1. .

They way this effects nutrients is through the influence on ocean currents. The winds moving from the
poles toward the equator is one of three main influences on these currents. Nutrients are carried from the
deep ocean in cold currents which arrive near the surface at specific locations, these are called
upwellings. The largest of these is along the west coast of South America, as a result there are lots of
fishes in this region feeding on the plankton etc which thrive on these
nutrients. http://seawifs.gsfc.nasa.gov/OCEAN_PLANE... . Terrestrial nutrients however are mainly
affected by water flow and wind is only significant in that it moves water vapour around. Atmospheric
nutrients like carbon and nitrogen are globally distributed so they don't occur in significantly greater
abundance in given locations for more than very short periods, not long enough for the species in the
location to benefit from it.

Wind, meteorological conditions, terrain -- but mostly the wide-open atmosphere -- all
conspire to spread pollution great distances. Pollution is in some cases globally distributed, but may
be rained out of the atmosphere into specific locations nearby the sources of pollutants. For example acid
rain occured mainly in the Northern Hemisphere as that is where the majority of sulfur particles were
being emitted from industries, these particles reacted in the atmosphere to form H2SO4 (sulfuric acid) and
when this dissolves in water it is extremely corrosive to any reactive solid surface it contacts. Forests were
damaged on large scales and as a result "scrubbers" were placed in relevant sources to reduce the
amount of sulfur molecules being emitted. Other pollutants like CFCs surround the globe with uniform
concentration as they travel high into the atmosphere and then spread around not by wind but by what we
call concentration gradients- similar to how wind moves from areas of high pressure to low pressure,
chemicals move from areas of high concentration to low concentration until the total concentration is
balanced.

As air is swept into the region, it encounters an array of hills and

river valleys. Wind blowing perpendicular to a valley traps pollution
there. Wind blowing parallel to the valley disperses the pollution.
Temperature inversions, in which a layer of warm air prevents the
rise of cooling air, also can trap pollution in pockets of the region's
hilly terrain, according to the National Weather Service.
Prevailing winds also can dictate pollution's impact.
Wind moves pollution across municipal, county, state and national
borders, and even sends it across continents. China's pollution
reaching the California coastline is one example.

People living great distances from smokestacks can face health

consequences, and even death, from long-distance exposure.

3. What Is the Difference Between Weather and Climate?

Weather is the short-term changes we see in temperature, clouds, precipitation, humidity and wind in
a region or a city. Weather can vary greatly from one day to the next, or even within the same day. In
the morning the weather may be cloudy and cool. But by afternoon it may be sunny and warm.
The climate of a region or city is its weather averaged over many years. This is usually different for
different seasons. For example, a region or city may tend to be warm and humid during summer. But
it may tend to be cold and snowy during winter.
The climate of a city, region or the entire planet changes very slowly. These changes take place on
the scale of tens, hundreds and thousands of years.
Climate is the average (statistically, mean and variability) weather, usually over a 30-year interval.[1]
[2]

It is measured by assessing the patterns of variation in temperature, humidity,atmospheric

pressure, wind, precipitation, atmospheric particle count and other meteorologicalvariables in a given
region over long periods of time. Climate is different from weather, in that weather only describes the
short-term conditions of these variables in a given region. climate is often defined as average
weather.

The two most important factors in the climate of an area are temperature and
precipitation. The yearly average temperature of the area is obviously important,
but the yearly range in temperature is also important. Some areas have a much
larger range between highest and lowest temperature than other areas. Likewise,
average precipitation is important, but the yearly variation in rainfall is also
important. Some areas have about the same rainfall throughout the year. Other
areas have very little rainfall for part of the year and a lot of rainfall for the other
part of the year.

