International Journal of Inclusive Education

Vol. 10, No. 6, November 2006, pp. 645655

Narrative study of a high school English

teachers beliefs about teaching
students identified as having a disability
B. Del Rosario
Albuquerque, NM, USA
International
10.1080/13603110500296547
TIED_A_129637.sgm
1360-3116
Original
Taylor
02005
00
BaylorDel
3413
000002005
Espejo
and
&
Article
Francis
Rosario
(print)/1464-5173
Francis
Street
Journal
Ltd
Ltd
N.EAlbuquerqueNew
of Inclusive
(online)
Education
Mexico 87111USAbaylordr@aol.com

A qualitative study probing the connection between a high school English teachers lived experience
and beliefs about teaching students identified as having a disability using interview story method was
undertaken. Struggles with family quickly emerged as a dominant storyline in the participants
discussion of her beliefs about teaching such students. The teachers value of diversity in students,
regardless of disability/ability status, evolved from family relations. The narrative also illuminates
the importance of persistence and compromise in preserving and developing relationships that
extend to colleagues and students. Lessons learned from gathering the narrative are also discussed.

Introduction
Narrative forms of inquiry have received much attention from educational researchers
in recent years (Connelly & Clandinin, 1987; Eisner, 1998). According to
Polkinghorne (1988, p. 1), narrative is the primary form by which human experience
is made meaningful. Peterson (1997, p. 157) adds that in this genre of research, the
inquirer attempts to know an experience in the same way that the subject knows it.
Narrative is also linked to storytelling. Bruner (2002. p. 15) states that narrative in
all its forms is a dialectic between what was expected and what came to pass; while
Polkinghorne (1995, p. 5) adds that such stories must be configured into a temporal
unity by means of plot. The use of plot, in which critical events or incidents in ones
life are arranged to highlight points of contention and consequent resolutions, is integral to narrative. Taken together, biographical, life history, and other narrative methodologies highlight the perspective of participants in story form.
In accordance with this approach, I obtained the interview story of a high school
English teacher, Janice Black,1 as part of my doctoral study examining various
Correspondence to: B. Del Rosario, 3413 Espejo Street N.E., Albuquerque, NM 87111, USA.
E-mail: baylordr@aol.com
ISSN 13603116 (print)/ISSN 14645173 (online)/06/06064511
2006 Taylor & Francis
DOI: 10.1080/13603110500296547

646 B. Del Rosario

research methods. I explored Janices historicity (Herr & Anderson, 1993, p. 185)
her lived experience and its connectedness to her beliefs about teaching students
labelled with a disability placed in her 9th12th grade English classes. Having
observed and interacted with Janice on numerous occasions as a fellow teacher at the
same school, I was drawn to her willingness in working with students with needs. Her
narrative was developed through a series of interviews in which she was asked to talk
about her upbringing, college years, and choice to become and life as a teacher in relation to her beliefs and assumptions about such students. This interview also served as
a platform for Janice and me to reflect on these beliefs.
Background
Janice and I were both teachers at Scholastic Alternative High School during the
200304 school year. I was the special education teacher as well as coordinator of
services for students identified as English Language Learners (ELL). The school was
created specifically for students unable to attend a traditional high school for one
reason or another (e.g. their need to work during the day or need for on-campus
childcare). Students identified as having a disability comprise about 12% of the
student body. The majority of such students are labelled learning disabled (LD),
while the rest are identified as having emotional disturbance (ED). All are included
in general education classes for the majority of the school day and receive their
accommodations (e.g. extended time on exams and opportunities to take breaks
outside the classroom) directly from classroom teachers although some are more
willing than others to implement such strategies.
As I got to know Janice through our collaborative meetings to facilitate the
inclusion of such students and our involvement in the district-wide literacy program,
I realized we share common views about teaching. We both believe all teachers,
regardless of grade-level or subject matter taught, for example, are responsible for
instructing students who struggle with basic literacy. We also feel strongly about using
positive approaches, rather than punitive ones, in dealing with disruptive or unruly
behaviour.
As the school year progressed, I gradually found myself wondering how Janice
came to think in a similar way as I did about students with needs given our vastly
different backgrounds. Janice has never taken any coursework in special education
beyond the single introductory course required of teacher candidates by teacher
education programs in our state, while my graduate teacher preparation focused
almost exclusively on inclusion of special populations. I was interested in uncovering
the motives behind Janices willingness and patience in working with students identified as having a disability when so many of our colleagues were not.
Explanation of the methodology
Teachers lives are complex. Many twists and turns occur throughout ones career
and personal life that cannot be recorded or captured through traditional quantitative

