Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Cairo
Department of English and Comparative Literature, American University in
Cairo and American University in Cairo Press
Cultural Hegemony and National Film Language: Youssef Chahine / :
Author(s): Maureen Kiernan and
Source: Alif: Journal of Comparative Poetics, No. 15, Arab Cinematics: Toward the New and the
Alternative / : (1995), pp. 130-152
Published by: Department of English and Comparative Literature, American University in Cairo
and American University in Cairo Press
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CulturalHegemonyandNationalFilmLanguage:
YoussefChahine
MaureenKiernan
Alif15(1995)
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131
to thefairlyrigid
strictly
Althoughhis earlyfilmsrarelyconformed
in Egypt,Chahinewas clearly
conventions
ofcommercial
filmmaking
in thegripofthisveryformidable
system.
Chahine,forexample,used genericformulasin his firstfilm,
Baba Amin,yethis earlyuse of musicalforms,a standardgenrein
Egyptiancommercialcinema,was even at thisstageclearlymarked
in Americanfilmmusicals.The effect,
then,is thatof
by his interest
allusion to--or even parody of-American film ratherthan an
of theEgyptianmusicalgenre.
adaptationof thepace and structure
Yet he feltcompelledto work,to a largeextent,withintheformulaic
cinema.
commercial
systemofEgyptian
The tenfilmswhichChahinedirectedbetween1950 and 1958
melodramasand musicals;in
includea numberof veryconventional
all of these texts,however,he manages to rise above complete
accordance with commercialfilmmakingthroughhis sense of
compositionand throughhis adaptationof Hollywood genre
discourse.He employsthe star
techniquesto an Egyptiannarrative
way, and he may be creditedwith
systemin a fairlyconventional
to
a
mass
audience.
Omar
Sherif
introducing
CentralStation,made in 1958, marksa significant
changein
of his career.It tellsthestoryof thedenizensof Cairo's
thedirection
mainrailwaystationin thecourseof one day.The storycenterson a
poor and somewhatdementednewspaperhawkerwho findshimself
sellerat thestation.He watchesand
obsessedwitha youngsoft-drink
to kill her,but
she
rebuffs
her
and
when
him,he attempts
pursues
another
murders
youngwomaninstead.
mistakenly
The unityoftimeandplace imposedbythelocationofthestory
unifiedandcompact
andtheeventsoftheplotmakethisa remarkably
film;thereis littlelikeitin theEgyptianstudiofilmsofthisera.From
thisfilmremainsone of Chahine'smostnarratively
thisperspective,
coherentworks and indicates an implicitrebellionagainst the
practicesof Egyptiancinema.Chahine
generallynonlinearnarrative
himselfplays the role of Kinawi, the dementedmurderer.The
in differing
in thefilmrevealsan interest
of thecharacters
interaction
and sexual
While
violence
class.
on
culturalcodes,based particularly
thesethemes
passionserveas thethreadswhichtie thefilmtogether,
ofa numberofcoupleswhorepresent
areexploredin therelationships
social classes in Egyptiansociety;thesettingof therailway
different
stationmakesa convenient
meetingplace forthesestoriesto unfold.5
of sexual obsessionand its subsequent
The explicitportrayal
132
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filmin
linksto violenceis one issue whichmakesthisa remarkable
this cultural and historical context. Chahine's attempts at
psychologicalrealismand depth,both in his directionand in his
ofKinawi,marka significant
breakwithEgypt'scommercial
portrayal
cinema.Chahinehimselfhas statedthatone of his mainconcernsas a
filmmaker
is to address"whatis neededin a particular
societyat a
In
I
wanted
to address
Central
historical
moment.
Station,
particular
the
universal
context."6
concernsbutalwayswithin Egyptian
The subtextof sex and violence which formsthe central
and psychologicaldevelopment
of Kinawi is not a new
motivation
issue forEgyptiancinema,but the directnesswithwhichYoussef
he bringsto his main
Chahinetreatsthisthemeand the sympathy
of
ofthisissue.The possibility
character
providea newrepresentation
far
from
the
frame
but
with
formula
is
never
melodramatic
generic
ratherthan
Kinawi as the pointof view, Chahineevokes sympathy
bathosforhischaracterization.
