Lab Manual Thermal Science and Fluid Mechanics

Revision: September, 2014
INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA
Department of Biochemical-Biotechnology Engineering
Lab Manual for
Biotechnology Engineering Lab II

BTE 2222
Semester 1 (2014/2015)
PREFACE
This course covers experiments in fluid mechanics and thermodynamics. Laboratory
experiments are designed to provide hands-on experience to apply the engineering principles
taught in lectures. In the fluid mechanics laboratory the experiments are: flow in pipes
(determination of friction losses in straight pipes and in different pipe fittings), calculating
flow rate using venturi and orifice meters and pumps in series/parallel. Thermo-fluid
laboratory experiments are: vapour pressure of water at high temperature, heat capacity of
gases, Joule-Thomson effect, thermal and electrical conductivity of metals, and heat pump.
The objectives of this course are to:
1.
Elucidate how to extract the necessary information about the theory and procedure of
an experiment from the laboratory manual.
2.
Enable to operate the various equipment and instrumentation to collect the data
required to fulfill the objectives of each experiment.
3.
Analyze the data using the theory and experimental methods used and compare them
with those available in the literature.
4.
Validate the theory using experimental results and understand the limitation of
experimental results compared to prediction from theory.
5.
Prepare scientific reports following standard format.
6.
Develop the ability to work in a team.
Upon completion of this course, students should be able to:

1. Describe and apply the principles of mechanical energy balance in calculating friction
losses, pressure drop and flow rate through straight pipes and fittings and flow devices
2. Study and distinguish different flow regimes and the law of conservation of momentum
applied to flow in a straight conduits.
3. Measure and differentiate various thermodynamic properties of gases and vapours.
4. Perform experiment to measure the thermal and electrical conductivities of metals.
5. Demonstrate the second law of thermodynamics using a heat pump device.
Biotechnology Engineering Lab II Manual 1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CONTENTS
Page
Preface
Schedule of Experiment
Laboratory Safety Regulations
Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System
Guideline for Laboratory Reports
Marking Scheme for Laboratory Reports
Thermodynamics Experiments
Experiment 1: Vapour Pressure of Water at High Temperature
Experiment 2: Heat Capacity of Gases
Experiment 3: Joule-Thomson Effect
Experiment 4: Thermal and Electrical Conductivity of Metals
Experiment 5: Heat Pump
Fluid Mechanics Experiments
Experiment 1: Friction losses in straight pipes, bends and elbows
Experiment 2: Pumps in parallel and series
Experiment 3: Reynolds Osborne
Experiment 4: Flow rate measurements
Experiment 5: Fans test
Appendices
A: Report Cover Page for Thermodynamics Experiments
45
B: Report Writing Guidelines for Thermodynamics Experiments
47
C: Report Cover Page for Fluid Mechanics Experiments
48
SCHEDULE OF EXPERIMENT
TO BE ANNOUNCED AT THE BEGINNING OF EVERY SEMESTER
LABORATORY SAFETY REGULATIONS

GENERAL
1. Do NOT work with hazardous substances without a second person being
present
2. Do NOT eat, drink or smoke in the laboratory under any circumstances
3. ALWAYS Keep your working area clean and tidy and free of clutter
4. ALWAYS Keep benches tidy and gangways clear
5. ALWAYS support gas cylinders, and ALWAYS close cylinder valves after use
6. ALWAYS label containers in plain English with the common known name of
the substance and the appropriate hazard warning sign
7. ALWAYS secure the tops of reagent bottles immediately after use
8. ALWAYS work with fume cupboard sashes as low as possible and ALWAYS
work towards the back of the cupboard
9. ALWAYS use double containment techniques where possible and drip trays to
limit the consequences of a spillage
10. ALWAYS clear up spillages immediately
11. Do NOT leave equipment using water, gas or electricity on overnight without
completing a Silent Running form, and ALWAYS ensure all water hoses are
secured with jubilee clips
PERSONAL PROTECTION
1. ALWAYS wear a lab coat and appropriate eye protection, e.g. safety
spectacles, goggles or face shield.
2. Lab coats should ALWAYS be buttoned up and NOT worn in amenity areas of
the University.
3. ALWAYS use the appropriate gloves whenever handling chemicals or
hazardous substances, and ALWAYS check their integrity before use, ensuring
they will give you protection against the substance being used
4. ALWAYS wear proper footwear, do NOT wear open toed footwear
EMERGENCIES
1. ALWAYS know where your nearest fire extinguisher and first aid kit are
2. ALWAYS know your emergency escape route and assembly point
STORAGE AND DISPOSAL
1. ALWAYS keep broken glassware and sharps separate from other waste and
ALWAYS dispose of in the appropriate containers
2. ALWAYS return stock bottles/jars/dewars etc of highly flammable liquids or
acids to their correct store cupboard after work has finished
3. Do NOT have more than 500 ml of a flammable solvent in use at any one time
on the bench.
WORKPLACE HAZARDOUS MATERIALS INFORMATION SYSTEM
It is important that All people in the laboratory develop the Know how to work safely and be
ready to deal with accidents and emergencies should they occur.
You dont have to handle a controlled product to be put at risk. The hazards of dangerous
chemicals can affect everybody, but becoming familiar with Workplace Hazardous Materials
Information System (WHMIS) will allow you to protect your health.
CLASS A: COMPRESSED GAS

This class includes compressed gases, dissolved gases, and gases
liquefied by compression or refrigeration.
Preventative Measures:
ensure container is always secured
store in upright position, chained or restrained in a cool, dry
ventilated area
mark empty containers and store separately
use in well ventilated areas
CLASS B: FLAMMABLE AND COMBUSTIBLE MATERIAL
This class includes solids, liquids, and gases capable of catching fire in
the presence of a spark or open flame under normal working
conditions.
Preventative Measures:
store in properly designated areas
work in well ventilated areas
avoid heating or other sources of heat, sparks, or flames
properly ground and bond containers when dispensing these
liquids
GUIDELINES FOR LABORATORY REPORT

Thermodynamics
All reports for thermodynamics part should be submitted two weeks after the experiments
day (the next 2 Fridays when you are coming back for the following thermodynamics lab
session). The report should be handed in to the demonstrator at the Thermal Science lab
before the new experiment starts. Any late submission will not be entertained, unless they are
concrete and unavoidable reasons.
The report should be fully typed. The reports will not be returned to the students. Any
students who wanted to check their report can do so with the instructor at his/her office.
Fluid mechanics
All reports for fluid mechanics part should be submitted one weeks after the experiments day
(the next Friday). The report should be handed at the lecturers office before 3:00 pm. Any
late submission will not be entertained, unless they are concrete and unavoidable reasons.
The report should be fully typed. The reports will not be returned to the students. Any
students who wanted to check their report can do so with the instructor at his/her office.
Each experiment write-up contains a number of questions. These are to be answered in your
Introduction or Theory or Discussion section. Any unanswered question might result a
deduction of marks in your reports
LABORATORY REPORT FORMAT

Title page
Specify the experiments number and its title. Include names of all experimenters,
experimenters matric numbers, experimenters programme (Biotechnology Engineering),
laboratory name (Fluid mechanics or Thermodynamics) and section, date of submission, and
dates when experiments were carried out. Refer to Appendix A for the example of this title
page.
This page should be typed in computer and printed.
Objectives
The objectives are a clear concise statement explaining the purpose of the experiment. The
objectives serve as a guide to the results. This is one of the most important parts of the
laboratory report because everything included in the report must somehow relate to the stated
objectives. The objectives can be as short as one sentence and it is usually written in the past
tense. Do not exceed one page.
However, for this course you just have to copy from lab manual and rewrite it in your reports.
Abstract/Introduction
Summarize the important results. The abstract must be self-contained: do not refer to figures
and tables located in other sections of the report. Do not include tables, figures, and
equations, unless absolutely necessary. Do not assume that the reader will unambiguously
identify undefined symbols. Be precise and succinct. Do not exceed one page. The Abstract
should be written with great care because it is a most important part of the Final Report
and will have a very large impact on the grade assigned to the work.
Procedure
The procedure section should contain a schematic drawing of the experimental setup
including all equipment used in a parts list with manufacturer serial numbers, if any. Show
the function of each part when necessary for clarity. Outline exactly step-by-step how the
experiment was performed as there is someone desires to duplicate it. If it cannot be
duplicated, the experiment shows nothing.
Results
Include all tables and graphs that document your final results. Include all relevant information
so that you can later refer to these figures in the Discussion section to support your
conclusions. If possible, present the results in the same order that you listed the objectives.
Do not discuss the significance of the results. Include only final results that satisfy the
objectives of the experiment; lengthier tables and intermediate figures should be included in
the Appendix. Introduce the reader to each figure and table with a brief paragraph indicating
what variables are plotted or tabulated. Each figure and table must have a unique number and
a title or caption.
Sample Calculations
Give one example of each calculation that leads to a result reported in the document. Include
one calculation for each figure or table reported in the Results section. Introduce each
calculation with a brief paragraph indicating to the reader which specific point in a figure or
entry in a table is being calculated. These calculations are samples only and must be
annotated. Extensive calculations should be included in the Appendix; the Sample
Calculations section can then include appropriate references to the Appendix.
Discussion
This section should give an interpretation of the results explaining how the object (The
Objectives) of the experiment was accomplished. If any analytical expression is to be
verified, calculate % error and account for the sources. (% error An analysis expressing
how favorably the empirical data approximate theoretical information. There are many ways
to find % error, but one method is introduced here for consistency. Take the difference
between the empirical and theoretical results and divide by the theoretical result. Multiplying
by 100% gives the % error. You may compose your own error analysis as long as your
method is clearly defined.) Discuss this experiment with respect to its faults as well as its
strong points. Suggest extensions of the experiment and improvements. Also recommend any
changes necessary to better accomplish the objectives. Use the available theory to explain
why the relevant variables behaved in the observed fashion.
(Each experiment write-up contains a number of questions. Some of these are to be answered
or discussed in the Discussion and Conclusions section.)
Conclusion
Conclude and summarize the discussion. It should not contain any discussion on theory. Do
not exceed HALF PAGE.
References
List all the literature sources that are cited in the report. You may refer this lab manual
References for format reference.
References:
[1] Syed Noh, Fluid Mechanics Lab Manual, pp.10 - 11, IIUM Press, 2006
Appendix
(1) Original data sheet. This original data sheet should be approved by the demonstrator(s)
during the experiment day.
(2) Calibration curves of instruments which were used in the performance of the experiment.
Include manufacturer of the instrument, model and serial numbers. Calibration curves will
usually be supplied by the instructor.
Graphs
In engineering laboratory reports, one of the methods to represent the results is graph. The
graph sometimes summarized the results. An acceptable graph has several features. Some of
the important features are as following.
Axis labels defined with symbols and units.