3.Ocean currents are one of the main factors that affect climate. Other factors are proximity from the
equator, distance from the sea, direction of prevailing winds and relief (mountains). But, for the most
part, ocean currents act as one of the most important factors that influence the climate. And the
reason why is because a current is water that travels. With that traveling water comes heat. ocean
currents act much like a conveyer belt, transporting warm water and precipitation from the
equator toward the poles and cold water from the poles back to the tropics. Thus, currents
regulate global climate, helping to counteract the uneven distribution of solar radiation
reaching Earths surface. Without currents, regional temperatures would be more extreme
super hot at the equator and frigid toward the polesand much less of Earths land would
be habitable.

4. The El Nio-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is a naturally occurring phenomenon that involves

fluctuating ocean temperatures in the equatorial Pacific. The warmer waters essentially slosh, or
oscillate, back and forth across the Pacific. For North America and much of the globe, the
phenomenon is known as a dominant force causing variations in regional climate patterns. The
pattern generally fluctuates between two states: warmer than normal central and eastern equatorial
Pacific SSTs (El Nio) and cooler than normal central and eastern equatorial Pacific SSTs (La Nia).

Though ENSO is a single climate phenomenon, it has three states, or phases, it can be in. The two
opposite phases, El Nio and La Nia, require certain changes in both the ocean and the
atmosphere because ENSO is a coupled climate phenomenon. The system oscillates between warm (El
Nio) to neutral (or cold La Nia) conditions with an on average every 3-4 years. Neutral is in the middle of
the continuum.

1.

El Nio: A warming of the ocean surface, or above-average sea surface

temperatures (SST), in the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean. which build up
between June and December The low-level surface winds, which normally blow from east
to west along the equator (easterly winds), instead weaken or, in some cases, start
blowing the other direction (from west to east or westerly winds). It is this shifting of
major upper air wind currents by El Nio that causes weather and short-term climate changes in
other parts of the globe. Places such as Australia, Indonesia, Brazil, India and Africa could
experience drought conditions because moisture-bearing storms are shifted away from these
areas. Likewise, Argentina, South China, Brazil and Japan can receive an increase in moisturebearing storms that cause long periods of heavy rains and flooding. \

2.

La Nia: A cooling of the ocean surface, or below-average sea surface

temperatures (SST), in the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean. Over Indonesia,
rainfall tends to increase while rainfall decreases over the central tropical Pacific Ocean.
The normal easterly winds along the equator become even stronger. Globally, La Nia is
characterized by wetter than normal conditions west of the equatorial central Pacific over northern
Australia and Indonesia during the northern hemisphere winter, and over the Philippines during the
northern hemisphere summer. Wetter than normal conditions are also observed over southeastern
Africa and northern Brazil, during the northern hemisphere winter season. During the northern
hemisphere summer season, the Indian monsoon rainfall tends to be greater than normal, especially
in northwest India. Drier than normal conditions are observed along the west coast of tropical South
America, and at subtropical latitudes of North America (Gulf Coast) and South America (southern
Brazil to central Argentina) during their respective winter seasons.

3.

Neutral: Neither El Nio or La Nia. Often tropical Pacific SSTs are generally close
to average. However, there are some instances when the ocean can look like it is in an
El Nio or La Nia state, but the atmosphere is not playing along (or vice versa).

Many chemical compounds present in Earth's atmosphere behave as

'greenhouse gases'. These are gases which allow direct sunlight (relative
shortwave energy) to reach the Earth's surface unimpeded. As the shortwave
energy (that in the visible and ultraviolet portion of the spectra) heats the
surface, longer-wave (infrared) energy (heat) is reradiated to the
atmosphere. Greenhouse gases absorb this energy, thereby allowing less
heat to escape back to space, and 'trapping' it in the lower atmosphere.
Many greenhouse gases occur naturally in the atmosphere, such as carbon
dioxide, methane, water vapor, and nitrous oxide, while others are synthetic.
Those that are man-made include the chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs),
hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and Perfluorocarbons (PFCs), as well as sulfur
hexafluoride (SF6). Atmospheric concentrations of both the natural and manmade gases have been rising over the last few centuries due to the industrial
revolution.
Many GHGs, including water vapor (the most important), ozone, carbon dioxide,
methane, and nitrous oxide, are naturally present in the atmosphere. Other GHGs are
synthetic chemicals that are emitted only as a result of human activity. Anthropogenic
(human) activities are significantly increasing atmospheric concentrations of many
GHGs.