The visual styleof the filmanticipatesthe maturestyleof
Chahineand indicatesa carefulsenseof composition;
Chahinefavors
triadiccompositionsand oftenunbalancesthe frameby placing
on theedges of it. In CentralStationthisunderscores
the
characters
under
nature
of
several
of
the
sexual
precarious
relationships
consideration.
His use of allusionis also presenthere,althoughhis
homagesto Americanmusicalsand Hitchcockfilmsdo nothave the
centralfunction
theytakeon in hislatertexts.
The openingofthefilmpresents
a realisticlocation-establishing
shotof thecentralstationexploredwitha tracking
camerain a fairly
in
characters
move
and
out
of
the
frame.
The sense of
take;
long
off-screen
of locale is a cinematicelement
space and theimportance
whichwillbecomeone ofYoussefChahine'strademarks.The
narrative
ofthefilmis oneofChahine'smostunifiedefforts;
thecentralfocusis
on Kinawiandhisobsessionwiththeyounggirl.Unlikemostnarrative
filmsin Egyptiancinema,the plot remainscenteredon this issue.
Thereis a subplotwhichinvolvestheunionization
of theworkersin
thestation,butthissubplotis notquitesuccessfully
tiedto themain
itis thebeginning
ofChahine'sattempts
plotofthefilm.Nevertheless,
to introduce
into
his
Chahine
also includes
films.7
politicalquestions
severalmusicalnumbers,
a conventional
of commercial
requirement
Egyptiancinema,and yet thesesongs are motivatedin partby the
narrativeand charactersand providean added dimensionto the
characterization
forthetwomainactors.
Alif15 (1995)
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133
Alif15 (1995)
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film
thecommercial
Since YoussefChahinebeganchallenging
of Egyptin explicitand provocativeways,his criticshave
industry
raisedthequestionof his intended
audience.Chahinehas
consistently
been accused of elitismand intentional
obscurityin his films;this
his career.8Whenaskedabouthis
taunthas followedhimthroughout
intentions
andhis audience,Chahinecontendsthathe makeshisfilms
forEgyptians-"I don't know any otherpeoples' stories,"9he has
and allusivenessofhisfilmtextsareoftena
said-but thecomplexity
problem even for the intellectualsamong Egyptianfilmgoers.
filmindustry
of
The burdenof theverysuccessfulcommercial
Egyptwas keenlyfeltby Chahine;whileexamininghis role as an
of
confront
theexpectations
he wouldinevitably
Egyptianfilmmaker,
an audiencerearedon Egyptiancommercialcinema.To a certain
in Egypt.The
all filmmakers
extent,thisis an issue whichconfronts
commercialstudiosystemhas establisheditselfas a popularand
powerfulsystemin thenationalcultureand beyond.As such,it has
basedon theHollywoodmodel,
initiated
and maintained
conventions,
in
and it has created audience expectationsfor entertainment
filmmaker
is
a
of
conventions
Whatany
finds,then, system
particular.
or
of a seriousavant-garde
whichrun counterto the development
non-commercial
cinema.
Chahine opted for an explicitlypoliticaltopic in the epic
of Salah al-Din (1941). He took on this projectfrom
undertaking
Ezzedine Zulfiqarwhen it was alreadyin progress;as directorial
it would give himthe scope to developa statement
on
undertaking
Egypt and its politicalcondition.Salah al-Din was, in part,an
allegoryaboutGamal Abdel Nasserand his visionof pan-Arabism.
The filmis subtitled
andis
"al-Nasser,"whichmeans"thevictorious"
thename of thefamousSultanSaladin,as well as the name of the
Presidentof Egyptat thetimethatthefilmwas made. The parallel
betweenSaladin and Nasseris intentional
and stated.The filmwas
to
be
an
historical
which
would
projected
epic
presenttheCrusades
and thisparticular
historical
periodfromtheArabpointof view.10In
thisparticular
the
film
was a success;forthefirsttimein the
respect
was givento therole and interest
of cinema,attention
of the
history
traditional
"other"in the historicaleventsof the Crusades. As a
and audiences,theMiddleAges,and
subjectforWesternfilmmakers
the Crusades in particular,offereda canvas for historicalepics
overlaidwithromanceand stressing
theheroic"quest."Littlethought
or attentionhas been paid to the land and culturewhich were
Alif15 (1995)
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135
been no attempt
burdenedwiththesewars.Therehas mostdefinitely
an Arabversionof thegreatbattlesfortheHolyLand; in
to construct
cinema history,the Arabs have been the infidels,their image
to suitthehegemonic
discourse.