Each line is identified using a legend.
Data points are identified with a symbol: x on the Qac line to denote data points
obtained by experiment.
Data points are identified with a symbol: o on the Qac line to denote data points
obtained by theoretical.
Nothing is drawn freehand.
Should have number and title; e.g. Fig. E1.1 Volumetric flow rate, Q vs. head drop,
h. Title is descriptive, rather than something like Q vs h
For non-computer generated graph, a graph paper must be used.
THERMODYNAMICS
EXPERIMENTS
EXPERIMENT 1
Vapour Pressure of Water at High Temperature
Introduction
In this experiment, water is heated in a closed pressure chamber; as much water vaporises as
to make the pressure in the chamber correspond to the vapour pressure at the temperature at
any time. The heat of vaporisation is determined at various temperatures from the
measurement of vapour pressure as a function of temperature.
The thermal energy which must be taken up by one mole of liquid, to vaporise at constant
temperature is called the molar heat of vaporisation, .
At a given temperature there is a vapour pressure at which liquid and gaseous phase are in
equilibrium. When a liquid boils the vapour pressure is equal to the external (atmospheric)
pressure.
Objectives
i)
ii)
iii)
To measure the vapour pressure of water as a function of temperature.

To calculate the heat of vaporisation at various temperatures from the values
measured.
To determine boiling point at normal pressure by extrapolation.
Equipment
High pressure vapour unit
High conductive paste
Heating apparatus
Pipette, with rubber bulb, long
Tripod base
Bosshead
Support rod
Procedure
i)
Set-up the experiment as shown in Fig. 1.1.
Fig. 1.1: Experimental set-up for measuring vapour pressure as a function of temperature
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
vi)
vii)
viii)
Fill the high pressure steam unit with distilled water, with the aid of a pipette,
ensuring that there are no air bubbles in the line leading to the pressure gauge.
Now carefully screw the vessel together.
The unit is fastened with a bosshead and lies on the electric heater.
Put the thermometer in the hole provided, which should be filled with head
conductive paste.
Heat the vessel until the gauge reads 3 MPa (30 bar).
Now switch off the heater and record the pressure and temperature as equipment cools
down in Table 1.1.
Check the locking screws from time to time while the equipment is being heated and
cooling down and tighten them if necessary.
Results and discussion

The Clausius-Clapeyron differential equation
dp
(1)
dT T Vvap Vliq .
where Vvap and Vliq are the molar volumes of vapour and liquid.
When the vapour behaves like an ideal gas and
Vvap.
R T
(2)
p
where the universal gas constant, R = 8.3141
J
,
K mol
therefore, (1) become
dp dT
2
p R T
(3)
Assuming to be constant, by integrating we obtain the Vant Hoff equation
ln p
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
1
const
R T
(4)
From the results obtained, calculate for each set of pressure and temperature
1
From the results obtained, plot the graph of ln p vs.
T
From the slope of the graph, calculate the value of . Then calculate the percentage
difference between the value obtained from the graph and the values calculated
earlier.
By extrapolating the straight line in the lower region, determine the boiling
temperature of water at normal temperature.
Table 1.1: Experimental results

Heat of vaporization (water)
(C)
Pressure (Bar)
Run #1
Run #2
Molar (103 J mol-1)

Average
30
29
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
EXPERIMENT 2
Heat Capacity of Gases
Introduction
The first law of thermodynamics can be illustrated particularly well with an ideal gas. This
law describes the relationship between the change in internal intrinsic energy Ui, the heat
exchanged with the surroundings Q, and the constant-pressure change pdV.
dQ = dUi + pdV
(1)
The molar heat capacity C of a substance results from the amount of absorbed heat and the
temperature change per mole:
C
1 dQ
(2)
n dT
n = number of moles
One differentiates between the molar heat capacity at constant volume CV and the molar heat
capacity at constant pressure Cp.
According to equations (1) and (2) and under isochoric conditions (V const., dV = 0), the
following is true:
CV
1 dUi
(3)
n dT
and under isobaric conditions (p = const., dp = 0):

1 dU
dV
Cp i p
(4)
n dT
dT
Taking the equation of state for ideal gases into consideration:

pV = n R T (5)
it follows that the difference between Cp and CV for ideal gases is equal to the universal gas
constant R.
Cp CV = R (6)
It is obvious from equation (3) that the molar heat capacity CV is a function of the internal
intrinsic energy of the gas. The internal energy can be calculated with the aid of the kinetic
gas theory from the number of degrees of freedom, f:
Ui
1
fk B N ATn (7)
2
where
kB = 1.38 10-23 J/K (Boltzmann Constant)
NA = 6.02 1023 mol-1 (Avogadro's number)
Through substitution of
R = kB NA (8)
it follows that
CV
f
R (9)
2
and taking equation (6) into consideration:

f 2
Cp
R (10)
2
The number of degrees of freedom of a molecule is a function of its structure. All particles
have 3 degrees of translational freedom. Diatomic molecules have an additional two degrees
of rotational freedom around the principal axes of inertia. Triatomic molecules have three
degrees of rotational freedom. Air consists primarily of oxygen (approximately 20%) and
nitrogen (circa 80%). As a first approximation, the following can be assumed to be true for
air:
f=5
CV = 2.5 R
CV = 20.8 J K-1 mol-1
and
Cp = 3.5 R
Cp = 29.1 J K-1 mol-1.
Objective
The experiment aims to determine the molar heat capacities of air at constant volume C v and
at constant pressure Cp.
Equipment
Precision manometer
Barometer/Manometer
Digital counter
Digital multimeter
Aspirator bottle (10000 ml)
Gas syringe (100 ml)
Stopcock, 1-way and 3-way
Rubber stopper, d = 32/26 mm, 3 holes
Rubber stopper, d = 59.5/50.5 mm, 1 hole
Rubber tubing, d = 6 mm
Nickel electrode
Chrome-nickel wire
Push-button switch
Procedure
Part A Determining the Constant Value Cv
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
vi)
The setup is as shown in Fig 2.1.

To determine Cv, connect the precision manometer to the bottle with a piece of tubing.
The manometer should be positioned exactly horizontally. Pressure increase has to be
read immediately after the heating process.
Begin the measuring procedure by pressing the push button switch. The measuring
period should be less than a second.
Take readings of the pressure (from the manometer), the current and voltage and record
them in Table 2.1.
Remove the air from the aspirator bottle after each measurement.
Repeat steps iii) to v) in order to obtain 10 sets of results. Vary t within the given
range.
Part B Determining the Constant Value Cp

i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
vi)
The setup is as shown in Fig 2.2.