Carbon dioxide (CO2), the most significant GHG directly affected by anthropogenic activity, is the product of
the oxidation of carbon in organic matter, either through combustion of carbon-based fuels or the decay of
biomass. Natural CO2 sources include volcanic eruptions,respiration of organic matter in natural
ecosystems, natural fires, and exchange of dissolved CO2 with the oceans. The main anthropogenic sources
are (a) fossil fuel combustion and (b)deforestation and land use changes (such as converting agricultural

land or forests to urban development), which release stored organic matter and reduce the ability of natural
ecosystems to store carbon.

Methane (CH4 ) is produced by anaerobic decay of organic material in landfills, wetlands, and rice fields;
enteric fermentation in the digestive tracts of ruminant animals such as cattle, goats, and sheep; manure
management; wastewater treatment; fossil fuel combustion; and leaks from natural gas transportation and
distribution systems and abandoned coal mines.

Nitrous oxide (N2O) is produced by fertilizer use, animal waste management, fossil fuel combustion, and
industrial activities.

Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and perfluorocarbons (PFCs) are synthetic chemicals that are used in a
variety of industrial production processes such as semiconductor manufacturing. PFCs are also produced as
a by-product of aluminum smelting. Both groups of chemicals are finding increasing use as substitutes for
ozone-depleting chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), which are being phased out under the 1987 Montreal Protocol
on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer. HFCs and PFCs are replacing CFCs in applications such as
refrigeration and foam-blowing for insulation.

What is the Greenhouse Effect?

The Sun powers Earths climate, radiating energy at very short wavelengths,
predominately in the visible or near-visible (e.g., ultraviolet) part of the spectrum.
Roughly one-third of the solar energy that reaches the top of Earths atmosphere is
reflected directly back to space. The remaining two-thirds is absorbed by the
surface by the atmosphere. To balance the absorbed incoming energy, the Earth
must, on average, radiate the same amount of energy back to space. Because the
Earth is much colder than the Sun, it radiates at much longer wavelengths. Much of
this thermal radiation emitted by the land and ocean is absorbed by the
atmosphere, including clouds, and reradiated back to Earth. This is called the
greenhouse effect. The Earths greenhouse effect warms the surface of the planet.
Without the natural greenhouse effect, the average temperature at Earths surface
would be below the freezing point of water. Thus, Earths natural greenhouse effect
makes life as we know it possible. However, human activities, primarily the burning
of fossil fuels and clearing of forests, have greatly intensified the natural
greenhouse effect, causing global warming.

Greenhouse gases trap heat in the troposphere, the part of the atmosphere where
weather occurs, and the global warming they cause affects the Earth's climate systems.

What is the ozone layer?

The ozone layer is a deep layer in the stratosphere, encircling the Earth, that has large amounts of ozone in
it. The layer shields the entire Earth from much of the harmful ultraviolet radiation that comes from the
sun. Ozone is a special form of oxygen, made up of three oxygen atoms rather than the usual two oxygen

atoms. It usually forms when some type of radiation or electrical discharge separates the two atoms in an
oxygen molecule (O2), which can then individually recombine with other oxygen molecules to form ozone
(O3). ut it does a very important job. Like a sponge, the ozone layer absorbs bits of radiation hitting Earth from the
sun. Even though we need some of the sun's radiation to live, too much of it can damage living things. The ozone
layer acts as a filter for the shorter wavelength and highly hazardous ultraviolet radiation (UVR) from the

sun, protecting life on Earth from its potentially harmful effects which can penetrate organisms protective
layers, like skin, damaging DNA molecules in plants and animals.