High school English teachers beliefs about teaching students with disability 647
methods. A questionnaire using a Likert scale, for example, cannot measure the
effects of ones own learning over time on his or her current beliefs about instruction
and curriculum. Teacher beliefs, as Muchmore (2001, p. 90) points out, do not exist
in a vacuum they are formulated and are held by particular people in particular
context.
Although there is an abundance of studies examining teachers beliefs, attitudes,
and perceptions about students with disabilities and inclusive education (e.g. Gerber,
1992; Fulk & Hirth, 1994; Minke et al., 1996; Villa et al., 1996; Cornoldi et al., 1998;
Chiang, 1999; Balboni and Pedrabissi, 2000; Opdal & Wormnaes, 2001; Wall,
2002), including qualitative studies that use interview data (e.g. Giangreco et al.,
1993; Brantlinger, 1996), none has examined in-depth the influence of personal and
professional experience of teachers on their ways of thinking about students with
needs and their inclusion in typical classroom settings. The main premise for using
such an approach is to give value to teachers unique and rich histories, which impact
their thought processes. Taken together, this narrative study adds to the literature on
teachers beliefs about inclusion and to the existing literature on teacher stories (e.g.
Ball & Goodson, 1985; Goodson, 1992; Craig, 1997; Landay, 2001; Johnson &
Golombek, 2002; Luna et al., 2004).
Hammersley (1998, p. 24) states there are two ways to analyse interview data.
First, researchers may use participants accounts as a source of information about
the world; in other words as a substitute for his or her own observations. This
approach is often used when a cultural site or experience is inaccessible to the
researcher. Researchers can also focus on perspectives, beliefs, attitudes, intentions, [and] motives (p. 24) when analysing interviews. The purpose of this later
approach is to understand the reasons why participants think about and behave in
certain ways toward people, objects, ideas, and events of interest as this study seeks
to accomplish.
Specifically, this study is consistent with the life history method described by
Van Manen (1990). It is a methodology characterized by a deep respect for participant perspective and meaning-making of their lived experience. I employed a
series of individual interviews that initially focused the conversation on concrete
situations and events in Janices life, which related to her beliefs about students
identified with a disability. Whenever Janice seemed to stray from the topic at
hand, I posed questions that brought the discourse back to the level of concrete
experience (p. 68) using phrases such as Can you be more specific about how
Miles [Janices father] treated you? and You spoke about being a parent. How is
this like being a teacher? During subsequent interviews, Janice reviewed written
description of personal accounts with interpretations as stimulus for reflection and
further discussion/re-interpretation. I then posed questions such as How did you
feel when he [Miles] finally acknowledged your work? and What did you take
away from the experience? to get at the essence of particulars (p. 10) in her
story. Such an approach, according to Van Manen, allows for the exploration of
experiences to their fullest. Excerpts presented in this story resulted from this
collaborative effort.

648 B. Del Rosario

Janices story: life incidents and their connection to beliefs
Janice is the oldest of five children. She was born and raised in a small town in the
Midwest. Her father was an accountant, while her mother was a homemaker. Janices
description of her family was anything but typical. Her father Miles specifically is a
commanding and influential figure who is the antithesis to the kind of individual and
career person Janice would later become in life. She states:
My father and I disagree on just about everything. To me, he was this shrewd businessman. He was an accountant by training. His ideas about education were all negative.
From his perspective, teachers fell in the category of that old motto, Those who can do.
Those who cant teach. That was far from reality, but according to him none of the teachers I ever had or those of my siblings were ever right. In fact, he considered most of them
to be idiots.

