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Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 31 (2011) 11541158

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Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering


journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/soildyn

Delay time optimization in blasting operations for mitigating the


vibration-effects on nal pit walls stability
X.Z. Shi a,b,n, SH.R Chen a
a
b

School of Resources and Safety Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, China
Postdoctoral Workstation of Daye Nonferrous Metals Company, Huangshi 435005, China

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history:
Received 14 March 2009
Received in revised form
1 April 2011
Accepted 10 April 2011
Available online 2 May 2011

Blasting induced vibration is one of the fundamental problems in the open-pit mines and intense
vibration can cause critical damage to structures and plants nearby the open-pit mines, especially to
the nal pit walls stability. It is very important to study how to control vibration induced by blasting in
the mitigation of negative effects of blasting in open-pit mines. This study aims to examine the
propagation of blasting induced ground vibrations and nd the feasible approaches to reduce the
harmful effects of vibrations induced by blasting on the nal pit walls stability. For this purpose,
a series of eld experiments were conducted in XinQiao Mining Co. Ltd. Sixty-six events and the
blasting parameters of these shots were carefully recorded. During the statistical analysis of the
collected data, the predictor equation proposed by the United States Bureau of Mines (USBM) was used
to establish a relationship between the Peak Particle Velocity (PPV) and the Scaled Distance (SD) factor.
The relationship between PPV and SD was determined and proposed to be used in this open-pit mine.
Control of maximum charge amount per delay and the selection optimum interval time to reduce the
intensity of vibration by waveform interference were applied in practice. Based on the eld
experiments, we can determine the maximum charge amount per delay and 15 ms delay were
proposed to be used in this site, and a decrease in vibration of 24.5% was obtained.
Crown Copyright & 2011 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords:
Open-pit mine
Blasting induced vibrations
Final pit walls stability
Waveform interference

1. Introduction
Xinqiao Mining Co., Ltd has an open-pit mine with 4 million
ton Pyrites production p.a. At present, the nal pit walls with
about 200 m height have occurred. According to the mining
project, the height of the slope will increase to 400 m or above
when the open-pit mine will be closed. Pre-splitting blasting has
almost not been adopted near the nal pit walls during mining
in the past, as a result, the slopes surface is not smooth, and
the rock mass of the slope adjacent to surface was deteriorated
to some extent. The nal pit walls have the characteristics
of great height, steep, complexity rock properties and low
stability. Small landslide of the nal pit walls has occurred many
times in Xinqiao Mining. Vibrations induced by mining blasting
are considered to have the most negative effects on the nal
pit walls stability. Control and reducing negative effects of the
vibrations induced by blasting on the nal pit walls stability
in this open-pit mine is a critical problem, which affects the

n
Corresponding author at: School of Resources and Safety Engineering, Central South
University, Changsha 410083, China. Tel.: 86 13974801752; fax: 86 73188879612.
E-mail address: sxzcsu@163.com (X.Z. Shi).

mining safety and the sustainable development of Xinqiao


Mining Co., Ltd. It is very important to measure and control
the vibrations induced by blasting with a greater degree of
accuracy.
There are a number of documents devoted to study the
blasting induced vibrations in open-pit mines, such as Malmagren
and Nordlund [1], Dowing and Gilbert [2], Adiguzel [3] and
Siskind et al. [4]. In this investigation, many statutory measures
have been given to prevent the damaging capabilities of blasting
induced vibrations. As we all know, it is well accepted that the
Peak Particle Velocity (PPV) is regarded as the most appropriate
and accurate indicator of possible damage. PPV is used as a
damage criterion but it could not explain its effect on the
facilities, which may be situated very far away from the center
point of blasting location and even damaged when PPV is very
low. So some researchers used spectral analysis to study the
vibrations induced by blasting and the results illustrated that low
frequency ground vibrations have more damaging capabilities
than those of high [5]. Articial neural networks have been used
to predict and control ground vibration in mines but its accuracy
depends on the number of inputs [57].
Various countries have their own specications set on the
basis of case study of observed damages and their safety consciousness. Early years, the criteria for estimating the damage

0267-7261/$ - see front matter Crown Copyright & 2011 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.soildyn.2011.04.004

X.Z. Shi, SH.R Chen / Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 31 (2011) 11541158