manipulated
to counter
thisrepresentation
Salah al-Din,then,was an attempt
whenEgyptian
nationalism
andwas conceivedat an historical
moment
revised.The colonial occupationhad
was also being historically
a
area which
cinematic
of
image Egyptand the surrounding
shaped
was beginning to be countered by the National Cinema
Council-whichhelpedfinancethefilm-in its choiceof production
material and projects for financing.11Chahine, then, had an
notonlyan Arabviewofhistory
withthisprojecttorender
opportunity
inEgypt.12
situation
butalso toallegorizethecontemporary
forany
Needlessto say,thiswas a veryambitiousundertaking
the
limited
one filmproject.Add to thisinitiallyintimidating
plan
budgetof Egypt'snationalfilmboardand thishistoricalepic was in
some ways destinedto fall shortof expectations.Chahine was
compelledto use importantstars fromthe commercialindustry,
have avoided.For example,
type-castin a way he mightordinarily
lead
Salah al-Dinhimselfwas playedby AhmadMazhar,a romantic
the heroismof a
in the studiosystem,cast in orderto foreground
leader fromthe Arab world.Fromthe pointof view of historical
Salah al-Din is a successfulattemptat historicalepic.
revisionism,
and fair
as a sympathetic
The character
of Salah al-Dinis represented
rulerwho shows unprecedented
mercytowardhis adversaries;his
and
is
characterized
Richard
with
by understanding
King
meeting
thanthepassionatevillainyso favoredbyWestern
rather
compromise
representation.
in stagingbattlescenesand in editing
Chahinewas resourceful
to conveya sense of breadthand scope despitethe limitsset by
thediminished
economicnecessity.
Nevertheless,
aspectof theepic is
evident.Althoughthefilmwas made in Cinemascope,thereis little
betweenthe
reasonforitsuse. Chahineoftenframestheconfrontation
two leaders,Salah al-Din and Richardthe Lion-Hearted,
using the
ends
thetwofiguresat extreme
widthofthescreenwithskill(framing
of thewidescreen,forexample);andbattlescenesare oftenstagedto
evoke a wide horizontalplateau.This is one film,however,where
Chahinedoes not favora movingcameraand a greatdeal of the
sweepofthelandscapeandepic actionis lostor subsumed
impressive
ofepic qualitywas
in theeditingprocess.Much of thisstreamlining
136
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137
Alif15 (1995)
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clingstothecottonplantshe willneverharvest.
absentthroughout
mostof the filmis the colonial
Strikingly
insteadby
presenceof the British;in the end, theyare represented
colonizedSudanesesoldierswho terrorize
thevillagein thenameof
the colonizers. The irony of these black soldiers engaged in
thehegemony
of theirown whiteoppressorsis skillfully
perpetrating
betweenthepeopleof Sudan and the
playedoutin thestarkcontrast
of
But
Chahine's
people Egypt.
pointis invalidated
by theabsenceof
ofBritishcolonialism.The victims,
in thiscase the
anyrepresentation
Sudanese,bear unjustlythe bruntof colonial violence.In fact,the
blacksoldiersarerepresented
onlyas catalystsof Britishcolonialism,
whichin turnis takenup by the pasha who effectsthe finalrift
betweenfellah and land by introducing
industrialization
and the
of the railroad.He, too, incorporatesthe colonial
modernization
discoursealthoughhe is even further
fromthatculturein visual
thantheblacksoldiers.
representation
Whatis apparent
thefilmis theinability
ofEgyptian
throughout
cinema to representthe colonial presencein any directway; the
nationalfilmlanguageeven at thispointof thenationalization
of the
cinemahad not developedthe meansto articulatethehegemonyof
Western culture in Egypt. This relationshipof colonizer and
colonized,then,is stillrelegatedto thecategoriesof class and race,
seen in thelandowning
class of Egyptand in thecase of
particularly
Sudanesesoldiers.The textof thefilmthusclearlypresentstheclass
conflictof colonialEgyptbutavoidstheissue of Britishoccupation.