Although I felt we had a fairly close relationship, I nevertheless was surprised by her
focus on and candidness with talking about Miles during our initial interview. She
went on to say that she did not respond to his disparaging words not because they
were true, but because of her young age and immaturity. As a result, Janice just
carried things for a long time. By the time she reached middle-school, however, she
began standing-up to her father because she was the oldest but it got me into a lot
of trouble! It was during these early adolescent years that Janice first recalled
advocating for someone other than herself. Her need to stand-up for those whom she
perceives cannot defend themselves is rooted in this thwarted experience.
Consequently, Janice feels a connection with and compassion for kids who dont fit
the traditional mould kids whose home situations like mine are not perfect.
Like many university students, Janice initially had a difficult time deciding what to
study. Her indecisiveness, however, was caused mainly by Miles continued imposition of his views on what she ought to pursue as a career. He wanted her to become
a lawyer or an entrepreneur in order to make money. Consequently, Janice minored
in business administration because that was what he would have wanted me to do.
Around the time she was required to declare a major, however, she realizes that law
and business were not in my heart. Janice enrols in literature and theatre classes,
instead, and eventually graduates with a bachelors degree in English.
Shortly after college, Janice got married and had children. She felt it was important
to be available for them, while they were young. Consequently, she stayed home until
her youngest child entered school. She worked part-time for a few years in retail and
even did some acting on television for a local business commercial, which provided
some extra income, but more importantly flexible hours for her to participate in her
childrens activities. The oldest of her four children was 23 years old, while the youngest was 16 at the time this study was undertaken.
Learning to respect differences
Much to Miles chagrin, Janice became a teacher in 1995. The main reason she
settled on a career as an educator was because she loved children a romantic and

High school English teachers beliefs about teaching students with disability 649
surface (Nieto, 2003, p. 26) explanation many teachers initially offer as their motive
for entering the profession. Janice qualifies her response: I have four kids and being
a mom is very important to me. So it works well for my schedule although I didnt
do it entirely for that reason. As the semester went on, Janice and I began to reflect
on her easily discernible compassion for many of the students at our school an
attribute she felt was shaped by both her childhood and later experience as parent of
four very different, but wonderful children. Janice compares her perspective with
others:
I think some teachers, especially young ones and those who dont have children, are sometimes pretty strict. You know, a rules a rule. I know as a parent I was that way with my
own children in the beginning. I realized, however, that every single situation is different.
The same goes for students we [even those who have children] sometimes forget though
what it was like.

School policies and practices such as zero tolerance, she adds, often overlook individual differences among students. She suggests that schools strive to be more:
open minded about things and listen really listen to the students side because sometimes things will come up that they [i.e., the teachers and administrators] never thought
of, but does make sense, which may lead to the understanding of why a kid does what he
or she does.

Janice holds firm to her belief that rules that apply equally to all kids [are] wrong and
reiterates the notion that schools need to look at every student and every situation
differently [because] every kid is different. She feels this is the most important
lesson for teachers, especially new ones, to learn.
Testing: one size does not fit all
Janice began teaching at Scholastic High, a school located in the outskirts of a large
metropolitan city in the south-western USA. Over half the students in the states
school system are of Hispanic origin. A sizeable number as well (approximately 11%)
are of Native American Heritage. Janice chose to work at the school because she was
attracted to those students who werent maybe real mainstream [and who came
from family] backgrounds that werent perfect like her own.
Many of the students at the school struggle with academics. Whether they are poor
readers to begin with (approximately 50% of students read below grade level) or are
simply put-off by regimented school rules and norms found in most high schools,
such students perform significantly below average on state-mandated tests. Although
part of her job is to prepare her students to pass the State High School Exit Exam,2
Janice adamantly voices her opposition to the use of such assessment for graduation
purposes (e.g. at faculty and literacy cadre meetings). She explains:
Our population is becoming, if it isnt already, a very diverse place. I hope that we can
swing the other way as far as testing goes because the people in charge are not really educators to begin with even superintendents. Even if such individuals had been in the classroom as teachers in the past theyre not teaching right now at this moment and are not

650 B. Del Rosario

aware of what is really going on. We need to start realizing that there are other things of
value in life. Test scores obviously do not show all of the skills that a student knows. I just
dont think these tests pick up every part of ones intelligence.
Im not saying that tests are not important. I do think they are important, but they dont
encompass everything about the student. I dont think so anyway. In some kids strengths
can really show up on tests like the Knowledge Inventory3 and thats fine. However, there
are still a lot of kids who have a lot of strengths that arent necessarily exposed on standardized tests. Multiple Intelligence [Gardner, 1983] is a concept thats as valid as the one
we currently follow and should be considered.