1155

levels was based on PPV developed by various researchers such as


Kuzu cengiz and Ergin Hasan, 2005; Khandelwal M. and Singh TN.,
2007; Singh TN., 2004 [810]. Both PPV and frequency were used
as the damage criterion in the 1980s and later years. There have
been various research studied to eliminate or mitigate the
negative effects of blasting induced vibrations. One group tries
to mitigate vibration by changing explosive type or amount, blasthole geometry. Another group aims at decreasing the opening
articial discontinuities such as pre-splitting, barrier holes and
trenches [1113].
The intensity of blasting induced vibration often makes the
nal pit wall slide. The purposes of this study are to determine the
propagation characteristics of vibrations induced by blasting
based on eld monitoring in this site after the geometric blasting
parameters (sub-grade, depth, burden, spacing and collar) are
xed, and also to give some feasible measures to mitigate the
negative effects of blasting induced vibrations on the nal pit
walls stability.

be taken account into evaluating blasting induced vibrations


damage [14]. Dynamic stress ratio was proposed to be taken as
indictor to study slope stability in other research projects by our
group [15].
Particle vibrations induced by blasting include vertical vibration velocity, radial vibration velocity and tangential velocity.
A number of site measuring results showed that the peak vertical
particle vibration velocity is the biggest among the three components of vibrations induced by blasting. So the peak vertical
particle velocities of the monitoring points have been tested at
the scene.

2. Geology and monitoring points

!a
R
PPV K p
K  SDa
Q

The rock type of nal pit walls includes hardness rock and
some soft rock. Hard strata include Troilite, Scapolite, Dolomite
and Quartz. These strata have great solidity. Jointing is well
developed. Softy strata include schermakite, Phengite, Zoisite
and these strata are greatly affected by geology structure.
To survey more blasting induced vibrations parameters, monitoring points should be placed from shot location center to far
away from blasting center. Selected monitoring station points
should be convenient to assemble instruments and the representatives of points are also considered. In this site, 6 monitoring
station points were placed at benches with different elevations.
Seismic YBJ-1 type of blasting induced vibrations self-recording
instrument produced by Yangtze River Scientic Research Institute and CD-1 type of velocity recording instrument supplied by
Beijing Instrument Factory were adopted in this study. The
vibrations induced by blasting can be grouped into two types
based on frequency. High frequency varied between 22 and 80 Hz
while low frequency ranged from 6 to 12 Hz [8]. The frequency
range of 5500 Hz measuring system is often selected according
to the common blasting induced vibration frequency. Monitoring
station points should be located on the bedrock rather than
recovering soil. At rst, using water to wash bedrock surface,
then, using sand, cement and water to ll the surface and make
the surface smooth. Before measuring, use gypsum powder and
water to x velocity recording instruments at the monitoring
station points.

3. Procedures of investigations for blast induced vibrations


3.1. Indicators of vibration density
It is well known that indicators of blasting induced vibrations
intensity include particle displacement, particle velocity, particle
acceleration and frequency. It is not unication view, which
indicators should be the best way to evaluate the effects of
damage caused by blasting induced vibrations, and now most
researchers support the view that PPV is the most appropriate
indicator of blasting induced vibrations. Particle velocity,
frequency, particle displacement and particle acceleration are
considered in the criterion of blasting induced vibrations damage
level in Sweden, but in USA., Germany and Finland, particle
velocity and frequency are both considered [5]. In China, Blasting
Safety Regulations supports that PPV and frequency should

3.2. Empirical attenuation equation


For PPV predictions, a lot of predictors were proposed in
literatures by different researchers [9]. Empirical Eq. (1) has been
selected to be used in this study [16]:

where Q is the maximum charge amount per delay in kg, R is the


distance between the monitoring station points and the center of
shot location in meters, SD is scaled distance in m/kg1/2. K and a
are site factors that vary with foundation conditions, blasting
geometry and type of explosives, which can be determined by
regression analysis.
The vibrations induced by blasting data pairs were transformed into loglog space, we can get
lg PPV lgKa lgSD

Field tests were located at the south side of the open-pit mine.
The elevation of shot location center is 294.00 m. The parameters
of charge amount per delay and the distance between the shot
location center and the station were recorded carefully. The
distances between shot points and monitor stations were determined by GPS. Sixty-six station points were selected on the spot.
The diameter of hole is 250 mm, the burden is 5 m, the bore
spacing is 6 m, the row spacing is 5 m, the depth of bore is 14 m
and ANFO are used at this open-pit mine. Basic parameters
related to blasting induced vibrations and eld test results are
given in Table 1.
Sixty-six records of blasting induced vibrations are to be
analyzed. When statistical analysis techniques are applied to
analysis blasting induced vibrations data pairs, peak particle
velocity and scaled distance factor give a site-specic velocity
empirical attenuation equation (see formula (3)). By using Mat lab
software, these data pairs with respect to predictors, were
subjected to regression analysis.
PPV 812:83  SD1:12