Replace the precision manometer with two syringes which are connected to the
aspirator bottle with the 3-way stopcock. One syringe is mounted horizontally, whereas
the other syringe is mounted vertically with the plunger facing downwards.
The vertical plunger is rotated before each measurement in order to minimize static
friction.
The air pressure is determined with help of the syringe scale. Take note of the initial
volume of the syringe before performing the experiment.
Begin the measuring procedure by pressing the push button switch. The measuring
period should be less than a second but longer than 300ms.
Take readings of the final volume (from the syringe), the current and voltage and record
them in Table 2.2. Take readings up to 1 decimal point if possible as the difference is
too small.
vii) Remove the air from the aspirator bottle after each measurement and rotate the vertical
plunger.
viii) Repeat steps iv) to vii) in order to obtain 10 sets of results. Vary t within the range
300ms to 1s.

a)
b)
c)
Plot a graph of pressure versus time. Calculate the slope of the graph.
Given that, the indicator tube in the manometer has a radius of r = 2 mm and a pressure
change of p = 0.147 hPa causes an alteration of l = 1 cm in length, calculate a.
Corresponding change in volume is given as V = a p
Calculate Cv.
where
po = 1013 hPa
T0 = 273.2K
V0 = 22.414 l/mol
p = atmospheric pressure
The energy Q is supplied to the gas by the electrical heater:
Q U I t
where
U= the voltage which is applied to the heater wires

I = the current, which flows through the heater wires
t = the period of time in which current flowed through the wires

a)
Plot a graph of volume versus time. Calculate the slope of the graph.
b)
Calculate Cp, given the following information.
where
po = 1013 hPa
T0 = 273.2 K
V0 = 22.414 l/mol
p = pa pk
pa = atmospheric pressure in hPa
pk = pressure reduction due to weight of plunger
pk
Where
c)
mk g
FK
mk = 0.1139 kg = mass of the plunger

g = acceleration of gravity
FK = 7.55 x 10-4 m2 = area of the plunger
Calculate R.
R = Cp Cv
d)
Compare the calculated R to the literature.
Figure 2.1: Experimental setup for Part A
Figure 2.2: Experimental setup for Part B

Table 2.1: Experimental results for Part A
Time (ms)
Pressure (Bar)
Current (A)
Voltage (V)

Table 2.2: Experimental results for Part B
Volume
Time (ms)
Initial
Final
Difference
Current (A)
Voltage (V)
(by calculation)
EXPERIMENT 3
Joule-Thomson Effect
Introduction
In real gases, the intrinsic energy U is composed of a thermokinetic content and a potential
energy content: the potential of the intermolecular forces of attraction. This is negative and
tends towards zero as the molecular distance increases. In real gases, the intrinsic energy is
therefore a function of the volume, and:
During adiabatic expansion

during which also no external work is done, the overall
intrinsic energy remains unchanged, with the result that the potential energy increases at the
expense of the thermokinetic content and the gases cools.
At the throttle point, the effect named after Joule-Thomson is a quasi-stationary process.
A stationary pressure gradient p2 p1 is established at the throttle point. If external heat
losses and friction during the flow of the gas are excluded, then for the total energy H, which
consists of the intrinsic energy U and displacement pV:
In this equation, p1V1 or p2V2 is the work performed by an imaginary piston during the flow
of a small amount of gas by a change in position from position 1 to 2 or position 3 to 4 (see
Fig 3.1). In real gases, the displacement work p1V1 does not equal the displacement work
p2V2; in this case:
Fig 3.1: Throttling and the Joule-Thomson effect
Fig. 3.2: Temperature differences measured at various ram pressures.
This means that, from the molecular interaction potential, displacement work is permanently
done and removed:
The Joule-Thomson effect is described quantitatively by the coefficients
For a change in the volume of a Van der Waals gas, the change in intrinsic energy is
and the Joule-Thomson coefficient is thus
In this equation, cp is the specific heat under constant pressure, and a and b are the Van der
Waals coefficients.
If the expansion coefficients
are inserted, then
The measurement values in Fig. 3.2 give the straight line gradients
and
The two temperature probes may give different absolute values for the same temperature.
This is no problem, as only the temperature difference is important for the determination
Joule-Thomson coefficients.
The literature values are
at 20C and 10-5 Pa,
at 20C and 105 Pa.

For CO2, with
a = 3.60 m6/ mol2
b = 42.7 cm3/ mol
cp = 366.1 J/mol K
the Van der Waals equation gives the coefficient
For air, with

a = 1.40 m6/ mol2
b = 39.1 cm3/ mol
cp = 288.9 J/mol K
the Van der Waals equation gives the coefficient
Objectives
i)
ii)
To determine the Joule-Thomson coefficient of CO2.

To determine the Joule-Thomson coefficient of N2.
Equipment
Joule-Thomson apparatus
Temperature meter digital, 4-2
Temperature probe, immers. Type
Rubber tubing, vacuum, i.d. 8mm
Hose clip f. 12-20 diameter tube
Reducing valve for CO2 / He
Reducing valve for nitrogen
Wrench for steel cylinders
Steel cylinder rack, mobile
Steel cylinder, CO2, 10 l, full
Steel cylinder, nitrogen, 10 l, full
1
1
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
Procedure
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
The set-up of the experiment is as in Fig 3.1.

If necessary, screw the reducing valves onto the steel cylinders and check the
tightness of the main valves.
Secure the steel cylinders in their location
Attach the vacuum between the reducing valve and the Joule-Thomson apparatus with
hose tube clips.
v)
vi)
vii)
On each side of the glass cylinders, introduce a temperature probe up to a few

milimetres from the frit and attach with the union nut.
Connect the temperature probe on the pressure side to inlet 1.
Connect another temperature probe on the unpressurised side to inlet 2 of the
temperature measurement apparatus.
{PRINCIPLE OF THE EXPERIMENT: A stream of gas is fed to a throttling point,
where the gas (CO2 or N2) undergoes adiabatic expansion. The differences in
temperature established between the two sides of the throttle point are measured at
various pressures and the Joule-Thomson coefficients of the gases in question are
calculated.}
Important Note:
a) The experimenting room and the experimental apparatus must be in a thermal
equilibrium at the start of the measurement.
b) The experimental apparatus should be kept out of direct sunlight and other
sources of heating and cooling.
c) Set the temperature measurement apparatus at temperature difference
measurement.
d) Temperature meter should be switched on at least 30 min before performing
the experiment to avoid thermal drift.
e) Open the valves in the following order: steel cylinder valve, operating valve,
reducing valve, so that an initial pressure of 100kPa is established.
f) Reduce the pressure to zero in stages, in each case reading off the temperature
difference five minute after the particular pressure has been established.
g) Perform the measurement for both gases, and determine the atmospheric
pressure and ambient temperature. Record all readings in Table 3.1 for CO2
and Table 3.2 for N2.
Fig. 3.1: Experimental set-up; Joule-Thomson effect
Results and Discussion

a) Plot T versus p graph for both CO2 and N2.
b) Determine CO2 and N2 from the gradient of the graph.
c) Determine CO2 and N2 by calculation (for all available data).
Use the following formula:
d) Calculate the percentage difference.

Table 3.1: Temperature differences at various pressures for CO2
P (bar)
0.50
0.45
0.40
0.35
0.30
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.00
T1 (K)
T2 (K)
T (K)
Table 3.2: Temperature differences at various pressures for N2

P (bar)
T1 (K)
T2 (K)
T (K)
0.50
0.45
0.40
0.35
0.30
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.00
EXPERIMENT 4
Thermal and Electrical Conductivity of Metals
Introduction
If a temperature difference exists between different locations of a body, heat conduction
occurs. In this experiment there is a one-dimensional temperature gradient along a rod. The
quantity of heat dQ transported with time dt is a function of the cross-sectional area a and the
temperature gradient dT/dx perpendicular to the surface.
(1)
where is the heat conductivity of the substance.

The temperature distribution in a body is generally a function of location and time and is in
accordance with the Boltzmann transport equation
(2)
where is the density and c is the specific heat capacity of the substance.
After a time, a steady state
(3)
is achieved if the two ends of the metal rod having a length l are maintained at constant
temperatures T1 and T2, respectively, by two heat reservoirs.
Substituting equation (3) in equation (2), the following equation is obtained:
(4)
Objectives
i)
ii)
To determine the thermal conductivity of copper and aluminium is determined in a

constant temperature gradient from the calorimetrically measured heat flow.
To test the electrical conductivity of copper and aluminium is determined, and the
Wiedmann-Franz law.
Equipment
Calorimeter vessel, 500 ml
Calor. vessel w. heat conduct. conn.
Heat conductivity rod, Cu
Heat conductivity rod, Al
Magn. stirrer, mini, controlable
Heat conductive paste, 50 g
Gauze bag
Rheostat, 10 Ohm , 5.7 A
Immers.heater, 300 W, 220-250VDC/AC
Temperature meter digital
Temperature probe, immers. type
Surface temperature probe
Stopwatch, digital, 1/100 sec.
Tripod base -PASSBench clamp -PASSSupport rod -PASS-, square, l 630 mm
Support rod -PASS-, square, l 1000 mm
Universal clamp
Right angle clamp -PASSSupporting block 1053105357 mm
Glass beaker, short, 400 ml
Multitap transf., 14VAC/12VDC, 5A
Digital multimeter
Universal measuring amplifier
Connecting cord, 500 mm, red
Connecting cord, 500 mm, blue
Procedure
Part A Heat Capacity of the Calorimeter
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
vi)
Weigh the lower calorimeter at room temperature