Like thefilmsof thestudiosystemmadeundercolonialrule,thefilm
articulatesthe hegemonicrelationsbetweenEgyptiansof different
classes, and theserelationsare symbolizedin partby the railroad
whichbringsthemodemandtheurbanto a poorandruralsetting.
The
Earthis Chahine'sfirstattempt
to systematically
the
rural
represent
in manyinstances.Basinghis
poorand he fallspreyto sentimentality
scripton a novel ties him to characterswhich often become
he developsin thisfilmthebeginnings
of
Nevertheless,
stereotypes.
an iconography
whichwill continueto servehimin his development
ofa visualstyle.
WhileSalah al-Din servesas an exampleof an historical
epic,
TheEarthis an exampleof a pastoralepic,butone whichallows the
discourseof thecommercial
Egyptiancinemato governthestructure
of thenarrative.
the
Although filmdoes not takecommercialgenre
filmsas its standard,
Chahinestillfollowsthe discourseof cultural
Alif15 (1995)
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139
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141
shotssimilarto thenonnarrative
insertshotswhich
decontextualized
madeTheSparrowso narratively
incoherent.
The Returnof the Prodigal incorporates
a greatnumberof
genericcodes as well. Youssef Chahine has termedthis film a
"musical tragedy" and has indicated that such a familiarly
unconventional
genrename helped to get the filmpassed by the
censors.16Yet his ability to structurethe film as a musical,
to include
unconventional
as thenarrative
maybe, is also an attempt
as manypeople as possible in his audience. Such a filmwould
conformsufficiently
to the commercialgenericmode forEgyptian
in
order
to
attract
who
a broaderaudiencethantheintellectuals
film,
thebulkofChahine'sviewers.
hadpreviously
formed
In TheReturnoftheProdigal,theeldestsonofthefamily,'Ali,
fora dozen yearsforarguingagainstthestate.
has been imprisoned
He is suddenlyreleasedand returns
to his family;theyfindhimaged
He
becomes
a
hardened
and changed.
man,moredecadentthanthe
restof his quicklydecayingclass. The filmends withthe family
destroyedin a massacre.The decadence of the bourgeoisieand
of 'Ali, who is unable
class is epitomizedin thecharacter
intellectual
to maintainhis aspirationsand idealismoutsideof prison.Chahine
of
offersa varietyof possiblecauses forthe decay and corruption
is
what
using, ironically,
Egyptianintelligentsia,
contemporary
of genericforms.The "musical
possiblythe most anti-intellectual
in thisfilmadheresto manyof
orchestrates
which
Chahine
tragedy"
of commercialEgyptianfilmin its form,yetthe
the characteristics
criticaland oftenpolitical,witha scriptand songs
contentis bitingly
writtenby Egypt's prominentpoet and artistSalah Jahin.For
example,at one pointin thefilm,a groupofpeopletaketo thestreets
in a brashdanceand songtitled"The StreetsareOurs."As theymake
thesettingand thesong,theyare suddenlyhalted
theirway through
theirpassage.
a
cowboywhoprevents
by gun-wielding
Egypt'sincipientdependenceon thepostcolonialpowerof the
United States and that nation's growinghegemonyin the area
critiquefromChahine.The implications,
engendera not-so-subtle
however,reach furtherthan this; as Chahine moves towardan
in this
he also attempts,
formof expression,
increasingly
postmodern
film,to criticizethe very class which,in conjunctionwith the
postcolonialpresenceof the UnitedStates,is responsiblefor the
oftheseveryformsofdiscourse.
introduction
The Returnof the Prodigal oftenreads as a fragmented
142
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form,and yetthis
movingtowarda postcolonialnarrative
self-parody
formis relianton theconceptofthemodemthatis so important
tothe
of
the
often
Chahine's
film.