R2 0:84

where, R2 is coefcient of correlation. The R2 quantity is generally


accepted as a basic measure of the quality of the t. The highest
value of R2 is obtained from the prediction equation. So this
prediction empirical equation can be accepted as the attenuation
empirical formula of this open-pit mine and can be used in the
preparation of practical blasting charts. In order to increase the
condence of prediction, the obtained prediction model should be
updated by including new shots records in the regression analysis
data. The measuring points and the regression curve can be
shown graphically in Fig. 1.

1156

X.Z. Shi, SH.R Chen / Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 31 (2011) 11541158

Table 1
Vibration measurements taken in the site.
SD (m/kg1/2) PPV (mm)

Frequency
(Hz)

SD (m/kg1/2)

PPV (mm)

Frequency
(Hz)

6.07
12.03
30.43
33.55
39.61
9.74
8.01
10.96
20.18
23.04
35.49
41.77
4.82
3.92
5.20
9.55
10.93
11.38
13.49
16.92
19.94
4.75
8.91
13.35
25.71
46.02
34.67
13.58
26.91
34.90
45.89
57.24
6.94

64.3
32.6
26.4
18.3
10.7
36.9
48.1
62.9
40.3
45.2
10.5
9.3
48.9
39.1
90.4
32.3
29.8
16.2
12.8
18.3
16.7
78.2
43.2
32.0
12.7
13.9
11.6
21.0
13.4
12.8
11.2
10.8
43.7

6.28
12.33
21.94
39.26
67.33
74.66
78.05
87.55
103.76
5.10
9.21
16.89
29.35
32.61
35.27
38.35
45.59
51.97
23.45
26.72
18.92
33.45
43.21
24.52
56.21
31.41
42.58
5.87
7.62
13.45
24.74
25.62
28.71

146.7
67.1
52.1
5.6
7.1
6.2
5.8
4.9
3.9
173.1
150.2
90.6
38.6
26.3
14.7
13.2
10.6
8.9
24.0
18.1
27.9
14.9
13.2
21.0
9.4
17.0
10.4
105.0
74.8
41.6
22.8
19.2
17.3

49.8
42.3
38.4
5.3
10.2
12.7
11.2
7.9
6.8
102.4
87.2
42.1
21.0
14.3
10.8
11.7
12.5
9.8
14.7
12.5
17.0
14.9
10.2
13.8
10.6
14.2
11.9
62.8
32.8
26.7
16.1
15.3
12.7

122.8
57.0
25.5
14.5
9.0
40.2
54.0
116.3
55.8
47.7
8.8
8.1
72.1
85.9
163.6
61.4
50.5
36.0
30.1
23.5
19.7
143.0
71.6
45.9
22.3
11.7
16.0
45.0
23.2
14.9
16.8
12.2
84.2

Control of maximum charge per delay, pre-splitting blasting,


adjusting the direction of the burden, decoupling charge structure, etc., measures are commonly used to reduce blasting
induced vibrations intensity. Adjusting the direction of the
burden tends to be limited by geology and production scale. In
this site, in addition to using the pre-splitting blasting method to
maintain the nal pit walls stability, control of maximum charge
per delay and waveform interference caused by delay blasting
were used to mitigate the possible hazard on nal pit walls.
Empirical attenuation Eq. (3) reects the propagation characteristics of blasting induced vibrations in this open-pit mine and
the formula can be changed to the following formula:

1:786
PPV  R1:12
Q
4
812:83
According to the above formula, as long as determining the
threshold damage limits of the nal pit walls stability is concerned, maximum charge amount per delay in this site permitted
in order to maintain the nal pit walls stability can be determined by formula (4). The threshold damage limit of PPV can be
determined by industry norms, and it can also be determined
based on the conditions of the site including geological structures
distributions and the nature of the rock. After a series of surveys
and studies, PPV values of 180 mm/s was denoted as the criterion
to prevent the nal pit walls from damage under the action of
blasting induced vibrations [17]. In practice, we can determine
the maximum charge amount per delay by the empirical Eq. (4).
According to the production scale, the total charge amount of a
shot can be determined. So we can determine the number of
delays based on total charge amount of a shot and maximum
charge amount per delay. The most signicant aspect ion mitigating the damage is the increased number of delays, which can
minimize the amount of explosive detonated at any instant,
reducing negative effects of vibrations induced by blasting,
especially in areas of sensitive slope stability.
Chinese Standards of slopes stability permitting peak particle
velocity advised by national safety regulation of blasting is listed
in Table 2.