Measure and record the room temperature.
Prepare hot water and record its temperature.
Pour the hot water into the lower calorimeter.
Immediately take the temperature readings of the hot water in the calorimeter every
10 seconds for 5 minutes. Record them in Table 4.1.
Reweigh the calorimeter to determine the mass of water.
Part B Ambient Heat

i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
The calorimeter is then put under running tap water in order to get it back to room
temperature.
The calorimeter is then filled with ice water. With the assistance of ice, obtain water
with a temperature of 0oC.
When a temperature of 0oC is obtained, remove all the pieces of ice and record the
temperature every minute for 30 minutes in Table 4.2.
Reweigh the calorimeter to determine the mass of water.
Part C Thermal Conductivity

i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
vi)
The setup is as shown in Fig 4.1. In this experiment, the differences in temperature
between the upper and lower mediums are monitored, as well as the temperature of
the water in the lower calorimeter.
The empty lower calorimeter is weighed.
Fill the lower calorimeter with ice water. With the aid of ice, obtain a temperature of
0oC.
When a temperature of 0oC is obtained, pour hot water in the upper calorimeter.
Ensure that the upper calorimeter is well filled with hot water.
Keep the temperature of water in lower calorimeter water at 0oC with the help of ice,
until the difference in temperature between two points on the rod, is steady.
When a constant temperature gradient is obtained, remove all the ice in the lower
calorimeter and begin taking readings of the difference in temperature and the
temperature of the water in the lower calorimeter. Readings should be taken every 30
seconds for 5 minutes and record them in Table 4.3.
Part D Electrical Conductivity

i)
ii)
iii)
The setup is as shown in Fig 4.2. The metal rod in the setup is aluminium.
Ensure that the voltage on the variable transformer is set to 6V.
The amplifier must be calibrated to 0 in a voltage-free state to avoid a collapse on the
output voltage. Select the following amplifier settings:
Input
Low Drift
Amplification
104
Time Constant
iv)
v)
vi)
Set the rheostat to its maximum value and slowly decrease the value during the
experiment.
Collect readings of current and voltage for six rheostat settings (Table 4.4).
Repeat steps i) to v) with the copper rod from the Part B and record all readings in
Table 4.5.
Fig. 4.1: Experimental Set-up for Thermal Conductivity
Fig. 4.2: Experimental Set-up for Electrical Conductivity

Hot water temperature before poured into calorimeter = ____________
Calorimeter Temperature (assume same to Room Temperature) = ___________
Table 4.1
Hot Water
Time (seconds)
Temperature (oC)
Time (seconds)
Temperature (oC)
0
160
10
170
20
180
30
190
40
200
50
210
60
220
70
230
80
240
90
250
100
260
110
270
120
280
130
290
140
300
150
Part B Ambient Heat
Time (mins)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Table 4.2
Cold water
Temperature (oC)
Time (mins)
0
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
Temperature (oC)
Time (seconds)
0
30
60
90
120
150
180
210
240
270
300
Table 4.3
Water Temperature (oC)
0
T (oC)
Reading
1
2
3
4
5
6
Reading
1
2
3
4
5
6
Table 4.4
Aluminium
Current (A)
Voltage (V)
Table 4.5
Copper
Current (A)
Voltage (V)

i)
ii)
From the results obtained, plot a graph of temperature vs. time.

The temperature of the mixture, m , is determined from extrapolating the plotted
curve, as sketched in figure below. The straight line parallel to temperature axis was
drawn such that the shaded parts are equal in area.
u = Temperature of the surrounding atmosphere

1 = Initial temperature
m = Temperature of mixture
iii)
Calculate the heat capacity of the calorimeter using the following equation:
M
C c w mw w
M R
where
cW = Specific heat capacity of water
mW = Mass of the water
W = Temperature of the hot water

M = Mixing temperature
R = Room temperature
Part B Ambient Heat

i)
Calculate the addition of heat from the surroundings.
Q (cW mW C ) T
ii)
iii)
iv)
T = T T0 , (T0 = Temperature at time t = 0)
where
Draw a graph of temperature vs time for the cold water.

Draw a graph of heat from surroundings vs time.
Calculate the slope for the graph which will give you dQ/dtambient.

i)
ii)
iii)
Calculate Q and draw the graph of Q vs. t. Find the slope of this graph, which will
dQ
give you
ambient.+ metal.
dt
dQ
Calculate
metal, given that:
dt
dQ
dQ
dQ
metal =
ambient.+ metal ambient
dt
dt
dt
Given the length of the rod as 31.5 cm and the area as 4.91x10-4 m2, calculate the heat
conductivity of the rod, .
dQ
T
A
dt
x

i)
Calculate the electrical conductivity using the following equation:
ii)
The Wiedmann-Franz Law is as stated below:
l
A R
LT
Calculate the Lorenz number in each case.

iii)
Given that the value of L is as follows, calculate the error in each case.
2 k2
2.4 10 8
3 e
where
k Universal gas constant = 1.38 10-23 J/K
e Elementary unit charge = 1.602 10-19 AS
W
K2
EXPERIMENT 5
Heat Pump
Introduction
Pressures and temperatures in the circulation of the electrical compression heat pump are
measured as a function of time when it is operated as a water-water heat pump. The energy
taken up and released is calculated from the heating and cooling of the two water baths.
When it is operated as an air-water heat pump, the coefficient of performance at different
vaporizer temperatures is determined.
The Mollier (h, log p) diagram, in which p is the pressure and h the specific enthalpy of the
working substance, is used to describe the cyclic process in heat technology. Fig. 5.1 shows
an idealized representation of the heat pump circuit. The curve running through the critical
point K delineates the wet vapor zone in which the liquid phase and gas phase coexist. In this
zone the isotherms run parallel to the h axis. Starting from point 1, the compressor
compresses the working substance up to point 2; in the ideal case this action proceeds without
an exchange of heat with the environment, i.e. isentropically (S = const.). On the way from
point 3 useful heat is released and the working substance condenses. Then the working
substance flows through the restrictor valve and reaches point 4. In an ideal restricting action
the enthalpy remains constant. As it passes from point 4 to point 1, the working substance
takes up energy from the environment and vaporises. The specific amounts of energy q0 and q
taken up and released per kg and the specific compressor work w required can be read off
directly as line segments on the graph.
q0 = h1 h3
q = h2 h3
w = h2 h1
For evaluation purposes the data for the working substance R 134a in the wet vapor zone are
set out in Table 5.1.
Figure 5.1: h, log p diagram of a heat pump, ideal curve.
Table 5.1
Objectives
i)
ii)
iii)
Water heat pump: To measure pressure and temperature in the circuit and in the water
reservoirs on the condenser side and the vaporizer side alternately. To calculate
energy taken up and released, also the volume concentration in the circuit and the
volumetric efficiency of the compressor.
Air-water heat pump: To measure vaporizer temperature and water bath temperature
on the condenser side under different operating conditions on the vaporizer side, i.e.
Natural air, cold blower and hot blower.
To determine the electric power consumed by the compressor and calculate the
coefficient of performance.
Equipment
Heat pump, compressor principle
Lab thermometer, -10+100C
Lab thermometer, w. stem, -10+110C
Heat conductive paste, 50 g
Hot-/Cold air blower, 1000 W
Stopwatch, digital, 1/100 sec
Tripod base -PASSSupport rod -PASS-, square, l 250 mm
Universal clamp with joint
Glass beaker
Glass rod
Procedure
Part A Water-water Heat Pump
i)
ii)
iii)
Pour 4.5L of water into the two water reservoirs.

Record all the initial pressures and temperatures before switching on the heat pump.
Start the stopwatch at the same time the heat pump is switched on. Record the power
reading and the pressure and temperatures on both the vaporizer and condenser side
every minute for approximately 20 minutes (Table 5.2).
Part B Air-water Heat Pump

i)
Remove the water reservoir on the vaporizer side and dry the heat exchanger coils.
ii)
Obtain a temperature of 20oC for the 4.5L water on the condenser side.
iii)
Record all the initial pressures and temperatures before switching on the heat pump.
iv)
Start the stopwatch at the same time the heat pump is switched on. Record the power
reading, and the temperatures at the vaporizer outlet and condenser water temperature,
every minute for approximately 20 minutes (Table 5.3).
v)
Repeat steps ii to iv but with a hot blower and a cold blower approximately 30cm
away.

Time
(min)
Power
(W)
P1
Table 5.2
Condenser
1
ci
co
P2
Vaporiser
2
vi
vo
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
Time
(min)
Natural Air
Power
1
vo
(W)
Table 5.3
Hot Blower
Power
1
vo
(W)
Cold Blower
Power
1
vo
(W)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20

i)
Plot a graph of temperature vs. time for all inlet and outlet.
ii)
Calculations at t = 10mins:
Q c m t
c m
Condenser heat flow, Q
a) Vaporizer heat flow,
b)
c) Average compressor power, P

d) Performance at the condenser side,
Q
P
Q 0
e) Volume flow at the vaporizer side, V v
h1 h3
(v = specific volume of the vapour)
f) Geometrical volume flow, Vg V g f
Given
Vg = 5.08 cm3
f = 1450 min-1
g) Volumetric efficiency of the compressor,
V
Vg

i)
ii)
iii)
iii)
iv)
Plot a graph of temperature versus time for all the results.

