THE NATURE AND

PROPERTIES OF
MATERIALS

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Outline
Atomic Structure and the Elements
Bonding between Atoms and Molecules
Crystalline Structures
Noncrystalline (Amorphous) Structures
Engineering Materials

Why Materials are important in

Manufacturing?
Manufacturing is a transformation process
It is the material that is transformed
And it is the behavior of the material when
subjected to the forces, temperatures, and
other parameters of the process that
determines the success of the operation

Materials in Manufacturing
Most engineering materials can be classified into one
of three basic categories:
1. Metals
2. Ceramics
3. Polymers
Their chemistries are different
Their mechanical and physical properties are
dissimilar
These differences affect the manufacturing processes
that can be used to produce products from them

Ceramics

Compounds containing metallic (or semimetallic) and nonmetallic elements.

Typical nonmetallic elements are oxygen,
nitrogen, and carbon
For processing, ceramics divide into:
1. Crystalline ceramics includes:
Traditional ceramics, such as clay (hydrous
aluminum silicates)
Modern ceramics, such as alumina (Al2O3)
2. Glasses mostly based on silica (SiO2)

Polymers

Compound formed of repeating structural

units called mers, whose atoms share
electrons to form very large molecules
Three categories:
1. Thermoplastic polymers - can be subjected to
multiple heating and cooling cycles without
altering molecular structure
2. Thermosetting polymers - molecules
chemically transform (cure) into a rigid
structure cannot be reheated
3. Elastomers - shows significant elastic behavior

In Addition: Composites
Nonhomogeneous mixtures of the other three
basic types rather than a unique category

Composites
Material consisting of two or more phases that are
processed separately and then bonded together to
achieve properties superior to its constituents
Phase - homogeneous mass of material, such as
grains of identical unit cell structure in a solid metal
Usual structure consists of particles or fibers of one
phase mixed in a second phase
Properties depend on components, physical shapes
of components, and the way they are combined to
form the final material

Atomic Structure and the

Elements
The basic structural unit of matter is the
atom
Each atom is composed of a positively
charged nucleus, surrounded by a
sufficient number of negatively charged
electrons so the charges are balanced
More than 100 elements, and they are
the chemical building blocks of all
matter

Element Groupings
The elements can be grouped into
families and relationships established
between and within the families by
means of the Periodic Table
Metals occupy the left and center portions
of the table
Nonmetals are on right
Between them is a transition zone
containing metalloids or semi-metals

Periodic Table

Microscopic Structures of Matter

Atoms and molecules are the building
blocks of more macroscopic structure of
matter
When materials solidify from the molten
state, they tend to close ranks and pack
tightly, arranging themselves into one of
two structures:
Crystalline
Noncrystalline

Microscopic Structures in Solids

Atoms in Pure Pt

20 x 20
astro.virginia.edu

Crystalline Structure
Structure in which the atoms are located
at regular and recurring positions in
three dimensions
Unit cell - basic geometric grouping of
atoms that is repeated
The pattern may be replicated millions
of times within a given crystal
Characteristic structure of virtually all
metals, as well as many ceramics and
some polymers

Simple Cubic

Body-centered cubic (BCC) crystal structure:

(a) unit cell, with atoms indicated as point locations in a
three-dimensional axis system
(b) unit cell model showing closely packed atoms
(sometimes called the hard-ball model)
(c) repeated pattern of the BCC structure

Crystalline Structure

SC
Po

BCC
Fe,Cr,W
Mo,

FCC
Al,Ni,Cu,
Au,Ag

DC
Si,Ge,Diamond

Crystalline Structure
Magnesium, Titanium,
Zinc

Crystal Structures for Common

Metals
(at Room Temperature)
Body-centered cubic (BCC)
Chromium, Iron, Molybdenum, Tungsten

Face-centered cubic (FCC)

Aluminum, Copper, Gold, Lead, Silver,
Nickel

Hexagonal close-packed (HCP)

Magnesium, Titanium, Zinc

Microstructure

10 m

100 nm
1

Microstructure

10 m

Pure Iron

10 m

Steel (Fe with 0.8 wt% C)