Ozone affects climate, and climate affects ozone. Temperature, humidity, winds, and the presence of other chemicals in the
atmosphere influence ozone formation, and the presence of ozone, in turn, affects those atmospheric constituents.
Ozone's impact on climate consists primarily of changes in temperature. The more ozone in a given parcel of air, the more
heat it retains. Ozone generates heat in the stratosphere, both by absorbing the sun's ultraviolet radiation and by absorbing
upwelling infrared radiation from the lower atmosphere (troposphere). Consequently, decreased ozone in the stratosphere
results in lower temperatures.
7 Microclimate is the set of meteorological parameters that characterize a localized area. The scale of

geography associated with a microclimate is on the order of one square meter or as large as the order of 100
square kilometers. The chief factors comprising microclimate are: surface temperature, relative humidity, wind
speed,solar insolation and precipitation. These factors derive from the confluence of larger scale meteorology
with localized topographic elements.
A rain shadow is a patch of land that has been forced to become a desert because mountain ranges blocked all
plant-growing, rainy weather. A rain shadow is a dry region of land on the side of a mountain range that is protected from the
prevailing winds. On one side of the mountain, wet weather systems drop rain and snow. On the other side of the

mountainthe rain shadow sideall that precipitation is blocked.

In a rain shadow, its warm and dry. On the other side of the mountain, its wet and cool. Why is there a difference?
When an air mass moves from a low elevation to a high elevation, it expands and cools. This cool air cannot hold
moisture as well as warm air. Cool air forms clouds, which drop rain and snow, as it rises up a mountain. After the air
mass crosses over the peak of the mountain and starts down the other side, the air warms up and the clouds
dissipate. That means there is less rainfall.

Urban climate is any set of climatic conditions that prevails in a large metropolitan
area and that differs from the climate of its rural surroundings. Buildings and paved
surfaces absorb heat during the day, and then radiate it back into the air at night,
moderating low temperatures during winter. Buildings also offer protection from
wind in many places. These warming effects carry over into summer, as well. Urban
microclimates can trap heat, creating a scorching environment. Urban climates are
distinguished from those of less built-up areas by differences of air temperature,
humidity, wind speed and direction, and amount of precipitation. These differences
are attributable in large part to the altering of the natural terrain through the

construction of artificial structures and surfaces. For example, tall buildings, paved
streets, and parking lots affect wind flow, precipitation runoff, and the energy
balance of a local.

The coastal climate is influenced by both the land and sea between which the coast
forms a boundary. The thermal properties of water are such that the sea maintains a
relatively constant day to day temperature compared with the land. The sea also
takes a long time to heat up during the summer months and, conversely, a long
time to cool down during the winter. In the tropics, sea temperatures change little
and the coastal climate depends on the effects caused by the daytime heating and
night-time cooling of the land. This involves the development of a breeze from off
the sea (sea breeze) from late morning and from off the land (land breeze) during
the night. The tropical climate is dominated by convective showers and
thunderstorms that continue to form over the sea but only develop over land during
the day. As a consequence, showers are less likely to fall on coasts than either the
sea or the land.

8. Places located at high latitudes (far from the equator) receive less sunlight than places at low latitudes (close
to the equator). The amount of sunlight and the amount of precipitation affects the types of plants and animals

Climate have an effect on temperature. This

temperature is a big factor in what will grow and what will not.
that can live in a place.

For each 1,000 foot rise in altitude there is a 4F drop in

temperature.
Elevation plays a large role in the health and growth of plants. Elevation may affect the type and
amount of sunlight that plants receive, the amount of water that plants can absorb and the
nutrients that are available in the soil. As a result, certain plants grow very well in high
elevations, whereas others can only grow in middle or lower elevations.