Calculate the average vaporizer temperature.
Calculate the condenser heat flow.
Calculate the performance.
Compare the results for all the conditions and discuss.
FLUID MECHANICS
EXPERIMENTS
ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS OF FLUID MECHANICS

The objective of this section is to give an essential idea about Fluid Mechanics that students need to
know before they start to perform an experiment. This section will be divided into three major
subsections which is Fluid Properties, Fluid Visualization and Basic Governing Equation for Fluid
Flow. The way it is written is very brief so that students may need to refer to their reference book(s)
in order to get more explanation. The suggested references are given at References.
Fluid Properties
1. Measure of Fluid Mass and Weight
1.1. Density,
1.1.1. Is defined as mass per unit volume
1.1.2. Liquid have small effects of pressure and temperature while gaseous are strongly
influenced by the change of pressure and temperature
1.1.3. For ideal gas, we can relate density with pressure and temperature by using ideal gas
law
1.2. Specific Weight,
1.2.1. Is defined as weight per unit volume
1.3. Specific Gravity, SG
1.3.1. Is ratio of the density of the fluid to the density of water at some specified temperature
(usually at 4C)
2. Viscosity
2.1. Describe the fluidity of the fluid
2.2. It also indicates the internal resistance of the fluid to a motion
2.3. Also shows tendency of a fluid to stick to other substance or other fluid
2.4. Fluid that the shearing stresses are linearly related to the rate of shearing strains is called as
Newtonian Fluid while fluid behave oppositely is known as Non-Newtonian Fluid
2.5. Non-Newtonian fluid can generally be classified to three type which is Bingham Plastic (e.g.
toothpaste), shear thickening fluid (e.g. starch) and shear thinning fluid (e.g. paint)
2.6. Dynamic viscosity usually referred to as viscosity only
2.7. Kinematic viscosity is the ratio of viscosity (dynamic viscosity) to the density of the fluid.
3. Pressure
3.1. Is defined as force per unit area.
3.2. Pressure at a point in a fluid at rest, or in motion, is independent of direction as long as there
are no shearing stresses present.
3.3. Pressure decreases as we move vertically upward in a fluid at rest.
3.4. For incompressible fluid
3.4.1. Pressure variation in an incompressible fluid is shown as
3.4.2. Pressure head is a height of a column of fluid of specific weight, required to give
pressure, P or pressure difference P1-P2.
3.5. For compressible fluid

3.5.1. Integrate equation of motion for fluid at rest to obtain pressure variation within
compressible fluid.
3.5.2. In integrating this equation, we need to know how the density, thus specific weight,
changes with elevation change.
3.6. Manometer
3.6.1. Piezometer
3.6.2. U-tube manometer
3.6.3. Inclined tube manometer
3.7. Designation of pressure

3.7.1. Absolute pressure
3.7.1.1. Measured pressure relative to the perfect vacuum pressure (absolute zero
pressure)
3.7.1.2. Have only positive value
3.7.2. Gage pressure
3.7.2.1. Measured pressure relative to the local atmospheric pressure
3.7.2.2. Have positive or negative value which indicates either larger or smaller than local
atmospheric pressure.
Fundamental of Fluid Visualizations

1. Streamline
1.1. A streamline is a curve that is everywhere tangent to the instantaneous local velocity vector.
1.2. Streamlines (solid black curves) for the steady, incompressible, two-dimensional velocity
field; where the velocity given by
and velocity vectors (pink arrows) are superimposed for comparison.
2. Streak Line
2.1. A streakline is the locus of fluid particles that have passed sequentially through a prescribed
point in the flow.
2.2. A streakline is formed by continuous introduction of dye or smoke from a point in the flow.
Labeled tracer particles (1 through 8) were introduced sequentially.
3. Timeline
3.1. A timeline is a set of adjacent fluid particles that were marked at the same (earlier) instant in
time.
3.2. Timelines are formed by marking a line of fluid particles, and then watching that line move
(and deform) through the flow field; timelines are shown at t = 0, t1, t2, and t3.
4. Path Line
4.1. A pathline is the actual path traveled by an individual fluid particle over some time period.
4.2. A pathline is formed by following the actual path of a fluid particle.
5. Streamlines, Streaklines and Pathlines for steady flow
Basic Governing Equation for Fluid Flow

1. Control mass
1.1. mass of matters chosen for analysis
1.2. mass is absolutely not allow to move across the boundary but energy maybe move across
1.3. if the energy also not allow to move across then we call it as isolated control mass
2. Control volume
2.1. region in space that been chosen for analysis purpose
2.2. mass and energy allowed to move across it boundary or control surface.
3. Conservation of Mass
3.1. For a mass of a system, conservation of mass states that the time rate of change of mass of
system is equal to zero.
3.2. For a control volume, it states that the time rate of change of the mass of the contents of the
control volume plus the net rate of mass flow through the control surface must equal zero.
3.3. For steady, incompressible flow, the equation reduced to A1V1 = A2V2, where A is the cross
section area and V is the flow velocity.
4. Conservation of Linear Momentum (Newtons 2nd Law)
4.1. For a system, the conservation of linear momentum follows the Newton 2nd Law which states
that time rate of change of the linear momentum of the system is equal to the sum of
external forces acting on the system
4.2. For a fixed and non deforming control volume, the conservation of linear momentum states
that the sum of external forces acting on the control volume is equal to the sum of the two
control volume quantities: the time rate of change of the linear momentum of the contents of
the control volume, and the net rate of linear momentum flow through the control surface.
5. Conservation of Energy (First Law of Thermodynamics)

5.1. The first law of thermodynamics for a system, in words, stated that the time rate of increase
of the total stored energy of the system is equal to sum of the net time rate of energy
addition by heat transfer into the system and the net time rate of energy addition by work
transfer into the system.
where e is energy per unit mass.

5.2. For a control volume it states that, the sum of the time rate of the total stored energy of the
contents of the control volume and the net rate of flow of the total stored energy out of the
control volume through the control surface is equal to the sum of the net time rate of energy
addition by heat transfer into the control volume and the net time rate of energy addition by
work transfer into the control volume.
5.3. In application of this equation, it needs careful interpretation and consideration of each term.
5.4. Work can be transferred by
5.4.1. moving shaft or shaft work
5.4.2. force associated with fluid normal stress

5.4.3. force associated with fluid tangential stress
5.5. For flow where the work by tangential force is zero,
5.6. Extended Bernoulli Equation (steady-in-the mean-flow, one dimensional flow)
or
where
and
5.7. Modified Bernoulli equation where no shaft work involves in the steady one dimensional
flow.
or
with
5.8. Bernoulli equation
6. Bernoulli equation
6.1. Restriction
6.1.1. One dimensional flow or applicable along a streamline
6.1.2. Incompressible flow
6.1.3. Inviscid flow or frictionless flow
6.1.4. Steady flow
6.1.5. No shaft work involves
6.2. Pressure terms
6.2.1. The first term is called static pressure or the actual thermodynamics pressure
6.2.2. Second term is called dynamic pressure
6.2.3. Third term is called hydrostatic pressure
6.2.4. The fourth term is the total pressure
6.2.5. The summation of dynamic and static pressure is called stagnation pressure where the
velocity at that point is equal to zero
EXPERIMENT #1
FRICTION LOSSES
1.1: IN STRAIGHT PIPES
1.2: FRICTION LOSSES IN PIPES CONSISTING OF BENDS AND

ELBOWS
QUESTIONS
1. Derive Bernoulli Equation from the First Law of Thermodynamics. During the derivation,
state all assumption and consideration clearly.
2. What are the Hydraulic Grade Line and Energy Grade Line? How the two lines relates to each
other? How the two lines relates with Bernoulli Equation?
3. What is the restriction of Bernoulli Equation?
1. By using all answers for the questions above, explain what you should do in the experiments
in order to achieve the objectives.
2. Derive Extended Bernoulli Equation and Modified Bernoulli Equation from the First Law of
Thermodynamics. What are the different between the two equations?
3. What are major losses, minor losses and head loss?
4. What is the equation to determine head loss for straight pipe?
5. For a system with a constant diameter of straight pipe and not involving any pump work, how
can we determine the head loss?
6. What is the friction factor? How we can determine it experimentally? How it change with
Reynolds Number?
7. What is Moody Diagram? What we can obtain from it?
8. What is equation to determine head loss for minor losses?
9. For a system with one bend and not involving any pump work, how we can determine the
head loss for the bend?
10. What is loss coefficient? What is equivalent length? How the two relates?
11. For a system (in a horizontal plane) consist of 2 similar elbows and 3 straight pipes with a
constant diameter and having same length as shown in the Fig. Q9.
Elbow with equivalent