Imperfections (Defects) in Crystals

Imperfections often arise due to inability of
solidifying material to continue replication of
unit cell, e.g., grain boundaries in metals
Imperfections can also be introduced
purposely; e.g., addition of alloying
ingredient in metal
Types of defects:
1. Point defects
2. Line defects
3. Planar defects

Point Defects
Imperfections in crystal structure involving
either a single atom or a few number of
atoms

Point defects: (a) vacancy, (b) ion-pair vacancy, (c) interstitialcy, (d)
displaced ion (Frenkel Defect)

Line Defects
Connected group of point defects that
forms a line in the lattice structure
Most important line defect is a
dislocation, which can take two forms:
Edge dislocation
Screw dislocation

Edge Dislocation
Edge of an extra plane of atoms that
exists in the lattice

Symbol

Screw Dislocation
Spiral within the lattice structure wrapped
around an imperfection line, like a screw
is wrapped around its axis

Screw Dislocation

Planar Defects
Imperfections that extend in two directions
to form a boundary are called Planar
Defects
Examples:
Twining (Cu, Ti, Zn)
grain boundaries are internal surface
interruptions

Twinning

Twinning

ENGINEERING MATERIALS

ENGINEERING MATERIALS
Materials
Metal
Ferrous
Non-Ferrous

Non-metal

Composites

Ceramics

Plastics

Ferrous Metals

Steels
Fe-C alloy with C content varying from 0.02
2 wt%
Classification
Plain C steels
Alloy steels

Fe-C phase diagram: basis for steels and cast irons

Wt % C

Wt% Ni

Tetrahedral Void

Octahedral Void

Plain C Steels
Classification
Low C steel: < 0.3% C
Medium C Steel: 0.3 0.8% C
High C Steel: > 0.8% C
Small amounts of other elements (0.4% Mn,
0.05% S, 0.04% P)
C content hardness and ductility

Alloy Steels
Definition
Alloy of iron and carbon containing high
amount of alloying element other than
elements in carbon steels.
Properties
Gives better strength , ductility and
toughness compared to plain carbon
steels.

Cast Iron
Manufacture
Product that comes out of the BF is Pig
Iron
Composition: 3-4 % C, 1.5-2.5 % Mn , 1-3 %
Si + S and P

When it is cast directly it is called Cast Iron

Properties
Good in compression, bad in tension
Brittle

 Good corrosion resistance

Corrodes readily under atmospheric conditions, then
protective film will form
Used in water pipes.

Good vibration damping capacity

More than 100 times better than steel and 2000 times
better than Al
Fatigue resistant

Machinability: Good to bad

Usage
Engine blocks
Machine frames

 Effect of alloying elements

Mn improves strength and hardness
Cr improves corrosion resistance, strength,
wear resistance, hot hardness
Ni improves strength, toughness
Mo increases tensile and creep strength at
high temperature

Types of alloy steels

Stainless steel
Large family of steel containing at least 11.5
% Cr . Corrosion resistance due to formation
of Cr2O3
Most stainless steels show good short time
strength up to 11000 C compared to plain C
steels, which lose their usefulness above
510o C.
Thermal conductivity of stainless steels are
poor. Copper cladding is often used in
cooking utensils for distributing heat.

 Tool steels
Contains elements such as C (0.8-1.3 %), Mn
(0.2-1.6 %) , Cr , W , Va , Mo , Co .
A class of high C alloy steels that is both
shock and wear resistant.
Withstand high temperatures.

Steel for electrical and magnetic

applications
Contains 0.5 5% Si.
Increases electrical conductivity and
permeability.
Used in electric motors generators and
transformers.

Reduces power loss associated heat problems .

Non-Ferrous Metals

Thanks for your attention.

See you next time!

K.Biswas MME, IITK

Aluminium
Predominantly used in aerospace industry
( 80.0% weight / commercial aircraft ) in
the form of Al/Al alloy
Al has emerged as a valuable source of
metal for the automobile industry .

Titanium
Properties between those of steel and Al.
Strong, lightweight, corrosion resistance.
Mechanical properties are retained up to
5350C.
Problems with Ti:
Chemically very active in molten state,
absorbing O2 or N2 from air with ruinous
capacity.
Difficult and costly to produce.

High Temperature Metals/Alloys

Jet engines, gas turbines, rocket and
nuclear applications require materials
high strength,
creep resistance
corrosion resistance

at temperatures in excess of 11000C .