2.5
Data Points
Best Linear Fit
2

4.2. Practical blasting charts

LogPPV

1.5
lgPPV = - 1.12lgSD + 2.91
1

0.5

0
0.4

0.6

0.8

1.2

1.4 1.6
LogSD

1.8

2.2

2.4

Fig. 1. LogSDLogPPV graphs for records.

4. Field tests

The frequencies of recorded peak particle velocities are given


in Fig. 2. This graph shows that a major part of the recorded
frequencies varies from 10 to 50 Hz. The ratio of vibrations with
frequencies between 10 and 50 Hz dominates 82% and the ratio of
vibrations with frequencies of higher than 50 Hz is 10%. The ratio
of vibrations with frequencies of lower than 10 Hz is 8%. So it can
be said that the open-pit mine can be classied as a low
frequency site.
Based on the empirical attenuation equation, PPV and maximum charge amount per delay for this open-pit mine can be
estimated by chart given in Figs. 3 and 4.
Peak particle velocity depending on maximum charge amount
per delay and the distance from shot location center to
Table 2
Blasting induced vibration permitted according to Chinese standard.
Protective structure

4.1. Determination of maximum charge amount per delay


In order to suppress the blasting induced vibrations effects and
mitigate the possible hazard on nal pit walls stability, the value
of PPV induced by blasting should be controlled within the
threshold damage limits of the Blasting Safety Regulations.

House built of soil


House built of brick
Reinforced concrete structure
Ancient relic
Roadway in mine

Permitted PPV /cm/s/


o10 Hz

1050 Hz

50100 Hz

0.51.0
2.02.5
3.04.0
0.10.3
1530

1.11.5
2.32.8
3.54.5
0.20.4

1.11.5
2.73.0
4.25.0
0.30.5

X.Z. Shi, SH.R Chen / Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 31 (2011) 11541158

1157

and distance (R) can be predicted. It should be pointed out that


the values of PPV are based on the threshold damage limits of the
Chinas Blasting Safety Regulations and the requirements of this
open-pit mine. As an example, maximum charge amount per
delay is estimated to be 169 kg at 180 mm/s PPV level at a
distance of 50 m. Maximum charge amount per delay was
estimated at the 180 mm/s PPV level, which is the threshold
damaged limit for the nal pit walls at a distance of 50 m.
In the chart given in Fig. 4, maximum charge amount per delay
depending on PPV and distance (R) can be predicted.
These charts given in this paper can be used as a practical
guide for blasting operations at this open-pit mine.

>50Hz 11%
<10Hz 8%

11-50Hz 82%

4.3. Waveform interference


Fig. 2. Vibration frequency of recorded events.

300

250
R = 50m

PPV (mm/s)

200

150
R = 100m
100
R = 150m
R = 200m
50
R = 250m
0
50

100

150

200
250
Q (kg)

300

350

400

Fig. 3. PPV estimation graphs depended on Q and R.

Maximum charge amount per delay(kg)

3500
PPV1 = 200mm/s
PPV2 = 180mm/s
PPV3 = 150mm/s
PPV4 = 100mm/s
PPV5 = 50mm/s

3000
2500
2000

1
1500

2
3

1000
4
500
5
0
20

40

60

80

100 120
R (m)

140

160

180

200

Fig. 4. Charge weight estimation graphs based on PPV and R.

monitoring points can be estimated by Fig. 3. For example, the


peak particle velocity is estimated to be 57.72 mm/s for 200 kg
charge amount per delay at a distance of 150 m. In the chart given
in Fig. 3, PPV depending on maximum charge amount per delay