length Le
Elbow with equivalent

length Le
Fig. Q9
Explain how we can determine the head loss for the system and show that we can determine
the friction factor for the system if we apply the Modified Bernoulli Equation to the system
12. How we can determine pressure drop from the head loss?
EXPERIMENT # 2
PUMPS IN SERIES & PARALLEL
OBJECTIVES
The objectives of the experiment are:
1. To demonstrate pump performance when connected in series and parallel
2. To show shut off point of pump in series and parallel
LEARNING OUTCOMES
It is expected by completing the experiment, the students will be able:
1. To estimate power requirement for a pump as a function of its throughput, pressure increase and
efficiency
2. To analyze pump network for pipelines operating under pressure
THEORY/BACKGROUND
{More in reference book [1] section 14-2}
In selecting a pump fro a given situation, we have a variety of pumps to choose among. The
manufacturers provide the pump performance information such as the pump performance curves. The
engineers task is to the pump or pumps that best fits in with the system characteristics.
One of the considerations in fulfilling a system characteristic is whether to combine a pump in one
system or not. The combination may be in parallel or series.
By examining pump performance curve for pumps in series and pumps in parallel, we easily can say
that the pumps in series tend to increase head but pumps in parallel tend to increase capacity.
For this experiment,
1. Determine:
a. Average velocity of the fluid flow
b. Required net head by solving energy equation
c. Pump efficiency
2. Plot on the same set of axes the graph of available net head, pump efficiency and required net
head as a function of capacity (volumetric flow rate).
3. From the graph, determine (if possible)
a. Shut off head for each pump
b. Free delivery
c. Best efficiency point
d. Operating point
EQUIPMENT
Pump in Series and Parallel Apparatus
PRECAUTIONS ON HANDLING EQUIPMENT
1. Never operate the pumps when there is no liquid in the pipeline. It will cause serious damage
to the pumps.
2. Do not operate pump above and below its limit operation as given below:
ORIENTATION
Single
Series
Parallel
MINIMUM FLOW RATE (L/min)

20
20
40
MAXIMUM FLOW RATE (L/min)

90
90
180
QUESTIONS
1. Explain the purpose to connect pump in series and parallel.
2. How would the performance curve for pump in series or parallel differ with single pump?
3. Illustrate the performance curve for pumps in series and single pump in one figure and pumps
in parallel and single pump in another figure.
4. What is shut off point? What should we do at shut off point?
5. How we can determine shut off point?
6. Two reservoirs A and B are connected with a long pipe that has a characteristics such that the
head loss through the pipe is expressible as hL=20Q2, where hL is in feet and Q is the flow rate
in 100s of gpm. The water-surface elevation in reservoir B is 35 ft above that in reservoir A.
Two identical pumps are available for use to pump the water from A to B. The characteristic
curve of each pump when operating at 1800 rpm is given in the following table
Operation at 1800 rpm
Head, ft
100
90
80
60
40
20
Flow rate, gpm

0
110
180
250
300
340
Table E6.1
At the optimum point of operation, the pump delivers 200 gpm at a head of 75 ft. Determine
the flow rate under the following conditions
i. A single pump operating at 1800 rpm
ii. Two pumps in series, each operating at 1800 rpm
iii. Two pumps in parallel, each operating at 1800 rpm
What happen if the elevation different between reservoir A and B is greater than 100 ft?
7. Repeat question (1.) if reservoir B is 20 ft below reservoir A and compare with the previous
answer. Give your opinion upon the comparison.
8. Repeat question (1.) with the pumps operating at 1500 rpm. Compare the answer and discuss
it.
Operation at 1500 rpm
Head, ft
83.33
75.00
66.67
50.00
33.33
16.67
Flow rate, gpm

0.00
76.39
125.00
173.61
208.33
236.11
Table E6.2
9. For situation in question (1.), determine the flow rate under the following conditions
i. Two pump in series, one operating at 1800 rpm and another is 1500 rpm
ii. Two pump in parallel, one operating at 1800 rpm and another is 1500 rpm
Where is the shut off point for both combinations?
REFERENCES
[1] Yunus A. Cengel and John M. Cimbala, Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications,
McGraw-Hill, 2006.
[2] Bruce R. Munson, Donald F. Young and Theodore H. Okiishi, Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics,
5th ed., Wiley Asia Student Edition, 2006.
[3] Clayton T. Crowe, Donald F. Elger and John A. Roberson, Engineering Fluid Mechanics, 8th ed.,
Wiley, 2005
[4] E. John Finnemore and Joseph B. Franzini, Fluid Mechanics with Engineering Applications, 10th
ed., International Edition, McGraw Hill, 2006.
[5] Robert W. Fox and Alan T. McDonald, Introduction to Fluid Mechanics, 5th ed., Wiley.
EXPERIMENT # 3
REYNOLDS OSBORNE EXPERIMENT
OBJECTIVES
1. To demonstrate laminar, transition and turbulent flow
2. To introduce Reynolds number to classify laminar, transition and turbulent flow
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. To describe laminar, transition and turbulent flow
2. To determine critical Reynolds number for laminar, transition and turbulent flow
THEORY/BACKGROUND
{More in reference book [1] section 8-2}
Fluid flow can be classified to three regimes which is laminar, transitional and turbulent regime.
Laminar regime is a regime where the flow is characterized by smooth streamlines and highly ordered
motion. Turbulent is a regime where flow is characterized by velocity fluctuations and highly
disordered motion. Transitional regime is where the flow fluctuates between laminar and turbulent
before it becomes fully turbulent.
The transitional from laminar to turbulent flow depends on geometry, surface roughness, flow
velocity, surface temperature, and type of fluid. However, Osborne Reynolds discovered that the flow
regime mainly depends on the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces. This ratio is what we called as
Reynolds number.
At small or moderate Reynolds numbers the viscous forces are large enough to suppress theses
fluctuations and to keep the fluid in line. Thus, the flow is streamlined and in ordered motion.
However, at large Reynolds numbers, the inertial forces, which are proportional to the fluid density
and the square of the fluid velocity, are large relative to the viscous force. As the results, the viscous
force cannot prevent the random and rapid fluctuations of the fluid. Thus, the flow will be in
disordered motion.
The boundary of Reynolds number for laminar, transitional and turbulent regime varies by geometries
and flow condition. For example, flow in a circular pipe is laminar for Reynolds number less than
2300, turbulent for Reynolds number larger than 4000 and transitional in between. However, we will
have other boundaries if the pipe cross sectional area is a square.
[This part was taken with some modification from textbook Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and
Applications; Yunus A. Cengel and John M. Cimbala; McGraw Hill, 2006.]
This experiment is to visualize the laminar, transitional and turbulent flow in a pipe and to determine
the boundary of Reynolds number for flow in the pipe.
First by controlling the flow rate, establish the laminar flow. Then by slowly increase the flow rate
observes what happened to the dye streak. Record the flow pattern change and its volumetric flow rate
reading. Determine the boundary of Reynolds number for laminar, transitional and turbulent regime.
EQUIPMENT:
Hydraulic Bench
Reynolds Experiment Apparatus
QUESTIONS
1. Describe what is laminar, transition and turbulent flow. Illustrate the flows.
2. What is Reynolds Number? What is the critical Reynolds Number?
3. How we can classify the flow regimes by using Reynolds Number?
4. What is the critical Reynolds Number that Reynolds Osborne obtained from his experiment
for circular pipe?
EXPERIMENT # 4
FLOW RATE MEASUREMENT
OBJECTIVES
1. To show the measurement of flow rate
2. To show the application of Bernoulli equation in flow rate measurement
3. To show effect of minor losses and its modification in flow rate measurement
4. To demonstrate piezometer as a method to measure pressure
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. To determine flow rate by using orifice meter, Venturi meter and rotameter
2. To explain how to calculate ideal flow rate by using Bernoulli equation
3. To determine the correction factor for by using an elbow and a sudden expansion
4. To measure pressure by using piezometer
THEORY/BACKGROUND
{More in reference book [1] section 5-4 and 8-8}
There are various ways of measuring volumetric flow rate. Some flow meters measure the flow rate
directly by discharging and recharging a measuring chamber of known volume continuously and
keeping track of the number of discharges per unit time. However, most flow meters measure the flow
rate indirectly they measure the average velocity V or a quantity related to average velocity such as
pressure and drag, and determine volume flow rate, Q from Q = AV, where A is cross sectional area of
flow.
Obstruction Flow Meters: Venturi Meter and Orifice Meter
One way to measure flow rate is to put obstruction in a pipe flow such as a throat (Venturi Meter) and
simple obstruction that reduced the cross sectional area (Orifice Meter).
Theoretical ideas behind these flow meters are the conservation of mass and the Bernoulli equation.
From conservation of mass we know that reduce of cross sectional area will contribute to an increase
of velocity. Thus, from Bernoulli equation, this will lead to a decrease of static pressure. These kinds
of flow meters did not measure the flow rate or velocity directly but it measures the drop of static
pressure. Then the velocity can be calculated from Bernoulli equation and conservation of mass.
The same idea can be applied for sudden expansion and elbow meter.
Rotameter
Rotameter is also known as variable-area flow meter or float meter. A rotameter consists of a vertical
tapered conical transparent tube made of glass or plastic with a float inside that is free to move. As
fluid flows through tapered tube, the float rises within the tube to a location where the float weight,
drag force and buoyancy force are balance each other and the net force acting on the float is zero. The
flow rate is determined by simply matching the position of the float against the graduated flow scale
outside the tapered transparent tube.
Coefficient of Discharge
For rotameter the flow rate can be read directly from scale at tapered tube. However, for obstruction
flow meter, we need to consider a loss due to viscous (frictional) effects. As we know the Bernoulli
equation did not include the viscous effects. The for, any calculation that calculated from the
conservation of mass and Bernoulli equation is an ideal volumetric flow rate, not an actual one. Thus,
to determine an actual volumetric flow rate a correction factor need to be introduced to the ideal flow
rate equation. This correction factor is called as coefficient of discharge. The coefficient of discharge
can be defined as the ratio of actual flow rate to the ideal flow rate.
Loss coefficient
Due to viscous effects, there are losses at the obstruction. The losses at the obstruction can be
considered as minor losses. If the pressure drop and average velocity is known, then the loss
coefficient can be determined since the pressure drop is proportional to velocity.
This experiment is to demonstrate flow rate measurements.
For every reading for orifice meter, Venturi meter, elbow and sudden expansion read the reading of
rotameter.
For Orifice meter, Venturi meter, sudden expansion and sudden contraction:
1. Measure pressure drop (in term of head) as a function of valve opening.
2. Determine theoretical flow rate and actual flow rate.
3. Determine Reynolds number
4. Determine coefficient of discharge
5. Prepare the following graph
a. On the same set of axes, plot actual volume flow rate vs. pressure head drop and
theoretical flow rate vs. pressure head drop with flow rate on the vertical axis for
obstruction flow meter
b. Plot actual volumetric flow rate vs. ideal flow rate for rotameter
For 90 elbow:
1. Determine the loss coefficient by plotting graph pressure head drop vs. V2/2g (where V is
average velocity and g is gravitational acceleration)
** Refer Appendix B for specification of Venturi, Orifice, Elbow, sudden expansion and sudden
contraction
EQUIPMENT:
Hydraulic Bench
Flow Meter Apparatus
QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
What is the principle behind the obstruction flow meter?