What
unites
bitingpolitical
bourgeoisie
critiquesof this period of Chahine's career is this attemptat
developinga postcolonialmodeof discoursewhilestillrelyingon an
indigenousfilmlanguage.The Returnof theProdigalis perhapsthe
mostsuccessfulattempt
at thiscomplextask,in partbecause it very
uses
the
playfully
generic form so importantto the national
commercialindustry.The "musical tragedy"leads to a further
in formin muchof themostimportant
textsin Chahine's
disruption
latercareer.Withthisgroupof politicalfilms,Chahinehas founda
formof discoursesuitableto his subjectand begins the task of
thatdiscourse.
refining
In 1978, Chahinemade his nextfilm,thefirstof whatwould
become a trilogyof autobiographicaltexts. Alexandria, Why?
lih?) is an evocationof the portcityof Alexandria
(Iskandariyya,
is closelymodeled
duringWorldWar II. Yahya,themaincharacter,
on Chahineand thefamilyis his own. WhatChahinehas set as his
taskis a textof self-realization
and definition
through
memoryin the
form of a postmodenistmyth.17Central to the film is the
in theprocessofbecoming.Yahyais a
of a filmmaker
self-reflexivity
fora vocationandattempting
to definehimself.
character
searching
is
most
Chahine's
successfulattempt
Alexandria,Why? perhaps
to embodythespecificand thepersonalin an Egyptiannationalfilm
styleandlanguage.The issueofan Egyptiannationalcultureis central
to thetextbutin thisfilmit is notan easy issue. The settingof the
filmis Alexandriain the yearsof WorldWar II, a timeand place
whichmightwell qualifyas one of themostcosmopolitan
of modem
the
of
Mediterranean
Alexandria,
history.
seaport
Egypt, has
been
a
crossroadsforEuropeanandNearEasterncultures;
historically
combine this historicalmixtureof cultureswith the enforced
occupationby foreigntroopsduringthe war, and the milieu is a
of languages,cultures,and races.For theyoungEgyptian
patchwork
who representsChahine,comingof age in this arena
protagonist
exposeshimto a confusing
arrayof marginalized
groups-foreigners
are oftenhomosexuals,
run
the
from
Black toJewto
Egyptians
gamut
effete.
The
multicultural
English-speaking
experienceof 1940s
Alexandriais notat all confusing
forthehero,buttheWesternviewer
is presentedwith an array of ethnic groups which defy any
of"Egyptian."
stereotypical
rendering
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143
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145
of thatera somewhatludicrous.It is a
thenationalism
timerendering
but
the
narrative
whichChahineconstructs
difficult
task,
postmodern
dismantlesall nationalidentitiesin a very successfulattemptto
of nationalismand culture,and possiblyto
explorethe ambiguities
forgea "national"discoursebasedon pluralisms.
Soon afterAlexandria,Why?was releasedand wenton to win
awards,includinga Silver Bear at the Berlin
major international
a majorheartattackand
FilmFestival,Chahinesuffered
International
is
this
extensivebypasssurgery; partof his autobiography
underwent
inAn EgyptianStory(HadutaMisriyya,1982). Thismajor
chronicled
his careerand his lifeand gave rise
illnesscausedChahineto rethink
to makefilmsthatweremorepersonal,notonlyin
to a determination
their iconographybut in their subject matter as well. The
autobiographical
trilogy,whichin manyways remainshis master
ofthisrefocusin hiscareer.
is
the
result
work,
threadof the
An EgyptianStorypicksup theautobiographical
a successful
become
an
adult
who
has
as
filmmaker
Yahya
young
in Egypt.Noural-Sherif,
an Egyptianstarat thebeginning
filmmaker
mannerisms
of his career,mimicsChahine'sidiosyncratic
brilliantly
musttravelto
When
Chahine
in the openingsequenceof the film.
the questionsof Egyptiannational
London foropen-heart
surgery,
in
of
the
and
Arab's
place theWestcometo thefore.Chahine
identity
way, populatingEngland
again treatstheseissues in a postmodern
with relatives of the filmmaker and enabling the
his
to navigatetheWestwithoutsurrendering
filmmaker/protagonist
identity.