Climate plays a large role in what types of vegetation can grow in a certain
area. In higher altitudes, the wind and coldness become a large factor in
vegetation development. Plants in lower elevations are more affected by droughts,
compared with plants of higher elevation. Higher elevation plants typically receive a lot of rainfall

Plants in higher elevations typically receive more direct sunlight than plants of lower
elevations. In addition, these plants receive a special type of sunlight, which has shortwave radiation. Whereas this poses an advantage for higher elevation plants because
they receive more sunlight that they need to grow, it can also damage the plants if the
short-wave radiation exceeds a certain amount. Lower elevation plants typically
require less sunlight, and they are safer from many short-wave radiation waves, which
do not reach farther down into lower elevation regions of Earth's surface.
Climate change is happening now. Evidences being seen support the fact that the
change cannot simply be explained by natural variation. The most recent scientific
assessments have confirmed that this warming of the climate system since the mid20th century is most likely to be due to human activities; and thus, is due to the
observed increase in greenhouse gas concentrations from human activities, such as
the burning of fossil fuels and land use change

Widespread changes in extreme temperatures have been

observed over the last 50 years. Cold days, cold nights and frost
have become less frequent, while hot days, hot nights, and heat
waves have become more frequent Climate data for the past 50 years
already shows trends of rising temperatures by about 0.011oC annually, changes in
the rainfall pattern, and increasing number of extreme climate events like cyclones,
flooding, and drought

Agriculture
While CO2 is essential for plant growth, all agriculture depends also on steady water supplies,
and climate change is likely to disrupt those supplies through floods anddroughts.
vulnerable to additional heat, and deaths attributable to heatwaves are expected
changes in the climate of the country, in terms of temperature increases and occurrences of extreme
rainfall and heat. The total cost of extreme events related to climate change is high, around 2% of the
countrys GDP. Rice paddies are being inundated with salt water, which destroys the crops. Seawater

is contaminating rivers as it mixes with fresh water further upstream, and aquifers are becoming
polluted.

Environmental
Positive effects of climate change may include greener rainforests and enhanced plant growth in
some areas, increased vegetation in northern latitudes and possible increases

in plankton biomass in some parts of the ocean. Negative responses may include further growth of
oxygen poor ocean zones, contamination or exhaustion of fresh water, increased incidence of
natural fires, extensive vegetation die-off due to droughts, increased risk of coral extinction, decline
in global photoplankton, changes in migration patterns of birds and animals, changes in seasonal
periodicity, disruption to food chains and species loss.

Climate is determined by two main factors: temperature and precipitation. Using

justtemperature or just precipitation would be misleading.

How does ozone depletion occur?

It is caused by the release of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydrofluorocarbons (HCFCs), and
other ozone-depleting substances (ODS), which were used widely as refrigerants, insulating
foams, and solvents. The discussion below focuses on CFCs, but is relevant to all ODS.
AlthoughCFCs are heavier than air, they are eventually carried into the stratosphere in a
process that can take as long as 2 to 5 years. Measurements of CFCs in the stratosphere are
made from balloons, aircraft, and satellites.
When CFCs and HCFCs reach the stratosphere, the ultraviolet radiation from the sun causes
them to break apart and release chlorine atoms which react with ozone, starting chemical
cycles of ozone destruction that deplete the ozone layer. One chlorine atom can break apart
more than 100,000 ozone molecules.
Other chemicals that damage the ozone layer include methyl bromide (used as a
pesticide), halons (used in fire extinguishers), and methyl chloroform (used as a solvent in
industrial processes for essential applications). As methyl bromide and halons are broken
apart, they release bromine atoms, which are 60 times more destructive to ozone molecules
than chlorine atoms.

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There are many causes for ozone depletion, but the most important process in both trends is
catalytic destruction of ozone by atomic chlorine and bromine. Both come from the breaking
down of chloroflourocarbons(freons) by photons in the atmosphere.

When CFCs reach the stratosphere, the ultraviolet radiation from the sun
causes them to break apart and release chlorine atoms which react with
ozone, starting chemical cycles of ozone destruction that deplete the ozone
layer. One chlorine atom can break apart more than 100,000 ozone
molecules.
Other chemicals that damage the ozone layer include methyl bromide (used
as a pesticide), halons (used in fire extinguishers), andmethyl
chloroform (used as a solvent in industrial processes for essential
applications). As methyl bromide and halons are broken apart, they release
bromine atoms, which are 40 times more destructive to ozone molecules than
chlorine atoms.