How to measure theoretical flow rate from obstruction flow meter?
Derive theoretical flow rate equation for obstruction flow meter.
Explain what is the coefficient of discharge, Cd?
How we can calculate the coefficient of discharge experimentally?
Explain what the function of piezometer is and how to use it. Illustrate the piezometer.
What is loss coefficient?
How to determine loss coefficient for sudden enlargement and 90 elbow experimentally?
Explain how rotameter works.
By using all answers for the questions above, explain what you should do in the experiments
EXPERIMENT #5
FAN TEST
QUESTIONS
1. Describe and illustrate Pitot-static tube.
2. Explain how to determine volumetric flow rate by using Pitot-static tube.
3. What is velocity profile?
4. Describe and illustrate velocity profile of fully developed laminar flow and fully developed
turbulent flow in a circular cross-section pipe.
Appendix A: Reports Title Page
FINAL LABORATORY REPORT

BIOTECHNOLOGY ENGINEERING LAB II
(BTE 222)
SECTION 1
EXPERIMENT #1
FRICTION LOSSES
EXPERIMENTERS
1. SYED NOH SYED ABU BAKAR, 044856
2. SYED MOHD KHAIRUDIN SYED ALI, 033426
3. MOHD NOOR ZAINAL ABIDIN, 023442
DATE OF EXPERIMENTS
Friday, 15th December 2006 (8:30 a.m. to 11:30 p.m.)
DATE OF SUBMISSION
Friday, 22nd December 2006
Appendix B: Specification for Flow Meter Apparatus
Appendix C: Formula to Calculate Cross Sectional Area, Hydraulic Diameter and Height from
Datum Line for Rectangular Throat
Appendix C: Specification for Friction Losses Apparatus
2
1
Datum line
15 mm
A3
H
g
hH
A( x) H
x w
L
hH
2w H
x
L
DH ( x)
hH
w H
x
L
Cross-section area variation for

fluid flow beneath the
piezometer tube
Hydraulic diameter variation

for the cross-section area for
fluid flow beneath the
piezometer tube
z ( x) 8.5(10 3 )
3
x
70
Height from the datum to the

center of the cross-section of flow
variation (will be explained)
KULLIYYAH OF ENGINEERING
REPORT ASSESSMENT RUBRIC
Course Code & Title:
Semester: 1 2014/2015
Instructor:
Demonstrator:
Name of Experiment:
Roles
Student Name
Matric
Leader:
Secretary:
Time Keeper:
Reporter:
Items
Unacceptable
Score
(0 <4)
General report format
Compliance
Do not follow the
to Format
guideline, no
guideline
consistency in
(W = 10)
format. Intelligible
writing, loose pages.
Timeliness
(W = 5)
Report handed in
more than one week
late.
Report Content
Demonstrate poor
Introduction
understanding on
/ background
the topic.
(W = 20)
Insufficient
explanations and
elaboration.
the overall purpose
Objectives
for undertaking the
research or
(W = 10)
experiment(s) is not
stated fully, and is
unclear
Experimental
or
theoretical
work
(W = 10)
No clear description
of techniques and
procedures used.
Disorganized and
unclear narrative.
Satisfactory
Good
(4 <6)
(6 <8)
Follow few of the

guidelines but with
significant mistakes.
Legible writing, some
ill-formed letters, print
too small or too large,
papers stapled together.
Generally follows the

engineering format
with some but no
Legible writing, wellformed characters,
clean and neatly bound
in a report cover.
Fully in accordance to
engineering format as
specified
in a report cover.
Up to one week late.
Up to two days late.
Report handed in on
time.
Demonstrate limited
understanding on the
topic by giving limited
explanations and
elaboration.
the overall purpose for
undertaking the
research or
experiment(s) is stated
fully, but in an unclear
manner
Fairly addresses and
cites techniques and
procedures
appropriately.
Explanations are vague,
some times confusing
Demonstrate some
topic by giving fair
amount of
explanations and
elaboration.
undertaking the
research or
fully, but could have
been worded more
concisely/directly
Clearly addresses the
techniques and
procedures used,
Explanations are fairly
organized and clear.
Outstanding/Excellent Score Mark

(S)
(8 10)
(S x W)
Demonstrate high
topic by giving proper
explanations and
elaboration.
undertaking the
research or
in a clear, concise
manner.
techniques and
procedures used,
Well organized, clear
and concise narrative.
Result and
discussion
(W = 10)
Conclusion
(W = 10)
Provides limited
analysis of the data.
Presents an illogical
explanation of
findings
Demonstrates
limited ability to
draw conclusions
based on the data.
Does not address
any of the questions
raised in the
objectives.
but can be understood.

Provides some analysis
of the data. Presents
some logical
explanation of findings
but some times
confusing.
Demonstrates some
ability to draws
conclusions based on
the data. Does not
address many of the
questions raised in the
objectives.
No or poor
reference,
improperly cited,
questionable sources
Writing skills
Poor grammatical
Grammar,
structure with many
punctuation
grammatical errors,
and
improper
vocabulary
punctuation and lack
(W = 5)
of proper
vocabulary
Coherence of Writing information
in a terrible manner
discussion
and contain
(W = 5)
disjointed sentences.
Weak/poor
Logical
statement of
argument
explanation with no
and clarity
evidence for support
(W = 5)
W =100
Draws valid
the data. Addresses
some of the questions
raised in the
objectives.
Provides rich analysis

of the data. Presents a
logical and convincing
Draws insightful
the data. Addresses
most of the questions
raised in the objectives.
Not properly cited or

incomplete, some
sources are
questionable for an
academic work.
Most are properly

cited with minor
inconsistency in
formatting of list.
Sources are
appropriate and
reputable.
All are properly cited,

list of reference are in
order, Sources are
appropriate and
reputable
Fair grammatical
structure with some
grammatical errors.
Proper use of
punctuation and fair
usage of vocabulary
Uses proper grammar

and spelling; clear
transitions. Grammar
structure adequate.
Excellent grammatical
structure used. Proper
use of punctuation and
rich of vocabulary.
Writing information in
a simple way with less
continuity.
adequate manner and
flows well.
interesting way and
flows well.
Provides statements of
explanation, weak
evidence for support.
Provides clear
argument with fair
evidence to support.
Provides strong, clear,

convincing argument
Provides relevant
Reference
(W = 10)
Provides sufficient
Presents a logical
explanation of
findings.
Total Mark
Final score percentage (%) = (Total Mark/W)*100
Date:_________________ Examiner:_____________________________________ Signature:________________
Appendix B
Report Writing Guidelines for Thermodynamics Experiments

1.
2.
3.
4.
Use the provided cover page.