If students complete all of the schools course and service learning requirements, but
do not pass the exit exam, they are given a Satisfactory Completion Certificate
instead of a diploma. Janice feels this is unfair to those whose strengths lie outside
traditional academic areas and have a difficult time passing such tests. She points out
that she has had students as 12th graders who, although having earned the Certificate,
were prevented from participating in graduation ceremonies simply because [they
had not passed] the test.
According to Janice, the push for high stakes testing emphasizes, for a large
segment of the schools population, what they cannot do, rather than what they can
do. She also feels that even if every student could pass the exam, non-academic qualities such as work ethic and collaborative skills that many students possess and could
do well in, for example, should be acknowledged and further developed with as much
fervour. Janice points to her own tender-hearted disposition in dealing with
students, more so than her expertise in English grammar and literature, as key to
being a good teacher a quality acknowledged by some teachers, but never explicitly
by her father. Janice emphasizes that she does not want to make the same mistake
with her own children and students as her father had made with her.
Unlike Miles who feels that he is always right no matter what the circumstance,
Janice possesses a genuine desire to learn from others. She feels that reflecting on her
practice individually and with colleagues, as she has done during critical friends
sessions (for description of process, see Barth, 2001, p. 69) at her previous school and
more recently in a graduate-level class she was taking as part of her English as a
Second Language (ESL) endorsement, is important to her growth as a teacher.
Discussing further her thoughts about standardized testing, Janice displays the reflexive approach she uses in dealing with such a contentious practice:
We talked about the issue of high stakes testing in my [university] class the other day. We
talked about how there is no way really that one can design a test that can meet the needs
of every student a test that can capture their diverse strengths. Standardized testing in
which only one kind of answer is acceptable is simply unfair. Taking a test like the State High
School Exit Exam simply doesnt determine whether or not one will survive in the world.
A lot of times schools are wonderful schools, but they are put on probation. We have to
look at each school and each student individually to see what their strengths and needs are
unlike the one-size-fits-all approach we use by requiring students to take tests. I dont
think we need to get rid of or lower standards. We need to have high standards and everything. However, a variety of things need to be looked at because test scores do not capture
the student.

High school English teachers beliefs about teaching students with disability 651
Im always in awe of teachers who are good at differentiating their instruction and
providing information in a variety of ways to all of their students, because Ive done that
and I know how difficult it is to implement. Im not sure some of our leaders know this
has to happen if all children are to succeed. I am learning a lot in the class I am taking.
I really am.

Conversing and reflecting with other professionals helps Janice solidify (and at times
disconfirm) her position on various issues. In a later interview, She adds that truly
listening to fellow teachers contributes to healthy work relationships. For Janice,
such interactions are important because they are as much about developing relationships as they are about problem-solving.
Learning to compromise
Janice feels the lack of confidence and low self-esteem many students experience at
Scholastic High can be reduced if teachers and parents simply value these kids as
much as others [e.g. students who are successful in traditional school settings]. She
shares personal experience to support her assertion:
Im a definitely way better parent than my father and mother were even though my own
family history my divorce from my first husband didnt work out quite the way I had
hoped. I think my children have a much more stable support system at home because I
listen to them no matter what the circumstance or what theyve done. They know that they
can trust me. Theres no doubt in my mind or my childrens minds. I am a good mother
because of this and one who they can always come to if they need help. I approach teaching
the same way.

Teachers need to be open-minded if they want to reach all students. Addressing the
underlying cause of a problem is a better approach than simply reacting to a students
misbehaviour or poor performance as some school administrators, teachers, and
parents do.
In contrast, referring to her parents whom she feels are perfect examples of how not
to raise children, Janice comments, its amazing how you really can learn from bad
role models. Maintaining a relationship with them is difficult because she has had to
accept their flaws and at times demeaning remarks about issues important to her. She,
however, feels that in many ways accepting their shortcomings is similar to accepting
those of her own children, students, and even colleagues. This acceptance has helped
her to grow on a personal level. She speaks further on her mended relationship:
As an adult, I do think my father is proud of who I am now based on some of the things
hes said although he thinks Im going to get killed one of these days working in a
high school especially this one. Hes proud. I know this because we often talk. I sometimes speak with my parents two or three times a week. My mom too is proud of what
I do. Shes never made a big deal about us and what her grandchildren have done
although I think she is probably proud. I think adults have to let kids know and Ive
done that with my own kids. I have very strange parents, but ones who I still talk with a
lot. Sometimes I think we have a superficially close relationship, but I know they love
me and I love them. Ive had to work at dealing with all this and Ive learned to accept
them for who they are.