Egyptian
Unlikemanyof Chahine'spreviousfilms,An EgyptianStory
was both a popular and criticalsuccess. His reputationas the
storytellerof Egypt had been established with his previous
he
textandChahinewouldnowexploitthenotoriety
autobiographical
his
narrative
While
for
the
had earnedas spokesman
style
marginal.
the postmodern
to incorporate
his attempts
remainsnoncommercial,
has piqued
traditions
ofbothEasternand Westernnarrative
structures
ofa moregeneralaudience.Thisaudiencemaynotalways
theinterest
his texts,butno one wouldmiss a Chahinefilm,if only
understand
culturalfigure.
has
nowbecomea notorious
becausehe
to
The thirdpartof Chahine'sautobiographical
trilogyreturns
initial
of
his
in
a
later
thesubjectof thefilmmaker
reprisal
years
forty
Alexandria film; this one is titledAlexandria Again and Again
kamanwa kaman,1989). The filmmaker,
Yahya,this
(Iskandariyya
146
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147
Alexandria,
Againand Againis
place in it are centralto each subtext.
in
the
of
themostradicaland disturbing
trilogy,
autobiographical
part
partbecauseChahinein no waydistanceshimselffromthenarrative.
The distancing
deviceswhichsuturethediscourseseem extratextual
because Chahineis himselfso closelyallied withthefilm.The film
andfiction.
disturbs
becauseoftheoverlapofautobiography
discourseofthe
in a postmodern
Withhiscontinued
exploration
added a new
has
Chahine
of
self-reflexive
filmmaking,
possibilities
to
dimensionbothto thenationalcinemaof Egyptand theissues of
thenational
filmas well. Usingtheselfto characterize
Third-World
direction
a
new
indicates
of
of at leasta part Egyptiansociety
identity
forauteurcinemain EgyptandtheThirdWorld.The autobiographical
trilogyof Youssef Chahine has initiatednew genericformsand
possibilities in Egyptian cinema, though largely confined to
counter-cinema.
with generic
Youssef Chahinehas continuedto experiment
aboutCairo.In many
to filma documentary
formin hisrecentattempt
for
as a strategy
has come to courtcontroversy
ways,thefilmmaker
Its
Cairo
Illuminated
of
freedom
People
by
expression.
promoting
aboutthecity
(Al-Kahiramunawarabi-ahliha,1991), a documentary
filmto
as seen by Chahine,is in manyways his mostcontroversial
this
and publiclycondemned, film
date. Bannedby thegovernment
won accolades when it was presentedat Cannes. The film was
as an unnecessarily
condemnedby theEgyptiangovernment
negative
and
form
with
film
The
of
the
documentary
experiments
city.
portrait
considered
be
what
to
in
an
might
attempt represent
authenticity,
someofthemostpressingproblemsofa troubled
country.
The film is set in the metatextualcontextof Chahine
theircountry
to represent
challenginga groupof youngfilmmakers
fora foreigntelevisionproject.Chahine,again,movesin and out of
the text as the marginalizedcharacterhe has always played,but
thanin his
somehowmoreaware of and resignedto his difference
of the
in
the
issue
of
all
first
difference
this
earlierwork.He explains
to
Islam in contrast
Representing
growthof Islamicfundamentalism.
of
Westernnorms,Chahinepresentsnumerousdisconcerting
images
Western culture-including a miniskirted,barefoot blonde
underthewatchful
gaze of an Islamicsheikh.But
tourist-unfolding
is onlyone of a numberof problemswhichare
religiousdifference
muchis
Chahine's
gaze. As in his earliertrilogy,
through
represented
has made in thefabricof
made of thechangeswhichmodernization
148
Alif15(1995)
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149
Alif15 (1995)
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butofthefertile
is notso muchoneofEgyptversustheforeign
contrast
The
over
the
rich.
in
contrast
to
controversy thefilmhas
impotent
poor
ragedin theEgyptianpressand reachedthecourts,butin theend the
filmwas notbanned,and in facthas been successfulcommercially.
Challengingthe generic constraintsof both Egyptianand
ofmuchofChahine'swork.
Hollywoodcinemahas beenthehallmark
within
In TheEmigranthe choosesto workmuchmoreambiguously
the
from
is
of
tone
The
constraints.
apparent
problem
generic
costumesto the love interestto the editingof the film.The film
appearsto be an epic whichdid nothave quitetheenergyor breadth
expectedofit.