The report (excluding the cover page & Lab data sheet) shall be not more than TEN (10) pages.
Line Spacing between sentences: 1.15
The report shall comprises of the following:
a. Introduction
The introduction defines the subject of the report. It must outline the scientific purpose(s) or
objective(s) for the research performed and give the reader sufficient background to understand the
rest of the report. Care should be taken to limit the background to whatever is pertinent to the
experiment. A good introduction will answer several questions, including the following:
Why was this study performed?
Answers to this question may be derived from observations of nature or from the literature.
What is the specific purpose of the study?
The specific hypotheses and experimental design pertinent to investigating the topic should be
described.
b. Materials and methods
List everything needed to complete your experiment. Describe the steps you completed during your
investigation. This is your procedure. Be sufficiently detailed that anyone could read this section and
duplicate your experiment. Write it as if you were giving direction for someone else to do the lab. It
may be helpful to provide a Figure to diagram your experimental setup.
c. Result
Numerical data obtained from your procedure should be organized into tables, figures, graphs,
photographs, and so on. Data encompasses what you recorded when you conducted the experiment.
It's just the facts, not any interpretation of what they mean.
All figures and tables should have descriptive titles and should include a legend explaining any
symbols, abbreviations, or special methods used. Figures and tables should be numbered separately
and should be referred to in the text by number, for example:
Figure 1 shows that the activity decreased after five minutes.

The activity decreased after five minutes (fig. 1).
Figures and tables should be self-explanatory; that is, the reader should be able to understand them
without referring to the text. All columns and rows in tables and axes in figures should be labeled.
See appendix B for graphing instructions.
This section of your report should concentrate on general trends and differences and not on trivial
details. Many authors organize and write the results section before the rest of the report.
d. Discussion
This section should not just be a restatement of the results but should emphasize interpretation of
the data, relating them to existing theory and knowledge. Speculation is appropriate, if it is so
identified. Suggestions for the improvement of techniques or experimental design may also be
Appendix B
included here. In writing this section, you should explain the logic that allows you to accept or reject
your original hypotheses. You should also be able to suggest future experiments that might clarify
areas of doubt in your results.
e. Conclusion
Most of the time the conclusion is a single paragraph that sums up what happened in the experiment,
whether your hypothesis was accepted or rejected, and what this means.
f. References
This section lists all articles or books cited in your report. The listing should be alphabetized by the
last names of the authors. Different types of references require different formats of citation. Please
use either APA citation format (http://www.apastyle.org/learn/tutorials/basics-tutorial.aspx) or
IEEE citation format (http://www.ieee.org/documents/ieeecitationref.pdf).
g. Your lab data sheet (signed by your demonstrator)
Bibliography for Appendix C

http://chemistry.about.com/od/chemistrylabexperiments/a/labreports.htm
REPORT ASSESSMENT RUBRIC
Course Code:
Semester:
1 2014/2015
Instructor:
Student Name:
Matric Num:
Name of Experiment:
Items
Unacceptable
Score
(0 <4)
General report format
Compliance
Do not follow the
to Format
guideline, no
guideline
consistency in
(W = 10)
format. Intelligible
writing, loose pages.
Timeliness
(W = 5)
Report handed in
more than one week
late.
Report Content
Demonstrate poor
Introduction
understanding on
/ background
the topic.
(W = 20)
Insufficient
explanations and
elaboration.
the overall purpose
Objectives
for undertaking the
research or
(W = 10)
experiment(s) is not
stated fully, and is
unclear
Experimental
or
theoretical
work
(W = 10)
Result and
discussion
(W = 10)
Conclusion
(W = 10)
No clear description
of techniques and
procedures used.
Disorganized and
unclear narrative.
Provides limited
Presents an illogical
explanation of
findings
Demonstrates
limited ability to
draw conclusions
based on the data.
Does not address
any of the questions
Satisfactory
Good
(4 <6)
(6 <8)
Follow few of the

guidelines but with
Legible writing, some
ill-formed letters, print
too small or too large,
papers stapled together.
Generally follows the

engineering format
with some but no
in a report cover.
Fully in accordance to
engineering format as
specified
in a report cover.
Up to one week late.
Up to two days late.
Report handed in on
time.
Demonstrate limited
topic by giving limited
explanations and
elaboration.
undertaking the
research or
fully, but in an unclear
manner
Fairly addresses and
cites techniques and
procedures
appropriately.
Explanations are vague,
some times confusing
but can be understood.
Provides some analysis
of the data. Presents
some logical
but some times
confusing.
Demonstrates some
ability to draws
the data. Does not
address many of the
questions raised in the
Demonstrate some
topic by giving fair
amount of
explanations and
elaboration.
undertaking the
research or
fully, but could have
been worded more
concisely/directly
Outstanding/Excellent Score Mark

(S)
(8 10)
(S x W)
Demonstrate high
topic by giving proper
explanations and
elaboration.
undertaking the
research or
in a clear, concise
manner.

techniques and
procedures used,
Explanations are fairly
organized and clear.

techniques and
procedures used,
Well organized, clear
and concise narrative.
Provides sufficient
Presents a logical
explanation of
findings.
Provides rich analysis

of the data. Presents a
logical and convincing
Draws valid
the data. Addresses
some of the questions
raised in the
objectives.
Draws insightful
the data. Addresses
most of the questions
raised in the objectives.
raised in the
objectives.
objectives.
Not properly cited or

incomplete, some
sources are
questionable for an
academic work.
Most are properly

cited with minor
inconsistency in
formatting of list.
Sources are
appropriate and
reputable.
All are properly cited,

list of reference are in
order, Sources are
appropriate and
reputable
Fair grammatical
structure with some
grammatical errors.
Proper use of
punctuation and fair
usage of vocabulary
Uses proper grammar

and spelling; clear
transitions. Grammar
structure adequate.
Excellent grammatical
structure used. Proper
use of punctuation and
rich of vocabulary.
a simple way with less
continuity.
adequate manner and
flows well.
interesting way and
flows well.
Provides statements of
explanation, weak
evidence for support.
Provides clear
argument with fair
Provides strong, clear,

convincing argument
Provides relevant
Reference
(W = 10)
No or poor
reference,
improperly cited,
questionable sources
Writing skills
Poor grammatical
Grammar,
structure with many
punctuation
grammatical errors,
and
improper
vocabulary
punctuation and lack
(W = 5)
of proper
vocabulary
Coherence of Writing information
in a terrible manner
discussion
and contain
(W = 5)
disjointed sentences.
Weak/poor
Logical
statement of
argument
explanation with no
and clarity
evidence for support
(W = 5)
W =100
Total Mark
Final score percentage (%) = (Total Mark/W)*100
Date:_________________ Examiner:_____________________________________ Signature:________________

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INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA

Department of Biochemical-Biotechnology Engineering

Lab Manual for

Biotechnology Engineering Lab II

Prepare scientific reports following standard format.

Develop the ability to work in a team.

Upon completion of this course, students should be able to:

Biotechnology Engineering Lab II Manual 1

Laboratory Safety Regulations

Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System

Guideline for Laboratory Reports

Marking Scheme for Laboratory Reports

B: Report Writing Guidelines for Thermodynamics Experiments

C: Report Cover Page for Fluid Mechanics Experiments

Biotechnology Engineering Lab II Manual 2

TO BE ANNOUNCED AT THE BEGINNING OF EVERY SEMESTER

Biotechnology Engineering Lab II Manual 3

LABORATORY SAFETY REGULATIONS

Biotechnology Engineering Lab II Manual 4

WORKPLACE HAZARDOUS MATERIALS INFORMATION SYSTEM

CLASS A: COMPRESSED GAS

Biotechnology Engineering Lab II Manual 5

GUIDELINES FOR LABORATORY REPORT

LABORATORY REPORT FORMAT

Biotechnology Engineering Lab II Manual 6

Biotechnology Engineering Lab II Manual 7

Axis labels defined with symbols and units.

Biotechnology Engineering Lab II Manual 8

Biotechnology Engineering Lab II Manual 9

To measure the vapour pressure of water as a function of temperature.

Biotechnology Engineering Lab II Manual 10

Set-up the experiment as shown in Fig. 1.1.

Results and discussion

When the vapour behaves like an ideal gas and

Biotechnology Engineering Lab II Manual 11

where the universal gas constant, R = 8.3141

therefore, (1) become

Assuming to be constant, by integrating we obtain the Vant Hoff equation

Biotechnology Engineering Lab II Manual 12

Table 1.1: Experimental results

Molar (103 J mol-1)

Biotechnology Engineering Lab II Manual 13

and under isobaric conditions (p = const., dp = 0):

Taking the equation of state for ideal gases into consideration:

Biotechnology Engineering Lab II Manual 14

and taking equation (6) into consideration:

Biotechnology Engineering Lab II Manual 15

The setup is as shown in Fig 2.1.

Part B Determining the Constant Value Cp

The setup is as shown in Fig 2.2.

Biotechnology Engineering Lab II Manual 16

Results and discussion

The energy Q is supplied to the gas by the electrical heater:

U= the voltage which is applied to the heater wires

Part B Determining the Constant Value Cp

Calculate Cp, given the following information.

Biotechnology Engineering Lab II Manual 17

mk = 0.1139 kg = mass of the plunger

Compare the calculated R to the literature.

Figure 2.1: Experimental setup for Part A

Figure 2.2: Experimental setup for Part B

Biotechnology Engineering Lab II Manual 18

Part A Determining the Constant Value Cv