EE35T - Overhead Line Design and

Transmission Line Construction

The fundamental purpose of a Transmission or Distribution Line is to carry the active
power from one point to another.
A Transmission line should possess the following characteristics:

The voltage should be kept as constant as possible over the entire length of the line.

The line losses must be small so as to obtain a high transmission efficiency

The Copper losses must not overheat the conductor.

Components of a High Voltage Transmission Line

1. Conductors

Conductors are always bare

They are the vital link in the transmission system and distribution system

They must be designed to meet the specified voltage level

The conductor consideration should include the voltage level at which the power is
transmitted, the maximum allowable losses on the line, the maximum thermal capacity of
the line, the current carrying capacity and the tension of the line

Factors which affect the location of the line include the climate of the country, the
atmospheric conditions and vibration of the line

There are several different types of conductors that are used to transmit power and these include:
(i) ACSR - Aluminum Conductor Steel Reinforced. This is the most popular conductor that is
used because of its high strength and relatively low cost. It comprises aluminum strands bound
around a steel core. The most common are 6/1, 26/7, 54/7.
(ii) ACSR/AW - ACSR Conductor with Aluminum clad steel reinforced core. This is very
useful in corrosive environments.
(iii) ACSR/SD - ACSR Conductor that is self damping. It is more expensive than regular
ACSR, and comprises two trapezoidal layers of conductor around a steel core. The strands are

made of #6201 Aluminum, and the structure makes them self damping against Aeolian Vibration.
They can be strung at very high tensions.
(iv) ACAR - Aluminum Conductor Alloy Reinforced. This comprises strands of #1350
Aluminum around a core made of #6201 Aluminum. It is lighter than ACSR, but more expensive
and just as strong. It is used in corrosive environments.
(v) AAC-1350 - Aluminum Conductor made of #1350 Strands. It is used in construction that
requires good conductivity and short spans.
(vi) AAAC-6201 - Conductor composed of #6201 Aluminum Alloy. It is stronger than ACSR,
and lighter, but more expensive. It is used for long spans in corrosive environments.
Some factors to be considered when selecting the transmission line conductors include:

Required sag and span between conductors

Tension on the conductors

Whether or not the atmosphere is corrosive

Whether or not the line is prone to vibration

Power loss allowed on the line

Voltage loss allowed on the line

Climate at the line location

Finally, the size of the conductor has to be considered. Again, several factors are used in
determining the size of the conductor to be used.
Voltage Drop Considerations: The conductor meets the minimum size requirement but
transmits the power with an acceptable loss. It is often expressed as a maximum voltage drop of
5%. The total series impedance is equal to the maximum allowable voltage drop divided by the
maximum load current.

Thus:
Thermal Capacity: The conductor should be able to carry the maximum long term load current
without overheating. The Conductor is assumed to withstand a temperature of 75 degrees celsius
without a decrease in strength. Above this temperature, the strength decreases.

Economic Considerations: The conductor is rarely sized to meet the minimum requirements.
The total cost per kilometer or mile must be taken into account as too the present worth of energy
losses associated with the conductor. There must also be some compensation for load growth.

2. Insulators
There are two types of insulators: Suspension Type and Pin Type. The function of the insulator
is to support and anchor the insulator. Additionally, they also insulate the conductor from ground
and tend to be made of either glass or porcelain and in some cases, ceramic.

3. Support Structures
These serve the purpose of keeping the conductors at a safe height from ground as well as at an
adequate distance from each other. The construction of the support is dependent on the cost. The
cost takes into account the design and the materials as well as transportation and labour.
Galvanised steel self supporting towers as well as wooden H-frame and K-frame are commonly
used. The erection of structures is an important part of transmission line construction. The
method chosen is dependent on:

Terrain

Access Roads

Workspace

Experience and Availability of workmen

Allowed time for the completion of project

Additionally, there are several factors that need to be considered when choosing the method of
construction. These include:

What type of structures are to be erected

What are the natural divisions

What are the dimensions of the natural divisions

What are the conditions of access to the right of way

What are the conditions of access along the right of way

The above factors are determined by whether there is the choice to use maximum equipment
and minimum labour or minimum equipment and maximum labour.
Location of Poles and Structures: Poles and Structures have to be located in observance of the
right of way (See Definitions below). The initial step when locating the poles is to establish a
plan-profile drawing. These drawings show a topographical contour map of the terrain along the
right of way, and a sideview profile of the line, showing elevations and towers. The plan profile
drawing acts as a worksheet as to what needs to be done, in dealing with the problems that are
posed. They are used to complete the work with respect to structure spotting.
Structure spotting is a process that determines the height, location and type of consecutive
structures on the plan profile drawing. Structure spotting should closely conform to the design
criteria established for the line. The following steps should be taken when spotting structures:

Establish the plan profile drawing on a fixed scale

Establish the sag template on the same scale as the plan profile drawing

Make a table showing the conductor clearances to ground as well as relative to other
overhead lines

Decide on the horizontal and vertical span limitations due to clearance and strength
requirements

Towers have to be buried at a certain depth to ensure that they do not collapse. The depth may be
from 6 feet up to the height of the tower.
Two types of towers are used:
1. Towers used for straight runs
2. Towers used when bends have to be made in the path of the line (Deviation Towers)
In putting down deviation towers, guyed wires and guyed blocks have to be used to balance the
tensile forces on the tower. When two forces act on a tower (which is usually the tension of the
line), a resultant force is produced. A guyed wire is used to counteract this resultant force so as to
prevent the tower from collapsing. The guyed block is also used, and this is the buried block to
which the guyed wire is connected. The block is usually buried at an angle to negate the resultant
force on the line. The above description is figuratively shown below.

Figure 1. This is the diagrammatic representation of the use of the deviation tower with the
Guyed Wire

Figure 2. This is the diagrammatic representation of the use of the Guyed Block

Some Basic Definitions to be familiar with

Right Of Way:
This is the legally granted free space that may be leased or purchased when constructing
overhead lines. The right of way has to take into account the environmental and aesthetic value

of the area through which the line passes. In locating towers and stringing the lines, the
electricity commission has to determine the route of the line. Once this is established, then it is
necessary to determine the right of way. In some cases, the right of way cannot be obtained, and
as a result, alternate routes, in which the right of way can be obtained must be devised. Right of
Way must be clear of trees, or any obstructions which may cause the line to fault, or touch, or
even result in the tower collapsing.
Sag:
Sag is defined as the vertical distance between the point where the line is joined to the tower and
the lowest point on the line.

Figure 3. Diagram showing the definition of sag.

The sag is as a result of the tensioning of the line and must not be too low otherwise the safety
clearances may not be met. Also, the sag had to be such that it caters for ice loading in the winter
of temperate climates. If the sag is large, and the line becomes heavily loaded, then the sag will
further increase and breach the safety clearances. Similarly, if the sag is low, then when the line
contracts in the winter, a low sag will indicate a high tension, and as a result of this contraction,
the line may snap. Sag is inversely proportional to the tension of the line, and is given by the
formula below.

For high tensions, the sag should be small.

For low tensions, the sag should be high.
Clearances must also be observed when stringing a line. The normal clearances for overhead
lines are shown in the table below.
Voltage Level
less than 66kV
66kV to 110kV
110kV to 165kV
greater than 165kV

Clearance to Ground
20 feet (6.1m)
21feet (6.4m)
22feet (6.7m)
23feet (7.0m)

Span and Ruling Span:

Span is the horizontal distance between two towers. The Ruling Span is defined as the assumed
uniform span that most closely resembles the variety of spans that are in any particula section of
the line. The ruling span is used to calculate sag and clearances on the plan profile drawing, and
it is necessary in structure spotting. When stringing the line, the general rule is that the spans in
the line should not be more than twice the ruling span, or less than half of the ruling span. The
approximate relationship for the ruling span is given by the formula below.

Overhead Transmission Lines Static

Mechanical Support

Overhead Transmission Lines Principles of Engineering // Static Mechanical Support

Introduction to the designing principles

When designing an overhead transmission line, we should pay attention to ensure that the
tension force does not exceed, in any case, the limit of the mechanical strength of the
conductor.
The maximum stress occurs at the lower temperature,when the line is subjected to contraction,
and a possible ice coating. Moreover, it should be considered that can simultaneously be and
wind pressure on the line. To address these conditions, a requirement, is knowledge of the arrow
of the conductor.
Besides, the arrow determines the height and strength of the supporting towers, as well as the
span length (distance between two towers).

1. Static vision of the transmission line

Even:

l = span length in m (distance between two support points).

L = conductor length in m, corresponding to the opening l.
w = conductor weight in Kpper meter.
T = tensile strength of the transmission line, in Kp.
D = maximum arrow, in m.

