexperiencefromconsideration,insteadto
thehumanbeingproper.
[61]
Whetherthisisasufficientbasisforanthroposophytobeconsideredaspiritualsciencehasbeena
matterofcontroversy.[4][90]AsFredaEastonexplainedinherstudyofWaldorfschools,"Whetherone
acceptsanthroposophyasasciencedependsuponwhetheroneacceptsSteiner'sinterpretationofa
sciencethatextendstheconsciousnessandcapacityofhumanbeingstoexperiencetheirinnerspiritual
world."[93]SvenOveHanssonhasdisputedanthroposophy'sclaimtoascientificbasis,statingthatits
ideasarenotempiricallyderivedandneitherreproduciblenortestable.[94]
CarloWillmannpointsoutthatas,onitsownterms,anthroposophicalmethodologyoffersnopossibility
ofbeingfalsifiedexceptthroughitsownproceduresofspiritualinvestigation,nointersubjective
validationispossiblebyconventionalscientificmethodsitthuscannotstanduptopositivisticscience's
criticism.[4]PeterSchneidercallssuchobjectionsuntenableonthegroundsthatifanonsensory,non
physicalrealmexists,thenaccordingtoSteinertheexperiencesofpurethinkingpossiblewithinthe
normalrealmofconsciousnesswouldalreadybeexperiencesofthat,anditwouldbeimpossibleto
excludethepossibilityofempiricallygroundedexperiencesofothersupersensorycontent.[6]
OlavHammersuggeststhatanthroposophycarriesscientism"tolengthsunparalleledinanyother
Esotericposition"duetoitsdependenceuponclaimsofclairvoyantexperience,itssubsumingnatural
scienceunder"spiritualscience",anditsdevelopmentofwhatHammercalls"fringe"sciencessuchas
anthroposophicalmedicineandbiodynamicagriculturejustifiedpartlyonthebasisoftheethicaland
ecologicalvaluestheypromote,ratherthanpurelyonascientificbasis.[90]
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ThoughSteinersawthatspiritualvisionitselfisdifficultforotherstoachieve,herecommendedopen
mindedlyexploringandrationallytestingtheresultsofsuchresearchhealsourgedotherstofollowa
spiritualtrainingthatwouldallowthemdirectlytoapplythemethodsheusedeventuallytoachieve
comparableresults.[6]SomeresultsofSteiner'sresearchhavebeeninvestigatedandsupportedby
scientistsworkingtofurtherandextendscientificobservationindirectionssuggestedbyan
anthroposophicalapproach.[95]
AnthonyStorrstatedaboutRudolfSteiner'sAnthroposophy:"Hisbeliefsystemissoeccentric,so
unsupportedbyevidence,somanifestlybizarre,thatrationalskepticsareboundtoconsiderit
delusional....But,whereasEinstein'swayofperceivingtheworldbythoughtbecameconfirmedby
experimentandmathematicalproof,Steiner'sremainedintenselysubjectiveandinsusceptibleof
objectiveconfirmation."[96]

Religiousnature
Asanexplicitlyspiritualmovement,anthroposophyhassometimesbeencalledareligious
philosophy.[97]In2005,aCaliforniafederalcourtruledthatagroupallegingthatanthroposophyisa
religionforEstablishmentClausepurposesdidnotprovideanylegallyadmissibleevidenceinsupportof
thisviewthecaseisunderappeal.In2000,aFrenchcourtruledthatagovernmentminister's
descriptionofanthroposophyasacultwasdefamatory.[98]

Statementsonrace
Anthroposophicalideashavebeencriticizedfrombothsidesintheracedebate:
Fromthemid1930son,NationalSocialistideologuesattackedtheanthroposophicalworldview
asbeingopposedtoNaziracistandnationalisticprinciplesanthroposophyconsidered"Blood,
RaceandFolk"asprimitiveinstinctsthatmustbeovercome.[99][100]
"Anaiveversionoftheevolutionofconsciousness,atheoryfoundationaltobothSteiner's
anthroposophyandWaldorfeducation,sometimesplacesoneracebelowanotherinoneoranother
dimensionofdevelopment".[101]
TheAnthroposophicalSocietyinAmericahasstated:
WeexplicitlyrejectanyracialtheorythatmaybeconstruedtobepartofRudolfSteiner's
writings.TheAnthroposophicalSocietyinAmericaisanopen,publicsocietyanditrejects
anypurportedspiritualorscientifictheoryonthebasisofwhichtheallegedsuperiorityof
oneraceisjustifiedattheexpenseofanotherrace.[102]

Seealso
EsotericisminGermanyandAustria
Hermeticism
Pneumatosophy
Psychosophy
Syncretism

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1882):Steiner,AnthroposophicMovement:LectureTwo:TheUnveilingofSpiritualTruths,11June1923.[1]
(http://wn.rsarchive.org/Lectures/GA258/English/RSP1993/19230611p01.html)thetermwasalsousedina
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item=page&seq=1&size=1&id=nq.1863.5.9.3.71.x.373)inNotesandQueries,May9,1863,p.373
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dissertation,TruthandKnowledge
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Spirituality,ISBN0824514440,p.299301288ff
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"Prospects:thequarterlyreviewofcomparativeeducation,UNESCO:InternationalBureauofeducation,vol
XXIV,no.3/4,1994,pp.892000
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(http://www.consciouschoice.com/2003/cc1606/steinerchicago1606.html),ConsciousChoiceJune2003
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(http://consciouschoice.com/2003/cc1606/steinerchicago1606.html),ConsciousChoice,June2003
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553
35.DavidKupfer,"Trailblazers,Heroes&Pioneers:TheOrganicFarmingMovement"
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37."StudybytheNationalCancerInstituteonmistletoe'susefortreatingcancer".Cancer.gov.Retrieved
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2009ISBN0863156932ISBN9780863156939
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AntheaM.Hailey,MichaelJ.Hailey,N.M.BlitzSouvenirPressLimited,2000ISBN0285635697,ISBN
9780285635692
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51.ThomasPoplawskiEurythmy,p.67,SteinerBooks,1998ISBN9780880104593
52.Stagegroups(http://www.eurythmieinfo.de/Buehnen.htm)andTrainings
(http://www.goetheanum.org/Eurythmie.1549.0.html?&L=1)
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63.RichardTarnas,ThePassionoftheWesternMind,ISBN0712673326
64.DorisT.Myers,"C.S.LewisinContext."KentStateUniversityPress,1994.
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Unger(http://biographien.kulturimpuls.org/detail.php?&id=724)(boardmember19081923)
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RudolfSteinerHandbook(http://www.rudolfsteiner
handbuch.de/images/SteinerHandbook2012.pdf)(PDF,56
MB)
Goetheanum(http://www.goetheanum.org/45.html?L=1)

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