Control of maximum charge per delay is used to suppress the


blasting induced vibration and mitigate the possible hazard on
slope, at the same time, larger charge amount of each blasting is
expected to guarantee a certain production scale. Therefore there
is a certain contradiction between the maintenance of nal pit
walls stability and the guarantee of a certain production scale.
Delay blasting is often used to solve the contradiction pointed
above. Millisecond detonator is widely used in all kinds of openpit mines to mitigate the negative effects of blasting induced
vibrations. The vibrations of monitoring station points are caused
by all intervals initiated simultaneously. If the delay time
is shorter, conditions are more complicated, as there will be
co-operation between the different wave systems resulted by
different intervals. How the different factors of time delay,
numbers of holes and frequency affect the nal result has been
made clear by Shouru CHEN et al. [18]. Interference of blasting
induced vibrations is obtained, which implies that, when the
delay time T is as great as the vibration time T, or an integral
multiple hereof, co-operation is obtained between the different
delays so that the vibration effect adds up. This applies when H is
an integer in the ratio THT. On the other hand, when H is an odd
number of semi-values the different wave systems extinguish or
weaken one another. With interval times, which are small in
relation to the natural vibration time, the number of intervals (n)
is chosen large enough to ensure that n amounts to the time of at
least one full period we approach the state in which the vibrations
from each shot have largely died away before the succeeding one
manifests its maximum amplitude. A eld experimental work was
conducted to study the vibration interference effects. Sequential
blasting machine was used in this test.
ANFO was kept the same as it had been used on the spot. In a
typical arrangement of blast, the diameter of hole is 250 mm, the
burden is 5 m, the hole spacing is 6 m, the row spacing is 5 m, the
depth of hole 14 m. 2160 kg of ANFO is charged into the 15
blasting holes. The intervals are arranged in 2 rows. The blasts in
per row are detonated at a certain delay time. Sequential blast
machine is used to control the delay time of intervals and in this
experiment the delay times are, respectively, taken as 15, 25, 30,
35 and 40 ms. To obtain a realistic result, sixty shots were carried
out and the vibrations of monitoring station points were
recorded. The vibrations caused by a single interval charge of
monitoring station points having the same distance from shot
location center were also eld measured. The success ratio of
vibrations reduction and the decrease degree of vibrations are
given in Table 3.
The ratio of times of decrease vibrations intensity dominating
the total experiment times can be dened as the success ratio. We
surveyed vibration intensity induced by different interval time,
and compare the peak particle velocity values to those intensities
induced by single row blasting, and we can analyze the efciency
of decrease vibration interference of different delay times. It can

1158

X.Z. Shi, SH.R Chen / Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 31 (2011) 11541158

Table 3
Results of vibration reduction experiments.
Delay time (ms)

Reduction ratio (%)

Success ratio (%)

15
25
30
35
40

24.5
 23.7
 34.3
12.1
21.4

77.6
49.0
50.0
70.5
74.6

be seen from the test results that, when delay time is 15 ms, the
success ratio of vibrations reduce and the decrease degree of
vibrations are high, but when delay time is 25 or 30 ms, the
vibrations of different intervals are magnied. In practice, delay
detonators with 15, 30, 45, 60, 75, 90, 105 and 135 ms delay times
have been used in this open-pit mine. The intensity of vibrations
induced by blasting was reduced by 24.5% on the new interval
ring. The blasting induced vibrations have been measured in this
site for a long period, and the results illustrate that mitigating the
intensity of blasting induced vibrations by waveform interference
in this open-pit mine is effective.

5. Conclusions
After eld measuring the vibrations induced by blasting and
carrying out statistical analysis, the regulation of vibration propagation in this site has been obtained.
According to blasting induced vibrations characteristics, combined with the actual situation of the open-pit, comprehensive
measures are developed to suppress the vibration effects and
mitigate the possible hazard on the nal pit walls. Control of
maximum charge weight per delay and interference method have
been used in this site to solve the contradiction between the scale
of production and suppress the vibration induced by blasting,
control of maximum charge weight per delay and interference
method have been used in this site. The formula used to
determine the maximum charge weight per delay is given.
15 ms of the appropriate delay time in this open-pit mine is
determined by eld experiments, and the results illustrated that
the average decline rate of 24.5% was reached. The ultimate goals
of this research work are optimization of delay time and control
maximum charge amount per delay, elimination of unacceptable
blasting induced vibrations, and preservation of inherent rock
strength and maximization of nal pit walls stability.

Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the School of Resources and
Safety Engineering of Central South University and Xinqiao

Mining Co., Ltd. The authors are grateful to the School of


Resources and Safety Engineering of Center South University
and Xinqiao Mining Co. Ltd for their supports. The authors are
also very grateful to the staff of the open-pit mine of Xinqiao
Mining Co., Ltd for their hospitality and invaluable support during
the eld investigation.

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