2. Transmission line coated with ice & under the effect of wind
Even:
d = conductor diameter in cm.
i = radial ice thickness in cm.
wi= ice weight per meter.
P = wind pressure at speed of 80 km/hr.
W = resultant force (weight and wind pressure).

The vertical component of the arrow:

3. Calculation of the arrow (transmission line construction)

We accept as unfavorable conditions the following:

Ambient temperature -10C

Radial ice coating 1 cm

Wind speed 80 km/hr

With these conditions, we choose 2nd degree safety factor, so that the tension force should not
exceed half the breaking load of the conductor.
During the construction of the transmission line, with the conditions prevailing at the time
(higher temperature and without ice), the tension must be done in such a way that, at the most
unfavorable conditions, the transmission line to have a 2nd degree safety factor.
According to Rapson:

when:
T = tensile strength during the construction, in Kp (is considered constant along the transmission
line).
A = conductor cross section, in cm2
E = yield strength factor, in Kp/cm2
= expansion factor per C.
t = ambient temperature above -10C.
Tc = tensile strength in adverse conditions, in Kp (Tc obtained half of the breaking load).
By solving the above formula, we obtain the value of T. Then, the arrow, during the construction,
is:

4. Transmission line based on different levels

Consider O the imaginary lowest point of the transmission line.
x1 = is the horizontal distance between the lowest support point and the O.
x2 = is the horizontal distance between the highest support point and the O.
D1 = is the imaginary arrow from the lowest support point.
D2 = is the imaginary arrow from the highest support point.
With these data, we have:

We observe that:

From the above, we have:

With the values of x1, x2, the arrows D1, D2 can be calculated, as well as the height of any point
on the transmission line from the ground.

Example //
An overhead transmission line crosses a river and it is based on the two banks by two towers at
height h1=91.4m and h2=45.7m above the water surface. The horizontal distance between the
towers is 335.3 m. The maximum tensile force is T = 1932.3 Kp and the weight of the conductor
is w = 0.884Kp/m.
Determine the height h of the line over the water, midway between the two towers.

Consider O the imaginary lowest point of the transmission line and D1, D2 the arrows from
the lower and the tallest tower respectively.

Transmission line based on different levels

However:

Therefore:

Tower foundation
The foundation is the name given to the system which transfers to the ground the various steady
state (dead) and variable (live) loads developed by the transmission tower and conductors.
Foundations may be variously subjected to compressive or bearing forces, uplift and shear
forces, either singly or as a result of any combination of two or three of the forces.
Usually, the limiting design load with transmission line foundations is the uplift load.

Sunrise Powerlink Steel Cap Micropile Foundation (Patent Pending)

In this respect, there is a major difference between the design of foundations for transmission
lines compared to the design of foundations for most normal civil engineering structures.
Accordingly, the amount of literature describing design techniques for overhead line foundations
is relatively small compared to the literature available for more traditional civil engineering
foundation design practice.
The selected foundation design for a particular tower must provide an economical, reliable
support for the life of the line. The foundation must be compatible with the soil and must not lose
strength with age.
With the progressive increase in transmission system voltages there has been a related increase in
foundation sizes and it is worth noting that with a typical quad conductor 500 kV line, single leg
uplift and ultimate compression loads of 70 or 80 tonnes are usual for suspension towers.
With tension towers, ultimate loads of 200 or 300 tonnes are often developed.
In ground of poor load-bearing capacity the dimensions of foundations become considerable.
In the past, it was often acceptable to over-design foundations to allow for uncertainties in the
soil characteristics. With the large sizes of foundations for EHV and UHV transmission it is
obvious that significant economies can be made in producing foundation designs to exactly
match the soil conditions.
Increasingly, transmission lines are routed through areas of poor ground conditions, often for
reasons of amenity. This results in the need for the use of special, generally larger, foundations.
The logistical problems of installing large foundations, often in difficult ground conditions, must
be taken into account when considering foundation design.

Types of ground

Micro pile Foundation for Transmission Line

The ground in which the foundations are installed can vary from igneous, sedimentary or
metamorphic rock, noncohesive soils, sand or gravel to cohesive soil, usually clays. Equally,
soils with a high organic content, for example peat, can also prevail. Composite soils will also be
found, and examples of these are sandy gravels and silty sand or sandy peat.
Fundamental to the proper design of foundations is an accurate series of soil tests to determine
the range of soil types for which the foundation designs will be required. It is good practice to
carry out soil tests at a rate of 1 in 5 tower sites.
This is generally sufficient to enable an accurate forecast of the range of soil types to be
established.
It should be pointed out, however, that with large towers having 15 or 20 m square bases,
occasionally each of the four legs of a tower may be founded in four different types of ground.