The evidenceofChahine'sfilmsarguesfora consistent
attempt
to finda nationalvoice in the postcolonialdiscourseof Egyptian
his use of classical Hollywoodcinema has
culture.Increasingly,
in its attemptsat
become less reverent,and more postmodern,
His careerhas includedan attemptat virtually
self-referentiality.
tasteforfilmmusicals.
of
sort
genrefilmand showsa consistent
every
He has attemptedto use such narrativetraditions,important
themselvesin the long historyof Egyptiancinema,to popularize
political opposition. For Chahine, the postmodernistnarrative
and morea method
becameless a modeof filmicdisruption
structure
ofa politicalcritique.Chahinehimselfhas said
forthecommunication
As
dare not silencehis steadfastopposition.20
thatthe government
Egypt's foremostfilm director,he commandssignificantmedia
to
if notalwaysa largeviewingpublic.For thegovernment
attention
imprisonhimwould silencehimonlynominally.In thisrespect,he
remains a leading media figure and, internationally,
Egypt's
best-known
director.
NOTES
1 Roy Armes,ThirdWorldFilmmakingand the West(Berkeley:
of CaliforniaPress,1987): 251-67. Armes'chapteron
University
and one
Chahineis a sourceof accuratebiographicalinformation,
of the few sources on this filmmakerpublishedin English.
2 For thecontroversy
Chahinegenerates,
one need onlyreferto his
clash withgovernment
in
spokesmen Egyptoverhis documentary
"Cairo." The film was roundly criticizedin the press as
misrepresenting
Egyptto theWest.His latestfilm,The Emigrant
(Al-Muhajir), has also caused a controversial debate.
3 Interviewwith Youssef Chahine (December 15, 1991). The
Alif15(1995)
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151
at
citedwereconductedas partof classroominteraction
interviews
in Cairo in a courseI taughton Egyptian
theAmericanUniversity
to AhmadHassounaand
Cinema(fallsemester,
1991).I am grateful
fortheirparticipation.
totheclassmembers
editedby
4 An entireeditionof theFrenchpublication
Cindmaction,
no. 33 (Editiondu
Christian
Bosseno,YoussefChahinel'Alexandrine,
It is just
Serf,1985)is devotedto YoussefChahine,theAlexandrine.
in relationto thiscity.
of howhe has definedhimself
one indication
5 See Guy Gauthier,"Gare central, trois secondes d'arret,"
54-59.
Cindmaction,
withYoussefChahine(December17, 1991).
6 Interview
withYoussefChahine(December15, 1991).
7 Interview
8 Film reviewersin the popular press of Egypt and my own
thisimpression:
discussionswithstudentsof filmhave confirmed
a director
Chahineis perceivedas too "difficult"
by manyEgyptian
filmgoers.Althoughhis is a householdname in Egypt,manyof
havenotseenhisfilms.
thesefilmgoers
withYoussefChahine(December20, 1991).
9 Interview
10 LizbethMalkmusand Roy Armes,Arab and AfricanFilmmaking
(London:Zed Books,1991) 152.
withMoustafaDarwish,November,1992. Mr. Darwish
11 Interview
is an Egyptianfilmcriticwhoalso servedas headofthecensorship
ofSalah al-Din.
boardduringthefilming
discussionof thisfilm,see Hala Halim,"The signsof
12 For further
Saladin : A Modem CinematicRenditionof MedievalHeroism"
Alif12 (1992): 78-94.
withMoustafaDarwish(November22, 1992).
13 Interview
and theuses of it in his films,
14 For Chahine'sviewson nationalism
see an interviewwith him by Andr6eTournes,"Chahine,le
JeuneCindma,119 (June,1979): 28-30.
nationalism
demystifie,"
withYoussefChahine,December17, 1991.
15 Interview
16 Jacques L6vy, "Singing in Cairo: Naissance de la trag6die
33,72-75.
musicale,"Cindmaction,
17RaphaelBassan,"Alexandrie
autobiographie
pourquoi?la m6moire:
1.
68-7
etmodernit6,"
33,
Cindmaction,
and of elites
18 For an initialdiscussionof theroleof theintellectual
Khaled
see
of
films
in
the
Osman,"La
moregenerally
Chahine,
33, 38-43.
th6matique,"
Cindmaction,
19 Interviewconductedas part of a class taughtin conjunction
with Chahine at the American Universityin Cairo (spring
semester,1990).
withYoussefChahine,Cairo(August31, 1990).
20 Interview
152
Alif15 (1995)
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