652 B. Del Rosario

Janice speaks with pride as she describes her fathers changed attitude towards her
and her chosen profession. Such outcome, of course, would not have occurred if she
had given up on their relationship and resisted the compromise needed to make it
work as she had contemplated doing on many occasions it took a long time. I
mean until I was in my 30s to overcome the negativity that permeated from him. She
adds, Just like the kids here, if you were looking through the window in my home you
would have thought I had a wonderful childhood. I didnt.
Discussion
What can be said about Janices beliefs about teaching students identified as having a
disability placed in her general education classes? The answer can be ascertained not
only by what she says, but also by what she does not say. Not once during our interview did Janice use the word disabled or handicapped to describe the students
identified with a disability at our school. She often refers to students both with and
without such labels as kids who dont fit in and kids who are different. This is the
case even when I remind her of the purpose of the study. Taken together, her narrative implies support for the notion of emphasizing similarities, rather than differences
among students an underlying tenet of inclusive education.
Lincoln & Guba (1985) assert that many of the conventional procedures that need
to be carried-out in order to produce generalizable findings are incompatible with the
naturalistic epistemology as the case in this study. In order to bolster the trustworthiness of this inquiry I provided Janice an opportunity to review and provide feedback
on manuscript drafts. This step, along with the co-constructing of themes and interpretations mentioned earlier, resulted in considerable contribution by her to the final
report. Such an approach, I believe, overcomes the criticism brought up by Nespor &
Barylske (1991) that the narrative researcher alone determines which narrative will be
presented and how it will be represented. As researcher, I do possess considerable
authorial power, but one I have chosen to use in a collaborative manner.
Although generalization of research findings from case-specific studies like the one
described in this paper cannot be made in the traditional sense, Eisner (1998) argues
that the demand for reflexivity from all parties engaged in narrative, including audience, can yield insight into ones own situation. Having been raised in a household
fraught with familial struggles myself (e.g. alcoholism), for example, I resonate with
and value reading accounts of others who have been faced with challenges and have
triumphed over them. The influence of Janices personal life on her professional
outlook has also prompted me to seek-out the connection between my history and
beliefs as an educator. Such reflective practice has been documented as essential for
teacher growth and development (e.g. Barth, 2001; Cauntreels, 2003; Garmston,
2005).
Udvari-Solner (1996), in her study of teacher behaviour and classroom culture,
reports that teachers identification with holistic ways of thinking (e.g. Vygotskian and
constructivist theories) contributes to their support for inclusion. Such teachers feel
that student success depends largely on their willingness and competence in accom-

High school English teachers beliefs about teaching students with disability 653
modating for diversity in their classrooms. Similarly, Janices critical perspective
towards certain school practices and adherence to multiple intelligence theory aligns
with inclusive thinking such as the notion that all students possess strengths, which
must be uncovered and incorporated into pedagogy if all learners are to succeed. This
in-depth study of a single teacher may help explain the influence of theoretical
perspective and assumptions on teachers ways of thinking about diverse learners and
their education.
Conclusion
I hope those who read Janices story will be inspired by the resilience she showed in
facing and overcoming life challenges. At the immediate and practical level, however,
I hope other educators who face resistance in their advocacy for inclusive practice, as
documented by numerous researchers (e.g. Coates, 1989; Stoller, 1992; Valeo &
Bunch, 1998; Liu & Pearson, 1999), find some comfort in knowing general education
teachers such as Janice do exist individuals who deal with conflict and struggle in
their personal and professional lives not as hindrances, but as commonplace elements
to learn from in ones existence.
Although not perfect, Janices current relationship with her father provides a life
lesson that finds its way into her teaching that all relationships are worth preserving and developing because all individuals, including those who challenge our sense
of right, at times, have the potential to change with our help. Taken together, her
narrative is a story of success. In the same manner that Janice seeks from others
respect for students unique experiences, the interview story method employed in this
study values her rich personal history, which has influenced her current way of thinking about students. Given the challenge in working with students labelled disabled or
at-risk, this narrative approach holds promise for action-oriented research not only as
a tool for allowing teachers to reflect on the roots of their beliefs which in turn may
help them better understand the stories of their students, but also the potential to
motivate other teachers to rediscover their own histories to learn from and possibly
act upon.
Notes
1.
2.
3.

Janice Black is a pseudonym, as are the names of other individuals, institutions and identifiers
(e.g. state and locally administered school assessments) used in this paper.
Standardized achievement test in reading, language arts, math, science and writing as part of
the states high school graduation requirement.
Standardized achievement test in reading, language arts, mathematics, science and social studies administered to all students from grades 49 in the state.

Notes on contributor
Baylor del Rosario is a former public school teacher and current doctoral student at
the University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131. His research focuses

654 B. Del Rosario

on development of the inclusive philosophy and practices among preservice and
inservice teachers.
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