Types of foundation
There are seven basic types of tower foundations:
1. Steel grillage
2. Concrete spread footing
3. Concrete auger or caisson
4. Pile foundation
5. Rock foundation
6. Raft foundation
7. Novel foundations.
Foundation calculations

There are a number of methods of calculation of foundation uplift and bearing capacity. For the
purposes of this article, however, we will confine ourselves to a simple approach which must be
treated with care. Nevertheless, the methods indicated will give reasonably accurate results for
the relatively shallow foundations which are normally employed with transmission line towers.
A shallow foundation is usually defined as one in which the breadth of the pad is greater than the
setting depth.

It is usual to calculate the uplift capacity of a foundation as being equal to the

mass of soil contained in the frustum developed between the base of the foundation
pad and the soil surface.

The angle of the face of the frustum to the vertical is usually designated @ and will vary from
35 to 40 in rock, to 25 in good homogeneous hard clay to zero in saturated noncohesive
ground. The soil density will vary from just over 2000 kg/m3 for homogeneous rock to about
1600 kg/m3 for soil with normal moisture content to about 800 or 900 kg/m3 in the case of
ground subjected to water uplift.
Methods of calculation of uplift capacity are shown below.

Undercut Pyramid Foundation

Undercut pyramid foundation

calculation

Concrete Auger Foundation

Concrete auger foundation

calculation

On hilly terrains the spans would differ considerably and also u may encounter negative wt.span(
already discussed in the forum) which is an up ward pull on the supports.You have to carry out a
survey of the route and profile be taken of the line.Once this is done u can decide the span.
temperature determines the max. sag which occurs at max temp and conductor must be strung
taking this into account.Sag temp curves will be available./in addition with regard to ice loading
the wind on ice coated conductors makes it severe with more area for wind force to act and
thereby on the support.Under these conditions what is termed as Galloping of conductors can
happen which is to be taken in to account while deciding the phase to phase and phase to earth
clearence.
Normal Span in metre is =(CSq Root P-L/D)x0.3048 where P is height of conductor support

L conductor clerence above the ground in metre

C ruling span in metre
D conductor sag at rulin span C in mtre
Ruling span =Sq Root Of sig L cube /sig ma L
It require more detailing and not so easy to present here.Hope u cam make something out of the
above.

2.
CORONA LOSS
Corona phenomenon is the ionization of air surrounding the power conductor

4
] .

It is a phenomena of violent

glow
, production of ozone gas and hissing noise in an overhead power conductor [
5
]. Free air surrounding the power
conductor is not perfect insulator and contains some ionized particles (i.e. free electrons
and positive ions and
neutral molecules due to cosmic
rays, radioactivity, ultraviolent radiation, sun, etc [
6

] when ac p.d is applied across

two conductors whose spacing is large compared to the diameters [
7
], potential gradient is set up in the air between
the two parallel conductors, and increase the co
nducting surface and the velocity of the free electrons, thereby
increasing the electrostatic stress in the air. When the potential gradients reaches or
exceeds a critical disruptive
value of 30kv cm or 21.1kv (rms)/cm [
3, 6
,
7
] the ions attain a sufficiently high velocity and on striking another
neutral molecule, disintegrates one or more electrons from the neutral molecule. This produces a
new electrons and
positive ion which are in turn accelerated until a complete electric b
reakdown occurs and an arc is established
between the electrodes. Thus, the ionization process is cumulative to form corona [
4, 5
,
6
]. Corona
is noted by

a
faint luminous bluish discharge along the length of the conductors and at the same time
a hissing
sound is heard.
Corona discharge is always accompanied by production of ozone, which is dictated by its odour.
Increase in the p.d
increases the intensity of the glow and hissing and consequently cause spark
over between the conductors. The
corona will
be uniform along the length of the conductor if they are smooth and polished. If the
conductors are
rough the glow will be relatively brighter. When dc is applied instead of ac there will
be a difference in the
appearance of the two conductors. The positi
ve conductor will have a smooth glow while the negative conductor
will be spotty. If the spacing is shorter as to compared with the diameters, the sparking
will start without visible
glow [8]

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