Future jet engine temperatures may be
well above 1400oC

Properties of Al/Al alloys

High strength /weight ratio
Ease of machining and forming
Resistance to (i) atmospheric corrosion
and (ii) attack by certain chemicals.
High electrical conductivity.

Al-Li alloys
Each % of Li (up to 4%) reduces weight by
3 % and increases stiffness by 6%
Greater fatigue resistance
Will reduce weight of commercial aircraft
by 10-15%.

Superalloys
Ni, Fe, Ti and Co form the base of these
materials
Aerospace: Ti- based superalloys (Al, C, Mo,
V)
Turbine blades are Ni-based (Fe, Cr)

Refractory Metals
Nb (2470OC), Mo (2610OC),Tantalum
(3000OC), W (3410OC).

Ceramics

Compounds of metallic and nonmetallic

elements. Often in the form of oxides,
carbides and nitrides
Characteristics
Very high M.P (>1500OC)
Compressive strength can be 5 to 10
times of tensile strength.
Very Brittle and lack of ductility. Some
ceramics like SiC and SiN offer moderate
toughness.

 E higher than steels. Very stiff and

considerably harder .
Especially useful as wearresistant parts and
for abrasive (grinding wheel) and cutting tools
(Co bonded WC).

Applications
SiC and SiN work well in high-stress, hightemperature applications such as turbine
blades.
May replace Ni or Co based superalloys
SiN is one-half the weight of stainless steel

Sialon(Si-Al-N) : It is stronger than steel

extremely hard and as light as
aluminium
Good resistance to wear and thermal shock
Electrical insulator
Retains good tensile and compressive
strength up to 1400oC

Ceramics engine blocks

Refractory materials in furnaces and high
temperature reactors

 Heating elements for furnaces e.g. SiC

Substitutes for joints/bones, dental
implants.

Composite Materials
Heterogeneous solid consisting of two or
more different materials
that are
mechanically or metallurgically bonded
Advantages
Can combine conflicting properties such
as
ductility
and
strength/hardness,
resulting in a new material with a unique
combination of:
Low weight
Stiffness, strength and creep resistance

 Corrosion resistance
Hardness
Conductivity

Classification
Laminar/layer composites
Plywood: layers of wood bonded together with
their grain orientations at different angles
Improves strength and fracture resistance
Reduces swelling and shrinkage

Safety glasses(wind shield): Adhesive layer

placed between two pieces of glass
Retains fragments when glass is broken

 Particulate Composites
Discrete particles of one material surrounded
by matrix. Common example is concrete
Hard particles-soft matrix
Pronounced strengthening, better creep
resistance, toughness

Examples
Cemented carbides that are used as tools
WC, TaC, or TiC dispersed in a metal matrix,
generally cobalt.
Hard, stiff carbides can withstand high cutting
temperatures, but is extremely brittle
Toughness imparted by cobalt matrix

 Properties depend on
Size of the particles
Volume fraction of particles
Mechanical properties of particles and matrix

Fibre Composites
Most popular composite
Matrix provides ductility and toughness
Fibre carries the load
Graphite and kevlar (FFT) most popular fibres
Kevlar: Low (1/2 of Al), High UTS (4 -5 times that
of steel, Al)

Glass fibres most widely used in polymers

 SiC and Al2O3 main fibre materials for

ceramics
Polymeric matrix used for low temperature (<
300oC) applications
Metal matrix used for high temperature
applications
Examples
Steel-reinforced concrete
Nylon-reinforced tyres
Glass fibre-reinforced plastics for car bodies,
furnitures
Boron-reinforced aluminium composites for
aircraft and rocket components

 Sporting equipment such as tennis rackets,

skis, fishing rods
FFT: Tennis rackets, Pole vault

Properties depend on
Properties of fibres
Volume fraction of fibres
Aspect ratio of fibres
Orientation of fibres
Degree of bonding between matrix and fibres
Properties of matrix

Exam Question
Select material for fabrication of objects
such as spoons, glasses, scooter brake
wires, railway tracks, gears, tennis racket,
cycle parts, car bodies
State functionality
Expected mechanical and other properties
Material to be used: cast iron, carbon steel,
alloy steel, composite etc.
Too much specificity such as exact
composition not required